The Lymphatic and Immune Systems

The Lymphatic System

Consists of two parts
Lymphatic vessels
Lymphoid tissues and
organs
Lymphatic system
functions
Transports escaped
fluids back to the
_____________
BLOOD
Plays essential roles
in body defense and
resistance to disease
Also has a role in
digestion

Developmental Aspects of the

Lymphatic System and Body Defenses
Except for thymus and spleen,
the lymphoid organs are poorly
developed before birth
A newborn has no functioning
lymphocytes at birth, only
passive immunity from the
_____________
MOTHER
If lymphatics are removed or
lost, severe edema results, but
vessels may grow back in time

Central Lymphoid Tissue

Bone Marrow + Thymus = Central Lymphoid Tissue
Bone marrow
Hematopoietic stem cells:
precursor for all blood cells
Leukocytes except T
lymphocytes fully develop here
_____________
T lymphocytes migrate
from bone marrow to
thymus
Develop maturity in
thymus
THYMUS

Peripheral Lymphoid Tissue

Spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoid, appendix, Peyers patches
Collections of B cells, T cells, and _____________
Function to trap microorganisms and foreign particles
Works to expose them to leukocytes in high concentrations
Spleen and lymph nodes filter blood and lymph
MACROPHAGES

Lymphoid Organs That Contribute to

Lymphatic Function

Spleen

Located on the left side of the abdomen

Filters blood and destroys worn out blood cells

Forms blood cells in the fetus

Acts as a blood reservoir

Thymus

Located low in the throat, overlying the heart

Functions at peak levels only during childhood

Produces hormones (like thymosin) to program

lymphocytes
Tonsils

Masses of lymphoid tissue around the pharynx

Trap and remove bacteria and other foreign

materials

Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with

bacteria
Peyer s patches

Found in the wall of the small intestine &

capture and destroy bacteria in the intestine

Lymph Nodes
Filters lymph (fluid) before it is
returned to the blood
Defense cells within lymph nodes
Macrophages engulf and
destroy foreign substances
Lymphocytes provide immune
response to antigens
Some harmful materials that may
enter lymph vessels
Bacteria
Viruses
Cancer cells
Cell debris
Protists
Worms
Fungi

Lymph Node Structure

Most are kidney-shaped and less than 1 inch long
_____________
The outer part
Contains follicles that house collections of
lymphocytes
Medulla
The inner part
Contains phagocytic
macrophages
CORTEX

Lymphatic Characteristics
Lymph fluid carried by lymphatic vessels
Properties of lymphatic vessels
One way system toward the heart
No _____________
Lymph moves toward the heart
Squeezing motion of skeletal muscle
Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle
in vessel walls

Elephantiasis/filariasis

Body Fluid Compartments

For a 70 kg man, total
body water = 42 liters
28 liters intracellular
fluid (ICF)
14 liters ___________
fluid (ECF)
3 liters plasma
11 liters interstitial
fluid (ISF)
EXTRACELLULAR

Flow of Lymph Through Nodes:

Lymphatic Vessels
Lymph enters the convex
side through afferent
lymphatic vessels
Lymph flows through a
number of sinuses inside
the _____________
Lymph exits through
efferent lymphatic vessels
Fewer efferent than
afferent vessels causes
flow to be slowed
NODE

Lymphatic Vessels
Lymph capillaries
Walls overlap to form
flap-like minivalves
Fluid leaks into lymph
capillaries
Capillaries are anchored
to connective tissue by
_____________
Higher pressure on the
inside closes minivalves
Fluid is forced along the
vessel
FILAMENTS

Lymphatic Vessels
Lymphatic collecting
vessels
Collect lymph from
lymph capillaries
Carry lymph to and
away from lymph
nodes
Return fluid to
circulatory veins near
the heart

Right lymphatic duct

_____________
thoracic duct

The Immune System

Body Defenses: The Immune System

The body is constantly in contact with protists, bacteria, fungi,
parasitic worms and viruses (many want to live in or on you!)
The body has two defense systems for foreign materials
1) Innate defense system (_____________
defense system)
NONSPECIFIC
Mechanisms protect against a variety of invaders
Responds immediately to protect body from foreign materials
2)Adaptive defense system (specific defense system) is specific
defense is required for each type of invader
We can develop immunity or specific resistance to certain pathogens

Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

First Line of Defense

Physical Barriers

Skin is a physical barrier to foreign

materials

Mucous membranes

Mucus traps microogranisms in digestive

and respiratory pathways
Chemical Barriers

Secretions from sebaceous and sweat

glands (salty sweat), sebum is toxic to
bacteria

Sebaceous glands secrete oily substance

into hair follicles

_____________
URINE

Vaginal secretions are acidic

pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial

growth

Stomach mucosa and secretes hydrochloric

acid, also has protein-digesting enzymes

Lysozyme in tears, sweat, saliva, etc can

break down bacteria

Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

First Line of Defense

Nonspecific Immune Systems General

Response: Flu-like Symptoms
Fever
Runny nose and watery eyes
Fluid and mucus in lungs
Diarrhea
_____________
Achy muscles
Fatigue
RASH

Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

Second Line of Defense
Fever
Abnormally high body temperature
Hypothalamus heat regulation can be reset by pyrogens
(secreted by white blood cells)
A _____________is substance than can cause fever
High temperatures inhibit the release of iron and zinc from
the liver and spleen needed by bacteria
Fever also increases the speed of tissue repair
What is the normal body temperature?
PYROGEN

Heat increases the density of sticky molecules

on the surface of blood vessels in the lymph
nodes, which catch more white blood cells as
the blood rushes past

Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

Second Line of Defense: Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is a process
Neutrophils move by diapedesis (movement of blood cells
through capillary walls) to clean up damaged tissue and/or
_____________
Monocytes become macrophages and complete disposal of
cell debris
Phagocytes are a cell type
Cells such as neutrophils
and macrophages
engulf foreign material
into a vacuole
Enzymes from lysosomes
digest the material
PATHOGENS

Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

Second Line of Defense: Natural Killer Cells
Natural killer (NK) cells
Can ________(disintegrate or
dissolve) and kill cancer cells
Can destroy virus-infected cells

Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

Second Line of Defense: Inflammation
Functions of the inflammatory response
Prevents spread of damaging agents
Disposes of cell debris and pathogens through phagocytosis
Sets the stage for repair
Inflammatory response
Triggered when body tissues are injured
Series of events causing accumulation of proteins, fluid, and
phagocytes in area injured or invaded
Four most common indicators of acute inflammation

Redness

_______
HEAT

Swelling

Pain
Results in a chain
of events leading to
protection and healing

Flowchart of Inflammatory Events

Innate (Nonspecific) Body Defenses

Second Line of Defense: Antimicrobial Proteins
Antimicrobial proteins
Attack microorganisms
Hinder reproduction of microorganisms
Most important antimicrobial proteins
Complement proteins
Uses a MAC (membrane attack complex) proteins to lyse cells
May be part of the specific (adaptive) or nonspecific (innate)
immune response
_____________
INTERFERON
Proteins secreted by
virus-infected cells
Bind to healthy cell surfaces
to interfere with the ability of
viruses to multiply

Second Line of Defense: Complement System

Plasma proteins that lyse foreign cells, especially
bacteria

Response involves ~30 proteins in cascade resulting in MAC on surface

of bacteria
MAC pierces bacterial membrane causing lysis
Triggers histamine release from mast cell
May act as opsonins (working with antibodies)
_____________
Pathway
ALTERNATE
Binding to carbohydrates on bacterial cell walls
Part of nonspecific defense mechanisms
Classical Pathway
Binding to antibodies attached to bacteria
Part of specific defense mechanisms

Summary of Nonspecific Body Defenses

Second Line of Defense

Specific (Adaptive) Immune Responses

Third Line of Defense
Specific immune responses triggered by foreign matter
reaching lymphoid tissue
Antibodies are proteins that protect from pathogens
Aspects of adaptive defense
1) Antigen specific, recognizes and acts against particular
foreign substances
2) Systemic, not restricted to the initial infection site
3) _____________, recognizes and mounts a stronger
attack on previously encountered pathogens
4) Can recognize self from non-self
MEMORY

Specific (Adaptive) Immune Responses

Third Line of Defense
Types of Immunity
Humoral immunity is antibody-mediated
immunity is B cell mediated
Provided by antibodies present in body fluids
Involves secretion of antibodies by plasma
cells
Defend against bacteria, toxins, viruses in
body fluids
_____________
immunity is T cell-mediated
CELLULAR
immunity
Targets virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and
cells of foreign grafts
Involves lysis of cells by cytotoxic T cells
Defend against bacteria, viruses in body cells
Part of reaction to transplants and cancer cell

Specific (Adaptive) Immune Responses

Third Line of Defense

Specific (Adaptive) Immune Responses

Third Line of Defense
Antigens (nonself) are very specific
Any substance capable of exciting the immune system and provoking
an immune response
Antigens (antibody generators) confer specificity

Complex proteins/polysaccharides

Part of foreign invader, _____________

cell
TUMOR

Epitopes = recognition sites on pathogen/antigen

for B or T cells
B cell and T cell specificity

Antigen receptors recognize certain antigens only

B cells membrane antibodies

T cells T cell receptors

_____________
SELF-ANTIGENS
Human cells have many surface proteins
Our immune cells do not attack our own proteins
Our cells in another person s body can trigger an immune response
because they are foreign and restricts donors for transplants

Specific (Adaptive) Immune Responses

Third Line of Defense
Immunocompetentcell becomes capable of responding to a
specific antigen by binding to it
Cells of the adaptive defense system
Lymphocytes
Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone marrow
B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the bone
marrow (remember B for Bone marrow)
T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in the thymus
(remember T for Thymus)
_____________
MACROPHAGES
Arise from monocytes
Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs
Secrete cytokines (proteins important in the immune
response)

Self-Tolerance
B and T cells do not attack normal cells of body
As cells develop in bone marrow and thymus, any that have antigen
receptors against normal body cells are destroyed by apoptosis
(_____________
cell death)
PROGAMMED
Autoimmune diseases caused by failure of self-tolerance
MHC molecules unique to individual person
Major histocompatibility complex=MHC
MHC marks body cells as self
Responsible for tissue/organ rejection
stimulates immune response to foreign
tissue

Specific (Adaptive) Immune Responses

Third Line of Defense: T Cells & Cellular Immunity

T cells defend against foreign or abnormal matter through direct

contact
T cell clones
Cytotoxic (_____________)
T cells
KILLER
Specialize in killing infected cells
Insert a toxic chemicals (perforin/fragmentin)
Helper T cells
Recruit other cells to
fight the invaders
Interact directly with B cells
Regulatory (Suppressor) T cells
Release chemicals to suppress
the activity of T cells
Stop the immune response to
prevent uncontrolled activity
A few members of each clone are
memory cells

Actions of Activated Cytotoxic T Cell on Virusinfected Cells

Cell secretes _____________
Form pore in membrane of infected cell
Leads to lysis of infected cell
Cell secretes fragmentins
Enter infected cell through perforin-induced pores
Trigger apoptosis
PERFORINS

Role of B Lymphocytes
Third Line of Defense: B Cells & Humoral
Immunity
B lymphocyte exposure to antigen triggers clonal selection:
memory B cells + plasma cells
Memory B cells: _____________
Plasma cells:
Life span = 4-7 days (may be longer for some)
Secretes 2000 antibodies specific for antigen per second
Antibodies circulate several weeks binding/marking antigen
for destruction
May cause phagocytosis or complement-mediated lysis
YEARS

Specific (Adaptive) Immune Responses

Third Line of Defense: B Cells & Humoral Immunity

Secondary humoral responses
Memory cells are long-lived
A second exposure causes a
_____________
response
RAPID
The secondary response is
stronger and longer lasting

Primary Response
(initial encounter
with antigen)

B cells

Proliferation to
form a clone

Plasma
cells
Secreted
antibody
molecules

Antigen
Antigen binding
to a receptor on a
specific B cell
(lymphocyte)
(B cells with
non-complementary
receptors remain
inactive)

Memory
B cell
Subsequent challenge
by same antigen

Secondary Response Clone of cells

(can be years later) identical to
ancestral cells

Plasma
cells
Secreted
antibody
molecules

Memory
B cells

Antibodies
Antibody Functions:
Binds to specific antigen
Aids in inactivation or destruction
of antigen
Antibody structure
Four amino acid chains linked by
disulfide bonds
Two identical amino acid chains
are linked to form a heavy chain
The other two identical chains are
light chains
2 specific antigen-binding sites are
present
Constant region same within a
class of antibodies
_____________
region gives
VARIABLE
specificity to antigen-binding site

Antibodies
Five major immunoglobulin classes (MADGE)
All classes: neutralization and agglutination
IgM can activate _____________
COMPLEMENT
IgA found mainly in mucus
IgD important in activation of B cell
IgG can cross the placental barrier, activate complement and
NK cells, opsonization
IgE involved in allergies,
histamine release from mast
cells and basophils

Immunoglobin Classes

Antibodies: Neutralization
Binding of antibody to antigen blocks
activity of _____________
antigen

Antibodies: Agglutination
Many antibodies binding to pathogen cause clumping
for easy _____________ and identification
LOCALIZATION

Antibodies: Opsonization
Binding of antibodies enhances phagocytosis
Variable region of
antibody binds to antigen
Constant region of
antibody binds to
phagocytic cells
Enhances _____________
PHAGOCYTOSIS

Antibodies: Complement Activation

MAC (membrane attack complex)

Antibodies:
Enhanced Natural Killer Cell Activity
NK cells have receptors for
antibody tail
Antibodies mark cells for
destruction
NK cells produce pore in
membrane of cells causing
_____________
LYSIS

Antibody Function

Opsonization

Primary and Secondary Immune Responses

1st exposure to antigen (primary immune response)
Takes 10-17 days to occur after first exposure
Symptoms of illness occurs during these days
Antigen-selected B and T cells proliferate and differentiate
into effector cells

_____________
cells
PLASMA
Cytotoxic T cells
Secondary immune response
Subsequent exposures to antigen
Takes 2-7 days to occur
Greater magnitude response and
prolonged
Occurs due to presence of
memory cells

more

This is not the same as the 1st, 2nd and 3rd lines of defense!

Immunity
Active Immunity
Immune response to vaccine or
pathogen in individual gives immunity
Occurs when B cells encounter antigens
and produce antibodies
_____________
Immunity
PASSIVE
Ready-made antibodies administered
No memory cells, so no long-term
immunity

Immunization
_____________ = compromised microorganism or its
antigens in form not expected to cause disease
Induces immune response including production of memory
cells
VACCINE

Decline of Measles After Vaccine

Introduction

Passive Immunity
Occurs when antibodies are obtained from someone else
Conferred naturally from a mother to her fetus (naturally
acquired)
Passive immunity from mother to fetus/baby
IgG passes placenta
IgA passed in _____________
Conferred artificially from immune serum or gamma
globulin (artificially acquired)
Immunological memory does not occur
Protection provided by borrowed antibodies
BREAST MILK

Functions of Cells and Molecules

Involved in Specific Immunity

Suppressor T

Functions of Cells and Molecules

Involved in Specific Immunity

Summary of Adaptive (Specific) Immune

Response

Organ Transplants and Rejection

Major types of grafts
Autografts: tissue from one site to another on the same person
Isografts: tissue grafts from an identical person (identical twin)
Allografts: tissue taken from another person
Xenografts: tissue taken from a different animal species
Autografts and isografts are ideal
donors
Xenografts are rarely successful
Allografts are more successful with a
closer tissue match
Immune system recognizes self from
non-self
Need to match donor to recipient
closely
Must _____________
immune
SUPPRESS
system in recipient

Immune Dysfunctions
Autoimmune Diseases
Allergy
Immunodeficiency Diseases
Stress and the Immune Response

Autoimmune Diseases
Inefficient lymphocyte programming
Cross-reaction of antibodies produced against foreign antigens with
self-antigens
The immune system fails to distinguish between self and nonself
The body produces antibodies and sensitized T lymphocytes that
attack its _____________tissues
OWN

Disorders of Immunity:
Autoimmune Diseases
Immune system treats a part of self like pathogen
Immune response induced against that part of the body
Examples of autoimmune diseases
Multiple sclerosis: white matter of brain and myelin on nerves
are destroyed
Myasthenia gravis: impairs communication between nerves and
skeletal muscles
Type I diabetes mellitus: destroys pancreatic beta cells that
produce _____________
INSULIN
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE):
Affects kidney, heart, lung and skin
Rheumatoid arthritis: destroys joints
Vitiligo: affects pigmentation of skin

Autoimmune Diseases
Multiple sclerosis

Disorders of Immunity:
Allergies (Hypersensitivity)
Abnormal, vigorous immune responses
Triggered by release of histamine from
IgE binding to mast cells
_____________
shockdangerous,
ANAPHYLACTIC
systemic response

Anaphylactic Shock
Severe allergic reactions: massive release of histamine from
mast cells throughout body cause vasodilation decrease blood
pressure
Prophylactic = _____________ increases cardiac output and
blood pressure increasing blood pressure
EPINEPHRINE

Disorders of Immunity: Immunodeficiency

Production or function of immune cells or complement is abnormal
May be congenital or acquired (_____________)
AIDS
Weak or under-active immune system
Problem in any factors of immune response can impair immune
function
Examples:
Hodgkins Disease = cancer of lymphatic system
AIDS = affects helper T cells

Stress and the Immune Response

Stress suppresses immune system
Steroid hormones (cortisol)
decrease number of leukocytes
Anti-_____________ activity
Autonomic neural input to lymphoid tissue
INFLAMMATORY