H.W. Anselm Wiskotl, DMD. MS.

MSDUnerity of Ceneva
Geneva, Switzerland
lack I. Nicbolls, PhD"
Univeisity of Washington
Seattle, Washington

Stress Fatigue: Basic

Principies and
Prosthodontic Implications

Urs C. Belser, DMD'"

University of Genera
Geneva, Switzerland

Clinical evidence indicates that the majority of fractures that occur in

prosthodontic structures do so after a period of many years. Such failures
generally are not related to an episode of acute overload hut result from fatigue
failure. This paper reviews the current knowledge o fatigue idilure and test
methods. An overview o puhlished studies is given, and the authors suggest
guidelines for future prosthodontie studies of this nature. Int I Prostbodont

1995:8:105-116.

atigue is a mode of fracture whereby a structure

eventually fails after being repeatedly subjected
to loads that are so small that one application apparently does nothing detrimental to the component.'
The term fatigue was first proposed by Panalet in
1839, a time when the industrial revolution had
started and rapidly moving parts beeame increasingly
common. In those times, the main line of thought
explained fatigue fractures by "crystallization" of the
material which became brittle after continued use
and thus more prone to fracture. Much credit should
be given to researchers such as Rankine (1843),
McConnell (1849], Wohler (1858), and Fairbairn
(1864), who, through systematic investigation and
testing, were able to reproduce fatigue failure by
cyclic loading. They also developed the concept of
fatigue limit and the S-N curve (Table 1 ).'
Today fatigue failure Is explained by the development of microscopic cracks in areas of stress
concentration. With continued loadings, these
cracks fuse to an ever-growing fissure that insidiously weakens the restoration. Catastrophic failure

results from a final loading cycle that exceeds the

mechanical capacity of the remaining sound portion of the material.
When subjected to cyclic stresses of sufficient
magnitude, almost any manufactured component
is likely to fail by fatigue. Similar processes have
also been observed in biologic structures. Military
recruits and athletes are especially prone to "stress
fractures," as they are often referred to in the orthopedic literature.' Similarly, "spontaneous fractures"
have also been linked to fatigue phenomena."
Table 1 Abbreviations Used
1, II, til
a

tfuo
T

K
N

'Lecturer, Division of Fixed Proslhodontii:;, School of

Dentis!ry.
"Professor, Depsrlmenl of Restorative Dentistry, School of
Dentistry.
"Professor and Chairmm, Division of Fixed Prosthodontics,
School of Dentistry.
Reprint requests: Or H.W.A. Wiskatt, Division of Fixed
Prosthodontici, School of Dentistry, University of Geneva, 19,
rue Bartheimy-Menn, 205 Geneva, Switzerland.

B, Number 2, 1995

105

N,
n
P
Rs

s
s
S.

s,
s
s.
T

(as indices) Fracture modes 1, II or III

Applied stress (monotonie) (tensile: +,
compressive. -)
Yield strength
Ultimate tensile strength
Applied stress (monotonie, shear)
Modulus of elasticity (tensile)
Frequency of cyclic loading
Stress concentration factor
Critical stress concentration in mode 1
Number of cycles in a (atigue test
Number of cycles at failure
Number of specimens in tesl sample
Probability of non-failure
Stress ratio: S^^/S.,
Applied stress (cyclic, tensile)
Sample standard deviation
Stress amplitude
Mean stress - p re stress
Maximum level of applied cyclic stress
Minimum level of applied cyclic stress
Conventional endurance limit at W cycles
Applied stress (cyclic, stiear)
Sample mean

The Intematioral louitial of Pro5tliodonrics

: Princifte and [mplf.iuoii

Neutral fiber

Tension
Fig 1 Elemenlary leatures of crack nucleation and progression. Under compression from above, the beam tends to dislocate on
the tensile (lower) surface o the beam. The crack appearing on the tensile side is said to open in mode / (the most frequent).
Modes II and III are shear and twist modes.

mechanics is indicated. For explanatory purposes, a

simplified beam model of fracture is presented in Fig
1. Since Hooke (1676) it has been known that for
small loads, such a bar deforms elastically in a
mode that is proportional to the stress applied.
Bending the beam, as in Fig 1, causes two zones to
develop: in the superior layers, the material is
placed under compression, whereas tensile stresses
develop in the inferior zones. Because of the general
shape of the beam, the transition between zones of
tension and compression is smooth and gradual. If,
however, notches or grooves are machined into the
surface under tension, they act as local stress raisers
and, depending on their location and shape, can
increase the stresses that develop inside the material
by several orders of magnitude (Fig 2)- Similarly, if a
flaw develops, its tip acts as a stress concentrator,
thereby accelerating crack propagation until eventual failure.
Fig 2 Close up of an intact beam and the crack of Fig 1.
Note concentration of force "flow-lines" around the crack tip
with increasing sharpness

Thus, the resistance of the material to crack progression (ie, its fracture toughness) is an important
parameter. This property is characterized by the
stress intensity factor A', which can be loosely
described as the mathematical equivalent of the
stress fringes in polarized light tests." Under load,
(he beam of Fig I develops internal stresses that
locally may he high enough to initiate a crack and
cause it (o progress. In other words, K has reached
its critical ievel and is therefore equated to the
fracture toughness of the material. In general terms
fracture toughness is given by

Indeed, microcracks do appear in heterogeneous

anisotropic iiving tissue such as hone.^ It has been
hypothesized that the damage caused by these fissures may act as a slimulus for hone remodeling."
The purpose of this report is to present an
overview of present knowledge on fatigue failure,
its physical origin, methods of analysis, and
prosthodontic implications.

K,, = \<T^-f^

(Table 1),

Physical Mechanism
where af is the overall applied stress at failure
and a is the length of a surface crack. The ind-x c
stands for critical (ie, inducing failure)

Inasmuch as fatigue is a peculiar mode of material ruptijre, a brief overview of elementary fracture

I o Prosthodorlii

106

5tr5 Fatigue: Principles and Implications

Table 2

Typical K^ of Some Dental Restorative Materials

Modulus of
Rupture

Material

H Igh-a Hoy steels

Superalloys
Titanium
Aluminum
Dental ceramics
Zirconia
Silicons
Concrete
Poly(methyl
methacrylate]

Composition

[MPa|

[MPa]

[MPam'^l

Fe+ 0.1Gr0.5Mn
18Cr8Ni
Ni + 10Co 10W9Cr
5AI 2Ti
TI + 6AI 4V
Al + 3Mg 0.5 Mn

170-1600

460-1700

50-170

800

1300

> 100

800-900
40-300

900-1000
120-430

50-80
30^0
3-5
4-12
5
0.2

ZrO, + 5wt%MgO
SijAION,
CaO + SiOj + AI20

[n- ]
[
1- H

Epoxy

Composites

75-200
300-500
500-830
7
80-90

1.6[20'C)

COOCH J
OH

0.6-1

O - C,H,-C - C,M, - o - CH,-CH - CH,-

58% uniaxial C in epo>;y

1050

32-45

Data from engineered stnjclures are given lor comparison. Note extremely lew material constants o( concrete.'

Opening crack

Fig 3 Irwin's plastic zone correction. The metal distends ahead ct the crack tip. Therefore, the effective crack length is a = a +
iristhe limiting stress factor inside the material.

refers to the fracture mode (Fig 1). Y is a correction

parameter that is required because of the finiteness
of the specimen whose boundaries also alter the
force "flow lines" of Fig 2. It is a dimensionless
geometry factor on the order of 1. Table 2 lists K,,,
(T, <7, or modulus of rupture for some restorative
and other materials."
Two further considerations are relative to the
behavior of the material at the crack tip. First, most
metals exhibit some degree of ductility and deform
plastically in the zone ahead of the crack if the
stresses exceed the yield strength in this area. It follows that: (1) some form of crack tip blunting

a. Number 2,199";

occurs, thereby decreasing stress concentration,

and (2) as a result of distention of the material in
front of the crack, it behaves as if the crack were
longer than its physical size. Integrating this phenomenon into fracture mechanics is known as
Irwin's plastic zone correction" and is diagramatically described in Tig 3 (/eftj.
Second, unlike metals, brittle materials such as
ceramics have little or no capacity to deform and
thus decrease the concentration of stresses at a crack
tip. In these instances, the Griffith crack model'" that
encompasses the shape of the crack tip is applicable (Fig 3, right}, in this model the highest stress is

107

Tlie Inreriiaiional lournal o Prosrhodontii

Fitigue: Principies and Implicali

ceramic structure. In dentistry, this mode of fs'''^'^^

bas been addressed by Southan and Jorgensen
and Morena et a l , " A definite weakening of the
material strengths was shown when the specimens
were exposed to water.'" '"

where er is the overall applied stress, a, the crack

length, and p, the radius of the crack tip, IT,. is the
stress inlensity that develops at the crack tip.
Laboratory production and handling of ceramics
make Griffith flaws inevitable, and since the crack
tip radius can be as small as an interatomic spacing, stress intensification can be extreme.
As stated, fatigue failure is initiated by microscopic cracks that develop in areas of stress concentration at or near the surface. The most common iocal stress raisers are grain boundaries,
inclusions, local intrusions and extrusions, and
sudden changes in the geometric configuration of
the surface. This initial step is termed nucleation
and represents a mandatory stage of fatigue failure.
It has been shown that periodically halting a
fatigue test and polishing a layer off the material
under investigation could extend tbe fatigue life of
the specimen indefinitely,"

Testing
Devices applicable to fatigue testing are all capable of repeatedly placing a test sample under stress
(5), However, they may differ considerably in the
stress parameters that are applied to the structure.
These parameters are: the cycling frequency, the
prestress (S4, the stress amplitude (5,,), the stress
ratio (R. = 5/5J and the algebraic value of the
stress (compression, tension, alternating) (Fig 4),
Complex load spectra can also be generated. Some
machines attempt to reproduce a clinical environment by adding moisture and a controlled temperature to the test conditions. As to the number of
load cycles that should be applied to dental structures, tbe following computation can be made.
Assuming 3 periods of 15 minutes of chewing per
day, at a chewing rate of 60 cycles per minute (1
Hz), the average individual chews 2,700 times per
day. This amounts to roughly 10' times per year. If
the half-life of a fixed partial denture is given as 20
years,"' this prosthesis will have undergone 2 x 10"
stress cycles. Conversely, it can be argued that not
every chewing cycle is "active" (ie, applying a
maximum stress cycle to the structure). Therefore,
the total of 2 X 10' chewing cycles previously calculated should be decreased by a factor ranging
between 5 and 20 if a realistic value is to be
obtained. For dental applications, fatigue tests
should be performed for a minimum of 10^ cycles.
Also, as shown in Fig 5," functional loading of
teeth implies a multidirectional force pattern that
comprises a compressive as well as a buccolingual
component. Loading a prosthodontic test structure
uniaxially will thus only partly reproduce, the
mechanical conditions of the oral environment.

When a fissure has reached its critical size, it will

definitely progress at each loading cycle. This process is referred to as propagation and amounts to
about 90% of fatigue life. It is commonly divided
into three stages. During stage 1, the fissures propagate in crystallographic shear mode, intragranularly
along the slip-bands of the crystal. At this stage, the
rate of crack progression is of the order of a few
nanometers/cycle. In stage II propagation, the direction of flaw progression has been altered and is normal to the tensile stress (plane strain conditions).
When the internal stresses induced by the crack tip
are significantly influenced by the outer dirnensions
of the specimen, the flaw propagates under plane
stress conditions that are at 45 degrees to the stress
axis,'^ Catastrophic failure occurs in stage III progression by intergranular cleavage,'*
Two other specific material behaviors have been
related to fatigue. In alloys, small and very thin
sheets of metal, called slip-bands, are sometimes
extruded at the surface of a fatigued crystal,"
Conversely, the metal may also locally intrude into
the body, in effect leaving tiny cracks at the surface. If this occurs, the surface profile becomes
ragged and the notches in this profile can act as
nuclei of fatigue cracks.

Many contemporary devices are based on a servohydraulic closed loop circuit under pressure that
drives an actuator. The specimen can thus be subjected to bending or compression-type stresses.
Further stress application can be either unidirectional (bend-release, compress-release) or reversed
(push-pull, reversed bending). In more complex
designs, the specimen is simultaneously subjected
to torsional forces. Since these machines are computer-driven, virtually any load spectrum may be
generated on the actuators. By combining several
actuators on a single specimen, extremely complex
strains can be induced.

In ceramics and glasses, cracks may become

unstable under static stress alone, in absence of
cyclic loading. This phenomenon is termed static
fatigue and is related to the presence of moisture in
the environment,'^ By chemically reacting with the
silicate network, an H-O unit generates two Si-OH
terminals. Since the hydroxyl units do not bond to
each other, they leave a break in the glass or

lofPrusthiclor)(it>

108

Volume 8,

Wiskott et al

Applied stress [S]

-^

One
stress
cycle

S(re; F.iligue: Pnritinles and Implications

Applied stress [S\

Tension

j A
/

0-

y
si Vy V

%"^

\J

^
T.nB,le

Compression

Time

Time

Fig 4

Elementary stress parameters in fatigue testing. For alternating stresses, the stress ratio (Rs) is negative.

Fig 5 Functional forces on

teeth (Adapted from Graf and
Geering^'),

12 Kp

2Kp

5Kp

Fatigue tests can be based either on Nf or on

the monitoring of the fatigue process. In the former situation, a specimen is loaded at a given
stress and the number of cycles to failure is
recorded. In alternate tests, changes in material
parameters {E, (T,J are evaluated as a function of S
and Nf. In this category a most significant test
consists of monitoring the progress of a fissure.
Such a test requires a specific specimen design
(Fig 6)," Cyclic loading of the sample is discontinued at periodic intervals, and the length of the
crack is recorded.

A comparatively simple testing device for the

testing of material constants of wagon axles was
introduced by Wohler.'- In its most elementary
design, one end of a (roughly cylindrical) test sample is clamped into a grip and rotated around its
main axis. A force is applied to the protruding end
and thus a reversed-bending, sinusoidal stress is
induced in the specimen. The characteristics of the
applied stress are S. = -5.. and 5 = 0, This type
of apparatus has been extensively used in industrial tests where it is also known as an "R,R, Moore
machine."'

8, NLmbei2, 1995

109

The International lournal oi Prostliodontics

and Iniplicatii

Descriptive Techniques
Micrographs
inasmuch as fatigue processes are determined by
a progressing fissure, in materials that present some
degree of ductility, the crack front may leave a
groove in the walls of the crack at each load cycle.
This develops a typical pattern of ripples that are
visible using electron microscopy and are referred
to as fatigue striations. Such striations are an abso-

lute indication of fatigue failure and must not be

confused with beach marks on brittle structures.
Figure 7 shows striations obtained during a fatigue
tesl on solder joints," The depth of the striations is
related to stress intensity, the greatest stress develops when the crack progresses perpendicularly to
the main load. It has been shown that striations are
related to stage II crack growth. Often close
inspection of the micrographs indicates the site of
crack nucleation.
S-N Diagrams
Known interrelationships indicate that heavy
loading will cause failure after a few cycles, while
the material might sustain up to 10', 10", or an infinite number of cycles if the load is decreased.
Such a behavior is traditionally depicted in a plot
referred to as an 5-/V diagram, endurance curve, or
Wohler diagram. These are drawn by plotting the
applied stress (the independent variahle) on the
Ordinate and the log of the number of cycles until
failure on the abscissa. As shown in Fig 8, two
types of response to fatigue loading are observed.
Most materials follow curve A in that a lowering of
the stress amplitude leads to a longer hut still finite
fatigue life. Curve B is typical for steels; in this
instance, when the applied load is kept below a
certain level, the material will not fail on any realistic timescale and for all practical purposes can be
cycled indefinitely.
For normative purposes, S-iV diagrams are subdivided into three regimes:

pi
Growing crack

s
Fig 6 CT (Compact-Tension) specimen.== It contains a
chevron formed notch and is loaded through two pins in a tensile machine. Cyclic loading is applied to introduce a latigue
crack.

1. Low cycle fatigue spans the range 1 to lO'

cycles. On the lower end of this regime, the
applied stresses are often superior to the elastic
limit of the material, thereby causing plastic
deformation of the specimen. Because of the
low number of cycles sustained, tests restricted
to this range have only limited applicability to
restorative dentistry.
2. Limited endurance fatigue in whieh the applied
stress definitely lies below the elastic limit of
the material and spans fatigue lives between
10' and 10' cycles. Tests conducted up to this
range do approximate the lifespan of clinical
restorations and can be regarded as conclusive.
3. tjniimited endurance encompasses tests cycled
above 10' and essentially applies to industrial
structure.^.
The largest stress amplitude that a material can
sustain for an infinite number of cycles is termed
fatigue limit (Fig 8). The existence of such a

Fig 7 Fatigue striations on a solder joint fatigued experimentally'' Note differences in ripple depth wtiich depends on
the orientation relative to the direction of the applied stress.

The imernarional loumal of Proitliodonlcs

no

Wiskod el al

FI9 8 General shape of S-N

diagram. Cun/e A: Material with
a fatigue limit. Curve B;
Material without fatigue limit.

Strew Ftigue: Principles anil ImplicaUi

Stress amplitude {5^)

Endurance limit
Foil g us limit

Number of cycles to failure

xc;iOStee 1
AUE tenitization 900"C 30 min

Applied stress

Anr ealling 500 C 2 hours

[MPa]

- 305 N/mn-

400
(Juts

375

= 400 N/mn
ational fatic ue Rs = - 1

350

IOC Hz, air

325

Spe cimen FR SO 45.6 mm=

Kt == 1.03

300
9 5%
>

275
Endurance limit

'

250

"

a-

'
"a

1 "

27
43

"

225

10^

10*

10^
10^
10^
Number of cycles to failure

S=255N/mm=
S=12N/mm^

Fig 9 Example of S-A/diagram generated forXCIO steel (the X designates a special steel while CIO indicates 0.1% carbon), x:
failures; >: run-outs (Adapted from Lieurade^.

ments. Values between 10" and 10 cycles are typical. A conventional endurance limit is thus a censored value. It is symbolized by S or T.-. depending on the type of stress applied (tension or shear).
An S-N diagram as generated for an industrial
alloy is presented in Fig 9.'' Several aspects should
be considered. As shown, the lower the applied
stress, the greater the number of fatigue cycles sustained by the specimens. In the illustrated situa-

fatigue limit has been demonstrated for steels, for

which it can be extrapolated after 10' load
cycles.^' In most applications, however, the structure's life is limited and therefore is characterized
by a (conventional) endurance limit. This value is
defined as the largest stress amplitude for which
50% of the specimens will sustain a predetermined number of load cycles. This number
depends on the material and its functional require-

B, Number 2, 1995

111

The liilernational lournal of Prostliodontjcs

f aligue: Principles and I mpl italic

logl da/dN)
,

in which c and n are material constants. Values o

n usually vary between 2 and 4. Figure 10 also
shows that a threshold {K.,,y exists below which no
measurable crack growth will occur, hi zone III,
AAT has reached a magnitude great enough to
cause very rapid failure.

j
f

Analysis

As shown in Fig 9, for any applied stress, the

resultant fatigue lives are spread over a range of
about one order of magnitude. The lower the
applied stress, the larger the fatigue life range- This
amount of dispersion is considered normal in
fatigue testing. Indeed, contrary to earlier beliefs, it
is now accepted that inasmuch as fatigue resistance is determined by randomly distributed internal flaws, the scatter field cannot be significantly
reduced by enhancing specimen preparation procedures. It follows that S-iV diagrams should be
examined in terms of chances of survival. Such an
approach is shown in Fig 11, in which a family of
curves has been developed. They show the probability of failure of a component for given stresses.
In many instances, however, it may be useless to
go through the tedious procedure of generating a
full S-N diagram. For a specific application, the
only required information may be non-failure for a
set number of cycles {N]. In this instance, a logical
step is to determine an endurance limit (St,) and its
scatter around the 50% mean. Several techniques
have been recommended for this type of analysis,
which is based on quantal (fail or non-fail) data.''
Procedures exist which allow a crude estimate of
5.N using few specimens (3 < n < 10).'' For a more
reliable estimate of S^ and s, however, larger samples are required. To this effect, the staircase technique'"" is a straightforward procedure in which a
series of samples are tested in sequence,'-"

III

AK n

log AK

Fig 10 Crack growth [oa/N] as a tunction of AK (ie, S vs

S,^.). On a log scale, stage II crack growth is linear and follows the Paris relation: da/dN = c{AK}".

tion, the test was conducted up to 10" cycles, at

which time it was discontinued for those samples
that did not fail (run-outs). The solid line describes
the central tendency at which 50% of the samples
have tailed.
Fracture Mechanics
S-N diagrams are based on a fail or not-fail
approach and therefore take little or no account of
the parameters that determine crack propagation.
They are highly specimen specific and, since they
lack a mechanistic base, cannot be extended to
similar designs or related materials research.
The K parameter can be applied to crack progression under fatigue by relating the crack growth
rate per cycle (da/clN) to K. Since A" is permanently
changing with the applied load, it is defined as K,
- K and commonly written as AA". The general
shape of such plots has been established by Paris
and coworkers" and is shown in Fig 10. Three
zones are apparent on this diagram. In the center
portion the data fall on a straight line and can be
characterized as
da
dN -

The Internal i on a I lournal ol Prothoclont<

Recently advanced models of fatigue data analysis have been published by Conway and Sjvdahl"
and by Drummond.'"'
Fatigue of Dental Structures
In a classical paper on the long-term survival of
restorations, Schwartz et aP'' subdivided the failure
of fixed partial restorations into biologic (ie, plaque
related) and mechanical failures, of which breakage was a significant proportion. Analysis of these
data revealed that mechanical failures occurred
after 5 to 10 years. Similar results were reported by
Walton et al.'' Other authors reported failures in
terms of a mean annual rate which, depending on
the type of restoration, varied between 2.5 sn\ 1 '^

112

Volume 3, Nu

WiskoH et al

Fig 11 Family of curves

showing levels of probaDility of
failure.

Slres Fligue: Prinriplei jnd Implications

AN\ /I

\\

/ '

"'*

10%

Stress am Dlltude (

Number of cycles tc failure

years." It appears tbat short-term failure and acute

overload are fairly rare and generally related to
material and design flaws or trauma. The majority
of mechanical failures are thus attributable to a
process that finds its catastrophic end only after
many years of service. Furthermore, in the author's
experience, patients frequently indicate that breakage was not related to the chewing of hard or
fibrous food. Also, Fig 12 shows the micrograph of
a clinically failed solder joint on which fatigue striations are evident, A very similar view was published by Wictorin and Fredriksson,'' All those
observations are consistent with the concept of a
slowly growing fissure under fatigue stress, structural weakening of the component, and final
breakage, it tbus stands to reason that emphasis
should also be placed on a characterization of
dental materials and structures by dynamic tests, A
non exhaustive list of publications on fatigue of
dental materials and structures is presented in
Tables 3 to 5,
When considering the studies cited above, it
readily appears that vastly divergent methodologies
have been applied during testing procedures and
analysis of results. In only a few reports have techniques been applied that are acceptable in other
areas of fatigue testing. If data from various backgrounds are to be compared, some guidelines
should be provided that would allow normalization of the tests applied. Progress in materials and
prosthodontic research thus requires a standardization of the procedural aspects of fatigue testing.
In engineering terms, a structure is considered
safe if it can withstand three times the maximum
"thinkable" stress under function. Such a predictive
approach, however, is only possible if pertinent

i=B, Number 2, i 995

Fig 12 Clinically failed solder joint. Note presence of fatigue

st nations.

material constants are available to the designer.

Unfortunately, these data are rare in dentistry and
clinicians generally compensate for missing information by applying design criteria that stem from
learning as well as their own "clinical experience."
Guidelines for Testing
Fatigue testing is a valuable procedure to evaluate dental materials, but great diversity without discipline exists. For prosthodontics, to generate data
with the greatest "predictive potential", the following guidelines would prove useful:
1, Fatigue tests should be based on fracture
mechanics and the K parameter. However,
such an approach requires special training

113

The Intemaiiorial Jojrnal of Prosthodontics

-, Fatigue' Principles and lm|

Table 3

Fatigue of Structures
Type of
stress

(Hz)
Outhwaite et al'

Martinet ef a l "

Retention
techniques
Partial denture

Saunders"

Mar/land FPDs

3,6

Composite
restorations

1,3

Fissore et a l "

10=

1,5

Kovarik et al"'

Core materials

Stewart et al"'^

i m pi ant-retained

Gjfidler et a l "

Crown retention

Reversed
bending
Bend-re lease

5- lO"
5- 10'

Peyton"
Wilkinson, tHaack"
Earnstiaw"
Bates'*
Hawbolt, iVlcEntee"
Sutow et aP'

Sub|eot
Gold alloys
Amalgam
Co-Cr alloy
Co-Cr alloy
hJi-Cr alley
Amalgam

Zardiakeas. Baynes" Amalgam

Wiskott et aP
Solder joints
Butson et a r
Solder joints

4.

5.
6.

GM

Ticonium > Vitallium = Wironiurr

clasps
No difference between electronically
etched, lost salt, Panavia EX
An increase m loroe application
decreases the fatigue life of Ihe
dentine bond
Amalgam > composite > glassionomet
L-stiaped beams increase in
strength prostheses when the
vertical wall increases in length
A smaller taper increases retention

Push-re lease

SC

Bend-release

Gtvi

> 10

Bend-re lease

GM

Bend-release

%S

Push-release

%S

9 10'

a\ curves for a given load are plotted; SC: staiicase analysis: SN: S-W cun/e. x-.

Type of
stress

/
(Hz)
12,5
30
16.7
13.3
60
1,3
30

10'

8i
5*10=

10
1
30

GM: group means; %S; percerlage su/vwal; percentage of sun/ival

detennined by cycling n samples af a preset load until failure.

3.

Slot retained > pin retained

Fatigue of Metals

Auttiors

2.

Findings

GM

1,2.

GM: group means; %S: percentage survival: percentage of Sun

determined by cycling n samples at a preset load undl failure.

Table 4

Analysis

Findings

SN
SN
SN
SN
SN
SN

S,,:344-413MPa
S,,7; 96,5 MPa
S,>: + 275 MPa

Push-release
Bend-re lease
Rotational

SN
SN
GM

S5,,C;551

MPa

Description of fracture
patterns. S,, increases with
increasing/
Ranking of 9 brands
S.is: 300 MPa

for a given load are plotted; SC: Staircase analysis; SN; S-N cunie, x-.

which may not be available to the dental

researcher. Therefore, procedures based on
quantal (fail or not-fail) data should be used
since they are more easy to conduct and
interpret,
Tests should bo brought at least to 10^ cycles
if a clinically relevant service life is to be
approximated,
For prosthodontic structures, a negative stress
ratio (back and forth) is advisable,
Whole 5-N diagrams are not required since the
low-cycle regime (<10' cycles) is applicable
only to temporary materials and structures,
The determination of a conventional endurance
(S) limit in the 10" cycles range is recommended,
Presently, staircase analysis does appear to be
the most straightforward procedure to determine S^., if staircase analysis is applied, sample
sizes >20 in the relevant stress range should be
used. Initial approximation steps are worthless
in the determination of Sn.

The imernlional lournai of Prosihodonti<

Analysts

Bend-release
Push-pull
Reversed bending
Bend-re lea se
Push-release
Push-pull

Great cycle numbers and larger sample sizes

require greater cycling frequencies. However,
accelerated test methods may require a mathematical model or algorithm for converting such
data to values applicable to clinically relevant
frequencies,""
In the author's opinion, a testing procedure
based on rotational fatigue is a fast and costeffective means to generate relevant data."

References
Nutt MC, Mefallurgy and Plasfics for Engineers, Oxford:
Pergamon Press, 1976:360,
Anderson RC. Inspection of Metals, Vol II: Destructive testing.
Metals Park, Ohio: ASM Infernatioral, 19B0;] 71-192.
Meyer SA, Saltzmann CL, Altjright |P, Stress frariures of
the fooL and leg. Clin Sparls Med 1 9 9 3 ; 1 2 : 3 9 5 M I i
Michel MC, Gu XD, Gibson L|, McMahon TA, Hayes
w e , Compressive fatifije behavior of bovine trabecular
bone, J Biomech 1 993,26:453-463,

114

Volume 8, N'

iples and Implicilii

Table 5

Fatigue of Resins
Subject

/
(Hz)

Type ol
stress

Barber"

Denture resins

1.7

Bend-release

Johnson, Matthews"
Johnson, Matthews*'

Denture resins
Denture resins

0.5
0.5

Peyton et

Auto vs heatpolymerizing
resins

12.5
37.5

amitn

uenture resins

Kelly*

Denture resins

57

Kelly='

Denture resins

5.7

Stafford, Smith"
Draughn"

Denture resins
Composite resins

Johnston et a l "
Denture resins
Asmussen, Jorgensen'^ Different types
ol resins
Stafford et a l "
PMMA
Zardiakas et aP
Drummond"'
McCabe et a l "
Saunders"
Aquilino et aP
Llobell et al"'

2
2

1.6*10'
1.6*10^

Analysis

Bend-re ease
Bend-re lease

GM
Gtul

Bend-release

SN

4.3-10^

Bend-release

GM

1.B-10'

Bend-release.
Reversed every
30 minutes
Bend-re lease
Push-release

GM

10'
5*10=

SN
SC

Findings
Vulcanite = phenol
formaldehyde > vinyl resin
PEMA.PMMA mix > PMMA
Heating to 100"C during
polymerization increases
fat i que strength
S _ g 28 (ulPa

Fractographs of clinicaly and

experimentally failed denture
and acrylic specimens
Heat-polymerized > cold-polymerized resin
Fine beads > large particles
Notches and contamination
decrease tatigue resistance
S,.30MPa
Compressive limit in fatigue
/ static compressive strength
= 0.64
Ranl<ing ot 10 brands
Sw'-. i. 50 MPa

5.7
3

1.3-10
10

Bend-re lease
Reversed bending

GM
SN

1.2
2.3
5
Resin cements
Composite resins
0.5
Compcsite resins plaster

>2'10

Bend-release

GM

Raniting of 6 products

10
4-10'
10'

SC
SN
SN
SC
SC

Comspan > ESPE-'E'

5-10'

Pu II-re lea se
Bend-release
Push-release
Bend-release
Bend-release

10=
2 10-

Pull-release
Rotational

SC
GM

Composite resins
Adhesive resins
Porcelam reparr
systems

3.3
6
0.36
30

Authors identify twc types ct

fatigue related behavicr
Intact specimen > repaired
ones
Flanking of 4 techniques
Ranking of 12 techniques

GM: group means; %S: percentage sun/pval percentage of survival curves tor a gii/en load are plotted: SC. staircase analysis; SN: S-N i
determined by cycling n samples al a preset lead until failure.

14.

5.

Li G, Zhang S. Chen G. Radiographie and histolcgical

analyses of stress fractures in rabbit tibias. Am | Sports
Med 1985;13:285^291.
6. Currey |D. Stress concentration in bone. I Micro Sei 1962;
103:111-133.
7. Broek D. Elementary Engineering Fracture Mechanics, ed
4, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoft, 1986:350-355.
8. Ashby MF, Iones DRH. Engineering Materials 2: An
Introduction to Microstruttures, Processing and Design.
Oxford: Fergamon Press, 1 9S6:1 50-1 51.
9.
10.
11.

12.

13.

15.
16.
17
i8

Irwin GR. Fracture. In: Flgge W (ed), Handbuch der

Physik VI. Berlin: Springer, 1958:551-590.
Shackelford |F. Introduction to Materials Science for
Engineers. New York: McMillan, 1985:318-319.
Weertman |, Weertman JR. Mechanical properties t, [n:
Cahn RW (ed). Physical Metallurgy, ed 2. AmsterdamLondon: North Holland, 1974:970-981.
Meyers MA, Cbawla KK. Mechanical Mefallurgy,
Principles and Applications. Englewood Cliffs, New
lersey: Prentice Hall, 1985:706-709.

19.

20.

21.

22.

Asami K. Report from the subcommittee on microstructure

and fracture. No. 1 : Stage 2 fatigue crack propagation and
fractography. In: Koterazawa R, Ebara R, Nisliida S leds).
Current lapanese Materials Research: Fiactograpby. London:
Elsevier, 1990:1-8.

ber2, 1995

23.

115

Forsylli P|. Exudation of material from slip bands at the

surface of fatigued crystals of an aluminum-copper alloy.
Nature 1953;1 71:1 72-173.
Chargles R|. Static fatigue of glass: I, ii. | AppI Phys 1958;
291549-1560.
Southan DE, jorgensen KD. The endurance limit of dental
porcelain. Aust Detitj 1974,-19:7-11.
Sherrill CA, O'Brien W|. Transverse strengtb of aluminous
and leldspatbic porcelains. | Dent Res 1974,53:683-690.
Wiederborn SM. Influence of water vapor on crack propagation in soda-lime glass. | Am Ceram Soc 1967;50,407^14.
Myers ML, Ergle |W, Fairhurst CW, Ringle RD. Fatigue
characteristics of a high-strength porcelain, Int J
Prosthodont ;994;7:253-257.
Leempoel PJ6, Van't Hof MA, De Haan AF|. Survival studies of restorations: Criteria, methods and analyses. | Oral
Rehabil 1 989;1 6:387-394.
Craf H, Geering AW. Rationale for tbe clinical application
oi different occlusal pbilosophies. O'al Sei Reviews
1977;1O:1-10.
Wobler A. ber die Eestigkeitsversutbe mit Eisen und
Stahl. Z f Bauwesen 1858^6,
Broek D. The Practical Use of Fracture Mechanics,
Dordiecht: Kluwer Academic. 1988:67-70.

The international lournal of Proithodoniics

; Principles and lm|)lcatit

24.

25.
26.
27.
38.
29.

Wikott HWA, Nicholls II, Taggart R. Fatigue strength of a

Au-Pd A l l u y / 5 8 5 solder c o m b i n a t i a n . | D e r t Res
I991;70;I40-145.
Brand A, Fl.ivenol |F, Grgoire R, Tournier C, Donne?
technologiques sur !a fatigue. Senlis: CETIM, 1992:45.
Lieurade HP. La pratique des essais de fatigue. Paris; PYC
Editions, 1982:101-102.
Paris PC, Coniez MP, Anderson WE. A rational analytic
theory uf faligue. Trends in Engineering 196! ;13:9-14.
Taylor D. Fatigue Thresholds. London: Butterworths,
1989:4-7.
Little RE, lelie EH, Statistical Design of Fatigue Experiments.
Londoni Applied Science, 1975:10-12,168-197.

48. Wilkinson EC, Haack DC. A study o the fatigue characteristics of siivcv amaigam. I Dent Res 1958;37:1 36-143.
49. Earnshaw R. Fatigue tests on a dental cobalt-chromium
alloy. Br Denl ) 1961 ;110:341-346.
50. Bates IF. Fracture of partial dentures. Flexural fatigue of a
cobaU-throrrium alloy. Br Dent I !965;1 l:5 32'537.
51. Hawbolt EB, MacEntee Ml. Effects of fatigue on a soldered
base metai alloy.] Dent Res 1983;62:1 226-1 228.
52. Sutow E|, Iones DW, Hall GC. The response of dental
amalgam to dynamic loading. | Dent Res 1985,64:62-66.
53. Zardiackas LD, Bayne 5C. Fatigue characterization of nine
dentai amalgams. Biomaterials 1985;fa:49-54.
54. Butson T|, Nicholls |1, Ma T, Harper RJ. Fatigue life of preceramic soldered and postceramic soldered loints. Int |
Prosthodont 1 993;6:468-474.

30.

Finney D. Probit Analysis: A Statistical Treatment 01 the

Sigmoid Response Curve, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1952:236-245.

31.

Dixon W], Mood AM. A meihod (or obtaining and analysing sensitivity data. I AmerStJt Assn 1948:43:109-126.

56

32.

Dieter GE, Mechanical M(itallLtr|;y. New York: McGrawHill, 1961:446-450.

57

33.

Draughn RA. Compressive fatigue limits of composite

restorative materials. | Denl Res 1979;58:1O93-IO96,

58

34.

Conway IB, Sjodahl LH. Analysis and Presentation of

Fatigue Data. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM Irternational,
1991:89-132,

59

35.

Drummond |L, MJescke KL. Weibull models for the statistical analysis of dental composite data: Aged in physiologI cal media and cyclic-fatigued. Dent Mater 1991 ;7:25-29.

36.

Walton | N , Gardner FM, Agar K. A survey of crown

and fixed partiai denture failures: Length of service and
reasons for repiacement. J Prosthet Dent 1986;56:
416-421.

38.

Foster LV. Failed conventional bridge work from general

dental practice: Clinical aspects and treatment needs o

40.

41.

61.

43.

Fissore B, Nichoils | I , Vuodelis RA. Load fatigue of teeth

restored by dentine bonding agent and a posterior composite resin. J Prosthet Dent 1991 ;65:80-85.

44.

Kovarik RE, Breeding LC, Caughman WF. Fatigue life of

three core materials under simulated chewing conditions,
J Proslhet Dent 1992;68:584-590.
Stewart RB, Desiardins RP, Laney WR, Chao EYS. Fatigue
strength of cantilevered metal frameworks for tissueintegrated prostheses. I Prosthet Dent 1992;68:83-92.

46.

Cundler A, Lockowandt P, Eihardson S. Crown retention

and cyclic loading [in vitro). Scand | Deni Res
l993;IOI:252-256.

47.

Peyton FA. Flexure fatigue studies of cast dental gold

alloys. I Am Dent Assoc 1934:21:394-415.

Tiie Irterntional lournal ol ProBt

lohnson VJ, Matthews E. Further iatigue studies on some

dental resins. Br Dent] 1 952;92:91-92.
Peylon FA, Shiere HB, Delgado VP. Some comparisons of
self-curing and heat curing dental lesms. J Prosthet Dent
1953:3:332-340.
Smith DC. The acrylic denture. Mechanical evaluation.
Mid-line fracture. Br Dent | 1961 ;111:257-267.
Kelly EK, Flexure fatigue resistance of heat-curing and
cold-curing polymethyl methacrylate, | Am Dent Assoc
I967;74:1273-I276.
Kelly EK. Fatigue failure in denture base polymers. J
Prosthet Dent 1967;74:1 273-1 276.

Stafford GD, Smith DC. Flexural fatigue tests of some denture base polymers. Br Dent) 1970;127:442-445.
bZ. Johnston EP, Nicholls | l . Smith DE. Flexure fatigue of 10
commonly used denture base resins. J Prosthet Dent
1981;46:478-483.
64.

Asmussen E, Jorgensen KD. Fatigue strength of some

resinous materials. Scand J Dent Res 1 982;90:76-79.
65. Stafford GD, Lewis TT, Huggett R, Fatigue of testing of
denture base polymers. J Oral Rehabil 1982:9:139-154.
66. Zardiackas LD, Caldwell D|, Caughman WF, Lentz DL,
Comer RW. Tensile fatigue of resin cements to etched
metal and enamel. DentMater 1988:4:163-168.
(7. Drummond |L. Cyclic fatigue of composite restorative
materials. | Oral Rehabil 1989:16:509-520.
68. McCabe |F, Carrick TE, Cbadwick RG, Walls AWG,
Alternative approaches lo evaluating the fatigue characteristics of materials. Dent Mater 1 990;6:24-28.
h"). Saunders WP. Effect of fatigue upon [he interfacial
bond strength of repaired composite. ) Dent 1 9 9 0 I 8 158-162.

Oulhwaite WC, Twiggs SW, Fairhurst CW, King GE. Slots

vs pins: A comparison of retention under simuiatcd chewing stress. J Denl Res 1 982;6t :400-402.
Martinet CN, Nally | N , Barraud R, Meyer JM. Proprits
mcaniques et resistance s ia fatigue de trois aliiages
"steliites" utilises en prothse dentaire. Rev Mens Suisse
Odontostomat 1 9!i4;94:l 11 1-11 22.
Saunders WP. The effect of fatigue impact forces upon the
retention of various designs of resin-retained bridgework.
DentMater l987;3:85-89.

Barber R. Preiiminary tests of some of the newer denture

materials. I Am Dem Assoc 1934;21:1969-1985.
lohnson W, Matthews E. Fatigue studies on some dental
resins. Br Dent j 1949;86:252-253.

62.

142 cases, Br Dent i 1990:168:199-201.

Wictorin L, Fredriksson H. Microstructuie of the soldercasting zone in bridges of dental gold alloys. Odontol Rev
1976:27:1 R7-196.

42.

45.

60.

Schwartz NL, Whitsett LD, Berry TC, Stewar! |L.

Unserviceable crowns and fixed partial dentures, iife span
and causes of loss of serviceabiiity. | Am Dent Assoc
1970;81:1395-1401.

37.

39.

55

70.

71.
72

73.

116

Aquilino SA, Dia!-Arnold AM, Piotrowski TJ. Tensile

fatigue limits of prosthodontic adhesives i Dent Res
199l;70:208-21O.
Liobell A, Nicholls II, Kois |C, Daly CH. Fatigue iife of
porcelain repair systems. Int | Prosthodont 1992,5-205-213
Yukowsky W, Fulton DW, An assessment of accelerated
testing. In: Testing for Prediction of Material Performance
rn Struciures and Components. ASTM STP 515
Philadelphia: American Society for Testing and Materials
1972:75-88.
Wiskotl HWA, Nicholls JI, Belse- UC. Fatigue resistance of
soldered joints: A methodological study. Dent Mater
1994;1O:21.5-22O.

Volume a, Numbi