Measuring Instruments and

Sensors Used For Magnetic

Field Measurements

H.N.T. Wijesekara
120716-U
Department of Electrical Engineering

Importance of Magnetic Field Measurement

The measurement of magnetic fields has been a critical part in various technical areas. High
sensitivity magnetic field measurement has been utilized to detect the presence of large
ferromagnetic objects such as submarines in the ocean, which change the magnetic field
distribution. In industry application, the current flowing in an electric circuitry generates a
magnetic field proportional to the current. In principle, current can thus be measured
indirectly by measuring magnetic field. The presence and location of some ores under the
ground can be detected by measuring the magnetic field distribution, which is largely used by
the mine industry. The ballistic control of a long range missile such as ICBM can be realized
by the detection of minute earth magnetic field changes during the flight. This type of flight
control also can be used to auto-pilot air craft. The measurement of magnetic characteristics
of the high temperature superconductors informs the basic physical parameters that represent
their superconducting state and provides information about the structure of penetrating
magnetic flux and processes connected with their dynamics. The quest to track, detect, and
localize vehicles, ships, and aircraft in a constrained area has been increased considerably.
The controlling of the intelligent Vehicle Highway System, harbor vessels, and airport
runway traffic can be done by deploying an array of magnetic sensors in that restricted area,
which provide all- weather detecting capability and good environmental survivability. In most
cases, the crafts to be detected have a magnetic signature to be easily distinguishable from the
other objects. Since the amplitude of magnetic field is dependent on the distance, the
accurate and efficient localization and tracking are possible. The magnetic field detection in
mass storage technology is essential for high density information storing systems.

Magnetic Field Measuring Instruments

A magnetic field could be identified as a region near a magnet, electric current or a changing
electric field where we can observe magnetic forces. Magnetic field strength and magnetic
flux density are the two ways that the magnetic field can be measured. Technically, a
distinction is made between magnetic field strength H, measured in amperes per meter (A/m),
and magnetic flux density B, measured in Newton-meters per ampere (Nm/A), also called
Teslas (T). Measuring the strength (H) and flux density (B) of these magnetic fields is of
utmost importance to us as electrical engineers. We use different instruments and sensors to
measure magnetic fields or flux. Magnetic field measuring instruments usually contain
meters, gauges, sensors and data recorders within them. We use different types of magnetic
field instruments to measure fields. Selecting criteria of instruments can be identified as the
type of device needed, the implemented technology of the instrument, input and output form
of the instrument, and other performance specifications.
Normally magnetic field instruments are divided into two categories based on their field
strength ratings and measuring ranges. This categorization can be shown as follows.

Magnetic field instruments can be divided into two categories as magnetometers and Gauss
meters (Tesla meters). Some instruments found in the market possess characteristics of both
categories. These two categories are differentiated using the field strength that they can
measure. Usually magnetometers are used to measure fields with field strengths less than
1mT and Gauss-meters are used to measure field strengths above 1mT.

Magnetometers
Magnetometers are used for high-sensitivity applications such as detecting low-strength
fields. They can be classified into two groups as vector and scalar devices based on their
ability to sense field direction and field strength.
Scalar Magnetometers
These magnetometers are also known as total field magnetometers. Scalar magnetometers
measure the magnitude of the magnetic eld by analyzing the atomic and nuclear properties
of matter. The two most widely used scalar magnetometers are the proton precession and the
optically pumped magnetometer. These instruments have extremely high resolutions and
accuracy when properly used and is relatively insensitive to orientation i.e. they are
insensitive to rotational vibrations. They both have several common operating limitations.
The instruments require the magnetic eld to be uniform through-out the sensing element
volume. They have a limited magnetic eld magnitude measurement range typically 20 T to
100 T. And they have limitations with respect to the orientation of the magnetic eld vector
relative to the sensor element.

Proton precession devices use liquids such as kerosene and methanol that have high
densities of hydrogen atoms (proton rich fluids) as the sensing element. Overhauser
Effect Magnetometer is also a derivation of this. It works on the same principle of
proton precession type but in place of the solenoid a low power radio frequency signal
is used to align the protons. When an electron-rich liquid combines with hydrogen, it
is subjected to a radio frequency (RF) signal. By overhauser effect protons are
coupled to nuclei of the liquid. The precession frequency is linear with the magnetic

flux density and thus can be used to measure the field strength. It requires less power
consumption and has faster sampling rates.

Optically-pumped instruments polarize a gaseous alkali with a specific wavelength of

light. An RF signal is modulated to determine its optimum depolarization frequency this depolarization frequency varies with the ambient magnetic field.

Ionized Gas Magnetometers are more accurate than the proton precession
magnetometer. This comprises of photon emitter light and vapor chamber filled with
the vapors like cesium, helium, and rubidium. When the atom of the cesium
encounters the photon of the lamp, energy levels of the electrons are varied at the
frequency corresponds to the external magnetic field. This frequency variation
measures the intensity of the magnetic field.

Vector Magnetometers
These instruments measure both the magnitude and the direction. All vector
magnetometers suffer from noise, especially from geomagnetic noise. This can be
overcome by shifting the operating frequency above the range where noise dominates.
Another major problem with vector magnetometers is that they are affected by rotational
vibrations. Vector magnetometers are subject to temperature drift and the dimensional
instability of the ferrite cores. They also require leveling to obtain component
information, unlike total field (scalar) instruments. For these reasons they are no longer
used for industrial purposes such as mineral exploration.

Search coil Magnetometer search coil, magnetometers measure changes in magnetic

field. Faraday's law of inductance describes the relationship of induced voltage to a
changing magnetic field, and is the operating principle of this design of
magnetometer. Essentially, the magnetometer consists of a coil with a very large
number of turns of wire wrapped around a high permeability core.

Flux gate or coil instruments consist of a ferromagnetic material wound with two
coils, a drive and a sense coil. It exploits magnetic induction together with the fact
that all ferromagnetic material becomes saturated at high fields. These instruments
measure differences in the magnetic field at the ends of a vertical rod and plot this
information on a grid.

SQUIDs or superconducting quantum interference devices consists of two

superconductors separated by thin insulating layers to form two parallel Josephson
junctions. The device may be configured as a magnetometer to detect incredibly
small magnetic fields with noise levels as low as 3 fT Hz in commercial instruments
and 0.4 fT Hz in experimental devices. So they are used to measure the magnetic
fields in living organisms. They are most commonly used to measure the magnetic
fields produced by brain or heart activity.

Magneto-resistive instruments measure electrical resistance as a function of the

applied or ambient magnetic field. They can be built as magnetometers for more
sensitive applications, or as Gauss-meters for stronger magnetic fields.

Gauss-meters

Hall Effect devices convert the energy stored in a magnetic field to an electrical
signal by developing a voltage between the two edges of a current-carrying
conductor whose faces are perpendicular to a magnetic field. The Hall-effect
sensor is using the potential developing in the semiconductor biased to flow
current under influence of external magnetic field. The moving charges in the
semiconductor (electrons or holes) experience Lorentz force, that is perpendicular
both to their direction of motion and to the direction of the magnetic field. In
order to maintain continuity of charge, the charged carriers should be depleted one
direction and this generates Hall voltage. By measuring magnitude and polarity of
the potential developed, the external magnetic fields amplitude and direction can
be determined. Since the potential developed in the semiconductor is very low for
few gauss of flux, this sensor is suitable for high magnetic field measurements.
The generation of electron-hole pair in the semiconductor is very sensitive to
temperature. The temperature induced carriers generate spurious potential which
degrades resolution of sensor. All of these sensors are bulky, susceptible to EMI,
and show high temperature dependence.

Magneto-diodes are two-terminal Hall Effect devices similar to a conventional

bipolar diode. The voltage-current characteristic of a magneto-diode is sensitive to
a magnetic field.

Magneto-transistors consist of a bipolar transistor implemented on a

semiconductor surface. They are three-pronged devices consisting of an emitter
region, an elongated base region, and a collector region. The presence of a
magnetic field in the base region creates a Hall Effect voltage which produces a
pulse on the transmission line.

Optical fiber based magnetic field sensors are immune to electromagnetic induction
and compact in nature. The optical magnetic field sensors are utilizing either change
in intensity or phase due to the external magnetic field variation. The technologies to
measure relatively high frequency magnetic fields (> 10 Hz) have been developed in
the beginning of the sensor system design because of the simplicity of high frequency
components measurement in frequency domain.

Magnetic field instruments can either be in handheld or mounted form. For field applications
and those requiring portability, handheld form may be necessary. Mounted forms are usually
bigger devices incorporated into a larger transportable unit or vehicle, or are used in fixed lab
or building environments.
References

http://www.lessemf.com/dcgauss.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetometer
www.bnl.gov/magnets/staff/gupta/.../AJ_FieldMeasurementOverview.pdf
http://www.wired.com/2014/01/measure-magnetic-field/

https://www.ndeed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/MagParticle/Physics/Measuring.htm