Middle Ages 450-1450

Historical Themes
The spread of Christianity
The development of a European culture
The influence of Islamic culture
Musical Con text
The music of the church
The beginning of musical notation
The birth of polyphony
The rise of courtly culture
Style
For such a vast period of time, there is a remarkable continuity in musical styles
in the Middle Ages. In order to understand them better, it is a good idea to
group their distinctive features within the broad categories of monophonic and
polyphonic styles.
Monophonic Style
Polyphonic Style

HISTORIC AL THEMES
The spread of Christianity
The Christian religion began as an underground sect of messianic Judaism in
the first century C.E. Its practitioners were first persecuted, then tolerated;
finally Christianity was accepted as the official religion of the Roman Empire.
After the fall of the Western Empire, it emerged as the central unifying force in
medieval Europe.
The develop men t of a Europ ean cul ture
After the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century, the former Roman lands
were ruled by various barbarian lords. These lands were eventually united by
the Frankish kings, culminating in the crowning of Charlemagne (742-814) as
Holy Roman Emperor.
The influence of Islami c cul ture
As the followers of the prophet Mohammed (570?-632) expanded their

territory through the Middle East and the Mediterranean, they preserved and
built on the knowledge of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Through conflict
(the Crusades) and coexistence (the multicultural Iberian Peninsula), Europe
gained much from its contacts with this rich culture.

MUSIC AL C ONTE XT
The Mu sic of the Church
Music was an integral part of Christian worship. The daily liturgy
provided innumerable texts, all set to music in the style we call
Gregorian chant.
The church served as an important patron of the arts, specifically of
music
Throughout the period, the majority of composers were associated with
and supported by the church.
The Beginning of Musi cal No tation
As in many non-Western cultures, music in early medieval Europe did not
have a system of notation. It was not until perhaps the ninth century that
a basic system of notation was developed.
Notating music was a difficult and time-consuming process. It was only in
the cathedrals and monasteries that such work could be done on a
regular basis.
Therefore, nearly all the music preserved (until the twelfth century) was
written for the church.
The advent of notation also produced a markedly stable body of music,
one of the features of Western musical culture.
The Birth of Polyphony
Descriptions of polyphonic singing date back to the ninth century, but the
practice actually began earlier in improvised performances.
Polyphony is a distinctive feature of Western music. Its development
became the primary focus for composers from the thirteenth century on.
Complex polyphony demanded specialized training for composers.
The composition of plainchant was primarily an activity of the monastery
and convent, but by the fourteenth century, composers were more often

members of the university-trained elite of the church.

This change explains, in part, the lack of female composers of
polyphony.
The Rise of Cour tly Cul ture
The nobility of southern France created an elaborate society centered on
the court, a practice that spread throughout the whole of Europe.
Music was an important activity of these courts, and the aristocracy took
part in the performance and composition of secular works. Surviving
examples are found in music of the troubadours and trouvres,
beginning in the twelfth century.
By the fourteenth century, the polyphonic style took hold in secular
music.
Secular polyphony was produced by highly trained specialists in the art
of music rather than by the aristocracy.

MUSIC AL STYL E
Monophoni c Styl e
A simple monophonic texture might be enriched by the use of drones
and (in secular music) percussion.
Rhythm was often not notated. We assume that it was tied to text in vocal
music and to dance in instrumental music.
Melodies are often long and flowing. Texted music is often melismatic.
Form comes from text in vocal music. The structure of instrumental music
is based on repeating sections.
Polyphonic Styl e
Voices and instruments were often mixed.
Nonimitative counterpoint, with voices moving at different rhythmic
speeds, is the primary texture.
Rhythms are often restless and active.
Melodies are long and asymmetrical.
Harmony is based on open fifths and octaves.
Dissonances are often sharp and unexpected.
Pieces are often built on a cantus firmus, and the structure is formed from
repetitions of that melody.

COMPOSE RS
Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179)
Moniot d'Arras (fl.1213-1239)
Guillaume d e Machau t (c.1300-13 77)

HIL DE GARD VON BINGE N

Born: 1098. Bermersh eim, Germ an y
Died: Septem ber 17, 1179. Rupertsberg, German y
Abbess, mystic, musi cian and writer. Compo sed plai nchan t and
wrote l earned treati ses on natural science, medicin e and theology.
Was Hildegard inspired by divine visions, or did she suffer from migraines? The
question has been asked in this century, but the answer only reveals our own
view of the world. Hildegard's reality was indeed one of inspired visions and
these visions reinforced a powerful will to succeed that made her one of the
most remarkable women of the Middle Ages.
Hildegard enjoyed a relatively privileged position as abbess of a wealthy
convent. At the age of eight, her parents sent her to a local convent for
religious training. She eventually rose to the rank of abbess, and succeeded in
forming an independent convent near Rupertsberg. Over the course of her life,
Hildegard managed to educate herself far beyond the knowledge demanded
for a woman of her rank. Significantly, she passed this knowledge on in the
form of learned studies of natural science, medicine and other matters. At the
same time, Hildegard was a mystic, experiencing visions of what she called
"the divine light" from an early age. These visions were accepted as authentic
by the church, and this added to Hildegards stature. She exploited this by
being an outspoken advocate of all she believed, even to the point of
confronting popes and emperors when she thought they were not following

God's will.
Hildegard also excelled in the craft of musical composition, and she wrote a
large number of monophonic pieces for use in the church services, along with a
mystery play with music (the Ordo virtutum ). Her musical style is individual.
Perhaps because she wrote her works for female voices, her melodies explore
a much wider range and often contain dramatic leaps. Her chants also use
repeating melodic motives much more than other pieces in this style. Not
surprisingly, since she never would have received the formal musical training
that her male counterparts would have, her pieces have an improvisatory
quality that suggests that they are the creations of a singer rather than of a
"composer."
Hildegard was not the only woman of her time to write music, but much of the
music of others is lost to us or hidden in anonymity. Hildegard, however,
uniquely among composers of her time, claimed authorship for all her works by
overseeing their copying into manuscripts. It is thanks to this somewhat
audacious act that we can listen to her music today.
Works:
77 pieces in the Symphonia armonie celestium revelationum and a mystery
play, Ordo virtutum (includes 82 musical pieces)

GUILL AUME DE MACH AUT

Born: c. 1300. Rheims( ?), France
Died: April 13, 1377. Rh eim s, Fran ce
French po et a nd mu sician . Co mposer of monopho nic and
polyphonic music. Leading repr esentative of the Ars nova traditio n.
The fourteenth century was, as the historian Barbara Tuchman notes, "a
calamitous century." Europe was ravaged by plague, which killed up to onethird of the population in a three year period. France and England embarked
on the disastrous Hundred Years' War (1328-1450) which inflicted great
misery on the French people. On top of this, political conflicts resulted first in

the relocation of the papacy from Rome to Avignon in southern France (1309)
and ultimately in the election of competing popes (at one point, numbering
three) resulting in the Great Schism (1378-1417). Ironically, this was also a
time of great achievement in music. A new class of highly trained composers
continued the polyphonic traditions of the previous century and added new
approaches to rhythm and structure. Among these composers of the so-called
Ars nova (literally "new art") was Guillaume de Machaut.
Machaut lived his life in the higher ranks of service, first as secretary to John of
Luxembourg, King of Bohemia, and then as a canon (a church official) at the
Cathedral of Rheims. Like many in the fourteenth century, Machaut's life and
works reflect an equal measure of the sacred and secular. Most of his works
were either secular (such as his many chansons) or a mix of sacred and
ceremonial (including many of his motets and his hocket "David", which was
probably written for the coronation service of King Charles V in 1364). At the
same time, he wrote what is probably the first full setting of the Mass Ordinary
by a single composer (the Messe de Nostre Dame ). He was a man of the
cloth, having taken minor orders at an early age. Yet toward the end of his life
he maintained a romantic/literary affair with a young woman named Perrone.
Much of Machaut's polyphonic music reflects the interest that composers had in
building complex structures based on the repetition and manipulation of
borrowed melodies (a technique called isorhythm). In some of his works, these
techniques are applied to all the voices. The harmonies found in Machaut's
pieces are built around the fifth and the octave, the primary consonances of the
period. His secular music carries on the musical and textual traditions of the
troubadours and trouvres. Most are written in the fixed forms such as the
virelei, rondeau and ballade.
Works:
Sacred/ceremonial music, including Messe de Nostre Dame , 23 motets,
hocket "David"
Secular music, including 42 ballades, 22 rondeaux, 33 virelais, 19 lais, 1
complainte, 1 chanson royale

Renaissance 1450-1600
Historical Themes
A rebirth of classical learning
The gradual change from the feudal system to the modern state
A change in people's views of the earth and the cosmos
Musical Con text
Increased interest in humanist learning
Increased patronage of music
Territorial expansion and increased wealth
Style
The composers of the Renaissance concerned themselves with three different
areas of music
All are unified by many shared musical features

HISTORIC AL THEMES
A rebirth of Cla ssical learning
The rediscovery and reevaluation of writings of the ancient Greeks and
Romans suggested a "rebirth". Nineteenth-century historians seized on the idea
to create our present image of "The Renaissance".
The gradual chang e from the feuda l system to the modern sta te
Starting in northern Italy, the hierarchical state -- led by either the urban
bourgeoisie or despotic nobles -- replaced the fluid and often chaotic feudal
system of the Middle Ages. For this reason, some historians refer to the
Renaissance as the Early Modern Era.
A cha nge i n th e views of the earth and the co smo s
Christopher Columbus (1451?-1506) and Ferdinand Magellan (c.1480-1521)
expanded Europe's view of the world. The astronomical studies of Nicolaus
Copernicus (1473-1543) -- later championed by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) --

called into question the old earth-centered view of the universe.

MUSIC AL C ONTE XT
Increa sed In terest i n Huma nist Lear ning
The arts became an important measure of learning and culture.
Music moved from the science of number to an expressive art viewed as
an equal to rhetoric.
The rise and rapid spread of music printing increased access to music
and books about music.
Increa sed Patronage of Musi c
The rich courts and civic governments of the Renaissance supported
music to a degree not previously seen.
This level of musical support was also provided by the religious
institutions of the day.
Territorial Expansion and In crea sed Wealth
As a result of colonial expansion, great wealth flowed into European
cities and courts.
Travel and the resulting musical exchange became a driving force for the
creation of a more international musical style.

MUSIC AL STYL E
The compo ser s of th e R enaissance concern ed themselves with thr ee
different areas of mu sic:
Sacred music: Composers continued to work with the older forms such as
the motet and Mass. It is in this music that we find the clearest
international style.
Secular music: Composers created new forms that reflected national
trends, such as the Italian madrigal and the French chanson .
Instrumental music: The rise of music printing encouraged the spread of
instrumental music for amateurs, and more specific types emerged.
All thr ee types of mu sic share man y musical features:
The use of four-voice choirs or groups of like-sounding instruments

(consorts)
Imitative or homorhythmic textures (often alternating within a single
piece).
Smooth, gentle rhythms.
Melodies with balanced phrases.
Harmonies that use full triads.
Vocal forms tied to structure of texts. Dances based on simple binary
forms.

COMPOSE RS
Guillaume Du Fay (1397-1474)
Josquin Desprez (c.1440-1521)
Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina (c.1525-1594)
John Farmer (fl.1591-1601)
Claudio Mo nteverdi (1567-1643)

JOSQUIN DESPREZ
Born: c. 1440
Died: August 27, 1521. C on d- sur-l- Escaut, France
French /Franco-Fl emi sh compo ser. Generally a ckno wledg ed as th e
greatest co mposer of th e Hig h Ren aissan ce.
Martin Luther, who had a good knowledge of music, said of Josquin Desprez,
"he alone is the master of the notes, they have to do as he bids them." Indeed,
Josquin was acknowledged by nearly all his contemporaries as the greatest
composer of his time. If so, he stands as the first among many great musicians,

for the composers of what we often term the Netherlands School created one
of the richest periods in Western musical history. His contemporaries -including Antoine Brumel (c.1460-c.1515), Pierre de la Rue (c.1460-1518) and
Loyset Compre (c.1445-1518) -- and the previous generation -- led by
Johannes Ockeghem (c.1410-1497) -- created a style of music that can rightly
be compared to the art of Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.
As for Josquin himself, we know surprisingly little of his early life. We know
that in the 1470s he began service in the court of Cardinal Ascanio Sforza,
and that by 1489 he was a member of the papal choir in Rome. But we know
nothing of his early training, or even when he came to Italy (it was believed
that he came in 1459 as a choirboy in the Milan cathedral, but it seems that
this was a case of mistaken identity). Later in his life he served Duke Ercole
d'Este in Ferrara, and possibly King Louis XII of France. The final years of his
life were spent in the town of Cond-sur-l'Escaut in northern France (possibly his
birthplace). The rest of his biography is still subject to scholarly speculation.
What we do know is just what Josquin's contemporaries knew: that he created
wonderful music. What stands out most in this music is his care for the words.
This is seen in part by the way he uses imitation to allow each voice to present
the text before the texture becomes too dense to be clear. He also made use of
homophonic textures to give the text an added clarity. Some of his works,
especially his Masses, use the older cantus firmus technique. Here he uses the
borrowed melody to create a huge scaffolding upon which he constructs the
other melodies. Some of these pieces display a high level of technical
complexity. At the same time, he could create pieces of marvelous simplicity
and elegance, as he did so often in his motets and chansons.
Works:
Sacred works, including 18 masses (Missa "La sol fa re mi", 2 L'homme arm
Masses, Missa "Pange lingua"), more than 100 motets
Secular works, including nearly 70 French chansons and settings of German,
Spanish and Italian texts

GIOVANNI PIERLUIGI DA PALE STRINA

Born: c. 1525. Palest rina, Italy

Died: February 2, 1594. Rome, It aly
Italian compo ser of sacred musi c. Activ e in Ro me through most of
his car eer.
Did Palestrina save church music? This is the legend repeated by various
authors, and even made into an operatic plot in the early part of this century!
According to this myth, the members of the Council of Trent were poised on the
brink of banning polyphonic music in the church. It was only after hearing a
piece by Palestrina (often said to be the Pope Marcellus Mass ) that they
relented. While the story is not true, it reflects a real aspect of Palestrina's life:
his commitment to sacred music and his keen interest in satisfying the desires of
church leaders in the sixteenth century. His Pope Marcellus Mass is justifiably
held up as the perfect example of Counter Reformation style.
Palestrina's career likewise reflects his commitment to the music of the church.
He was born in the small town of Palestrina (outside of Rome) and received his
early training and spent the great majority of his career in various churches in
Rome, including the Pope's chapel. His music was universally recognized as a
model of clarity and balance, and theorists of the time constantly pointed to his
pieces to illustrate their points. While he did write some secular madrigals, later
in his life he renounced them (saying that he "blushed and grieved" over them)
and began writing "spiritual madrigals" -- pieces in the lighter style of the
madrigal without the taint of a secular text.
We can hear all these elements when we listen to Palestrina's music. All the
melodies within the contrapuntal web he creates are beautiful, balanced and
comfortable for the singer. The text is easy to understand, and the syllables of
the words almost always receive the proper stress and length. Finally, the
overall sound is always pleasing and varied. Palestrina treats the various
combinations of high and low voices in the same way that an orchestral
composer treats the instruments, allowing us to hear a wide variety of colors
within a single piece. Palestrina's music is often considered "perfect" sacred
music and it is no surprise that his contemporaries often called him "The Prince
of Music."

Works:
Sacred music, including 104 Masses, more than 250 motets, some 200
liturgical pieces (psalms, Magnificats, hymns, etc.) and 50 spiritual madrigals
Secular music, comprising nearly 100 madrigals

Baroque 1600-1750
Historical Themes
The increasing importance of scientific investigation
The culmination of royal despotism
Development of the New World
Artificiality and marvelous effect were valued in the arts
Musical Con text
A time of experimentation
Expanding roles for music
A growing awareness of national styles
The full equality of instrumental music

HISTORIC AL THEMES
The increa sing i mportance of scientific investiga tion
Scientists such as Galileo Galilei (1564-1622) and Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
broke away from the older model of science, whose purpose was the proof of
an a priori assumption. Instead, through observation and experimentation,
scientists devised hypotheses about why things happened.
The culmi nation of royal d espo tism
A small group of leaders (kings, queens, and emperors) wielded enormous
power in Europe. Such was their power that Louis XIV (1638-1715) was to
declare, "L'tat 'est moi" ("I am the state").
Development of the New World
The English, French and Spanish holdings in the New World continued to
supply Europe with wealth. But as the generations passed, colonists began to
feel a growing allegiance to their new homes. Ultimately, such feelings would
lead to the independence of these lands.

Artificiality and marvelou s effect were valued i n th e arts

Sculptors, building on the techniques of artists such as Giovanni Bernini (15981680), found ways to create the illusion of energetic and even violent
movement in their works. Painters created larger and more crowded canvases.
Virtuosity was highly prized in all the arts.

MUSIC AL C ONTE XT
A Time of Experimentatio n
Musicians embraced the idea that music could move the listener in a real
and physical way.
Opera, with its blend of music and drama, was the full realization of this
ideal.
In instrumental music, no less than in opera, composers experimented
with ways of creating impressive effects.
Expanding Roles for Mu sic
Music continued to be used as an important tool of statecraft.
The new and extravagant styles served as a rich adornment to religious
services in both Catholic and Protestant traditions.
Music, especially opera, was as an important source of entertainment to
the growing merchant and landed classes.
A Growi ng Awaren ess of Nati onal Styles
Distinct styles of both vocal and instrumental music developed in Italy,
France and Germany.
Composers were aware of these differences and made use of them in
their music. A French composer, for example, might label a piece "In the
Italian Style".
The question of the superiority of various styles was often the subject of
heated debate.
The Full Equality of In strumental Music
New instrumental forms, such as the concerto and sonata developed.
Instrument makers created new types of instruments (especially wind
instruments).

 The violin moved to center stage as the most important string instrument.
Performers reached new heights of expression and technique. Virtuoso
players (such as Archangelo Corelli and Antonio Vivaldi) reflected these
abilities in their own compositions.
Even in vocal music, instruments played an important role. Instruments
not only served as accompaniment, but often played equal roles with the
voices.

MUSIC AL STYL E
The basso continuo is ever-present in Baroque music.
Textures are primarily melody and accompaniment or contrapuntal.
Voices and instruments were freely mixed.
Newly developed instruments provided a rich palette of tone color.
Rhythms are often derived from dance rhythms.
Melodies are ornate and often make use of dramatic leaps.
Harmony is based on major/minor tonality, and dissonances become
more common.
Repetition and simple binary and ternary forms provide the basis for
musical structure.

COMPOSE RS
Claudio Mo nteverdi (1567-1643)
Henry Purcell (1659-1695)
Elisabeth-Cla ude Jacqu et d e la Gu erre (c.1666-1729)
Antoni o Vivaldi (1678-1741 )
George Frideri c Hand el (1685-175 9)

Johann Seba stian Bach (1685-175 0)

GE ORGE FRIDE RIC H ANDEL

Born: February 23, 1685. H alle, German y
Died: April 14, 1759. Lon don, Englan d
English compo ser, G erman by birth . Compo sed in all g enres, bu t
primarily remembered for his op er as and oratorio s.
George Frideric Handel began his life in Germany, the son of a barbersurgeon who wanted him to study law. He died an English citizen, the most
renowned musical figure of his day and a national treasure. The career that led
him there was, in almost every way, a complete contrast to that of his
contemporary and fellow countryman, Johann Sebastian Bach (born less than
a month after him). Where Bach composed for the church and for his patrons,
Handel composed for the general public. Where Bach was primarily of man of
God, Handel was a man of the world. And where Bach was a man who never
left his native country, Handel was a world traveler.
Handel showed great musical talent at an early age, and his father allowed
him to study with a local organist and composer. At age seventeen, the young
Handel went to Hamburg, where he played violin in the opera orchestra. He
was soon composing in the Italian style that he heard and played, and his first
opera, Almira , was a rousing success. The next three years were spent in Italy,
where his operas were extremely popular and where he continued to perfect
his operatic style. He returned to Germany in 1710 to take the post of music
director for the elector of Hanover, but almost immediately was invited to

England to produce his opera Rinaldo . His return to Hanover was short-lived.
In 1712 he again asked leave to go to England. His request was granted, but
Handel never returned. In an interesting irony, the royal patron he left behind
followed him to London in 1714 as the successor to the English throne, where
he reigned as George I, the first of the Hanoverian kings. It was for his former
employer that Handel wrote his Water Music .
In England, Handel continued to write operas in the serious Italian style, but his
position as the leading operatic composer in England was soon challenged,
first by the advent of a rival opera company (the Opera of the Nobility) and
then by the development of a new and lighter style of the ballad opera. This
latter style was begun by John Gay with The Beggar's Opera of 1728. As the
popularity of Italian opera faded, Handel turned to another popular genre, the
oratorio. Over the course of the next twenty years, he created a series of
works that became some of the most popular in all of the Western tradition.
Most famous among these was his telling of the life of Jesus, his Messiah
(1742), and the "Hallelujah Chorus" from this work is arguably the most
immediately recognizable piece of Western classical music.
Handel's output as a composer declined in his later years, but he continued to
conduct and perform (he was a brilliant organist). Indeed, it was at the end of
a performance of Messiah that he collapsed, dying three days later.
Works:
Over 40 operas, including Almira (1705), Rinaldo (1711), Giulio Cesare
(Julius Caesar , 1724) and Orlando (1733)
Oratorios, including Esther (1718), Alexander's Feast (1736), Israel in Egypt
(1739), Messiah (1742), Sampson (1743), Belshazzar (1745), Judas
Maccabaeus (1747), Solomon (1749) and Jephtha (1752); other sacred vocal
music, including Ode for the Birthday of Queen Anne (c.1713), Acis and
Galatea (masque, 1718), Ode for St. Cecilia's Day (1739), Utrech Te Deum
(1713), anthems and Latin church music
Secular vocal music, including solo and duo cantatas; arias
Orchestral music, including Water Music (1717) and Music for the Royal
Fireworks (1749); concertos for oboe, organ, horn
Chamber music, including solo and trio sonatas
Keyboard music, including harpsichord suites, fugues, preludes, airs and

dances

JOH ANN SEB ASTIAN B AC H

Born: March 21, 1685. Eisenach, Germ an y
Died: J uly 28, 1750. L eipzig, Germ an y
In hi s own word s...
"Whereas the Honorable and Most Wise Council of this Town of Leipzig have
engaged me as Cantor of the St. Thomas School... I shall set the boys a shining
example... serve the school industriously... bring the music in both the principal
churches of this town into good estate... faithfully instruct the boys not only in
vocal but also in instrumental music... arrange the music so that it shall not last
too long, and shall... not make an operatic impression, but rather incite the
listeners to devotion... treat the boys in a friendly manner and with caution,
but, in case they do not wish to obey, chastise them with moderation or report
them to the proper place."
German compo ser and organist. Culminating figure of the Germa n
Baroque.
When we say that a composer such as Johann Sebastian Bach was a genius,
what are we really saying? It is easy to call someone a genius, but far more
difficult to explain what that means. The word itself tends to intimidate us, and
we often feel that it is impossible to bridge the gap and find the human side of
genius. So we simply call him or her a genius and are done with it.
In the case of Bach, however, his genius is a combination of a number of
simpler qualities, all of which point to that human side. First, Bach was a

craftsman. He lived in an age in which the composer created works according

to the demands of his employer. For Bach, this meant that his various positions
demanded different kinds of music. As court organist in Weimar, he produced
his most important organ works, and as a composer for the Prince of AnhaltCthen he created music that his patron desired: ensemble music (including the
famous Brandenburg Concertos , written for another royal patron, the
Margrave of Brandenburg). But his most important and long-term position was
as cantor of St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig. Not surprisingly, it is in this period
that he wrote the bulk of his great church music. Because of the demands of his
various employers, Bach was able to create works in a wide variety of genres,
providing a breadth of expression not often seen.
A second quality we find in Bach is that of a student or an emulator. The
composer constantly surrounded himself with the music of his contemporaries,
and his study of these pieces (often involving rearranging pieces for different
combinations of instruments) provided him an insight into a wide variety of
national and personal styles. Throughout his life, he integrated these ideas into
his own unique style.
Bach was also a deeply religious man. His personal Bible is filled with
annotations and comments, and this depth of feeling finds its way into his
sacred music, which often strikes the listener as an intensely personal statement
of faith.
Finally, Bach had a passion for completeness. Many of his works seem to be
exercises in exploring every conceivable possibility. An example of this is his
two collections of preludes and fugues, the Well-Tempered Clavier . In them,
Bach explores every possible major and minor key. But it is in his final works
that this encyclopedic quality stands out. His Musical Offering is a tour de force
of variations and contrapuntal inventions on a theme suggested to him by
Frederick the Great. His Mass in B minor is not a liturgical work, but a
summation of his sacred style, much of it reworked from earlier pieces. And his
Art of Fugue (unfinished at his death) is a compendium of contrapuntal
techniques unequaled before or since.
None of these qualities, by themselves, explain Bach's genius. In some aspects,
he has no equal, and in all aspects, his music is unique. Taken together,

however, they constitute the human elements of that genius. They help us to
understand why and how Bach created what he did, and perhaps that is as
close as we can come.

Works:
Sacred vocal works, including over 200 church cantatas; 7 motets; Magnificat
(1723); St.John Passion (1724); St.Matthew Passion (1727); Christmas
Oratorio (1734); Mass in B minor (1749)
Secular vocal works, including over 20 cantatas
Orchestral music, including 4 orchestral suites, 6 Brandenburg Concertos ,
concertos for 1 and 2 violins, and for 1, 2, 3 and 4 harpsichords
Chamber music, including 6 sonatas and partitas for unaccompanied violin, 6
sonatas for violin and harpsichord, 6 suites for cello, Musical Offering (1747),
flute sonatas and viola da gamba sonatas
Keyboard music, including 2 volumes of Das wohltemperirte Clavier (The WellTempered Clavier , 1722, 1742), 6 English Suites (c.1722), 6 French Suites
(c.1722), Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue (c.1720), Italian Concerto (1735),
Goldberg Variations (1741-1742), and Die Kunst der Fuge (The Art of Fugue
c.1745-1750); suites, fugues, capriccios, concertos, inventions, sinfonias
Organ music, including over 150 chorale preludes, toccatas, fantasias,
preludes, fugues and passacaglias

Classical 1750-1825
Historical Themes
The Industrial Revolution
The philosophy of the Enlightenment
The political ideals of republican government
Musical Con text
Art and "Nature"
The social role of music
The concept of nature in the arts
Style
Simpler textures
Simpler melodies
The piano
Simpler, rational forms

HISTORIC AL THEMES
The Indu strial R evolution
New developments in the means of production led to increases in material
goods and wealth. As production was centralized, urban society became more
central to life in Europe and the Americas.
The philosop hy of th e Enlig htenment
This world view placed an emphasis on the natural rights of people, and on the
ability of humans to shape their own environment. Writers such as Jean
Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) and Voltaire (1694-1778) helped shape these
ideals.
The political ideal s of republica n g overnmen t
The Enlightenment's emphasis on the individual led to the elevation of the

individual's role in political life. The idea of the social contract lay behind two
of the most momentous events of the period, the American and French
Revolutions.

MUSIC AL C ONTE XT
Art and "Na ture"
People's view of the nature of this world, and of their relationship to it,
was undergoing fundamental change.
Political theories saw people as free agents in the world, with a nature
that, if not fundamentally good, was at least not fundamentally bad.
The concept of "natural" became an important component in artistic
thought.

The Social R ole of Musi c

Improved economic conditions -- fostered by better production methods -yielded more goods and greater wealth.
"The pursuit of happiness" was available to a broader class of society.
Music began to be seen as "an innocent luxury".
European composers reacted to increased demand for music.
The Con cept of Natur e in the Arts
The "unnatural" and "artificial" gestures of Baroque painting and
sculpture were replaced with "natural" ideals of simplicity and balance.
Allegorical subjects in art and literature were cast aside in favor of "real"
people and situations, and the genre of the novel was born.
In music, simplicity, balance and an interest in real emotions were critical
for the composer.

MUSIC AL STYL E
The styl e of the Classical era is ma rked by many of th ese id eals,
and it i s reflected in a nu mber of musical elements:
Simpler textures: Homophonic textures (usually melody and
accompaniment) became the standard. Contrapuntal texture was used

sparingly, and for specific purposes.

Simpler melodies: Classical melodies usually fall into even phrases, and
often were organized into symmetrical "question and answer" structures.
Many composers found inspiration in folk melodies.
The piano: The piano, with its ability to produce gradations of dynamics,
became the most important solo instrument for Classical composers.
Simple, rational forms: Simple two- and three-part forms became the
essential building blocks of all Classical forms, especially the Sonata
Allegro form.

COMPOSE RS
John Gay (1685-1732)
Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 -1809)
Wolfgang Amadeu s Mozart (1756-1791)
Ludwig Va n Beethoven (1770-1827 )

WOLFGANG AMADE US MOZART

Born: J an uary 27, 1756. Salzburg, Austria
Died: December 5, 1791. Vienna, Austria
In hi s own word s...
"People make a mistake who think that my art has come easily to me. Nobody
has devoted so much time and thought to composition as I. There is not a
famous master whose music I have not studied over and over."
Austrian co mposer. One of th e lea ding compo sers of th e Cla ssi cal

era, and a master in all genr es.

Our picture of Mozart depends upon where we focus. Was he a brilliant,
successful composer or a child prodigy who never grew up? Was he a facile
composer who created nothing original or a composer of great emotional
depth? He was all of these and more. For many of us, our focus is guided by
our exposure to Mozart's personality in the film Amadeus , but is that an
accurate picture?
Mozart's life remains a complicated puzzle. As a child, he seemed gifted
beyond all measure, playing at age six before the empress, and composing at
an even earlier age. By twelve he had written an opera, and his talents
seemed to know no bounds. From this auspicious beginning, one would have
predicted a future filled with prestigious royal appointments, the brilliant
composer and performer constantly sought out by emperors and kings. But his
career, which ended tragically with his death at age thirty-five, was a constant
disappointment. When once asked about a meager court appointment he held,
Mozart replied: "I get paid far too much for what I do, and far too little for
what I could do." His music did not always please those in power: "Too many
notes," Emperor Joseph II was reported to have said. And Mozart himself, who
always felt that his talents were never adequately recognized, was often
difficult.
The difficulties of Mozart the man, however, are eclipsed by the enormous
power of Mozart the musician. His music was often joyous and almost raucous,
and yet he could also write melodies of simple and haunting beauty. Like
Haydn and Beethoven , Mozart was just as comfortable writing simple, direct
melodies as he was writing complicated contrapuntal works. There seems to
have been no genre in which he was not comfortable, and we can rightly point
to his best work in any of them as the epitome of that genre.

Works:
Orchestral music, including some 40 symphonies (late symphonies: No.35
"Haffner", 1782; No.36 "Linz", 1783; No.38 "Prague", 1786; Nos.39, 40 and
41 "Jupiter", all from 1788); cassations, divertimentos, serenades, marches
and dances

Concertos, including 27 for piano, 5 for violin, concertos for clarinet, oboe,
French horn, bassoon, flute, and flute and harp
Operas, including Idomeneo (1781), The Abduction from the Seraglio (Die
Entfhrung aus dem Serail , 1782), The Marriage of Figaro (Le nozze di
Figaro , 1786), Don Giovanni (1787), Women are Like That (Cos fan tutte ,
1790) and The Magic Flute (Die Zauberflte , 1791)
Choral music, including 18 Masses, the Requiem K.626 (incomplete, 1791),
and other liturgical music
Chamber music, including 23 string quartets, string quintets, clarinet quintet,
oboe quartet, flute quartet, piano trios and quartets, sonatas for violin and
piano, and divertimentos and serenades ( Eine kleine Nachtmusik K.525,
1787)
Keyboard music, including 17 piano sonatas and Fantasia in C minor K.475
(1785)
Secular vocal music

LUDWIG VAN BEE TH OVE N

Born ( baptized): Decem ber 17, 1770. Bon n, German y
Died: March 26, 1827. Vien na, Aust ria
In hi s own word s...
"I carry my thoughts about with me for a long time... before writing them
down... once I have grasped a theme. I shall not forget it even years later. I
change many things, discard others, and try again and again until I am
satisfied; then, in my head... [the work] rises, it grows, I hear and see the
image n front of me from every angle... and only the labor of writing it down
remains... I turn my ideas into tones that resound, roar, and rage until at last
they stand before me in the form of notes."
German compo ser. Often co nsid ered a tran sitional figure from th e
Classi cal to th e Ro mantic era.
Ludwig van Beethoven is often described by musicians as a "giant straddling
two styles": the Classical and the Romantic. Indeed, it is a testimony to

Beethoven's place in history that he is claimed for both periods. Whether

Beethoven was a Classical or a Romantic composer, however, is beside the
point. Instead, we might best view him as a new composer for a new age -- an
age that is reflected in both musical as well as the nonmusical worlds.
Haydn and Mozart lived during a time of nascent ideals of liberty and two
major revolutions. They also lived in a world of royal patronage, in which
Haydn flourished but Mozart floundered. In contrast, Beethoven came of age
as an artist when the consequences of revolutions had to be confronted and
when the burden of patronage had already shifted to the less reliable
mechanisms of the commercial sphere: publications and concerts proceeds,
supplemented by sporadic noble patronage. It was a far more disorderly
world for Beethoven, yet one full of exciting potential.
It is in this world of change that we find Beethoven one of the most enigmatic
composers. By the middle of his life he was almost totally deaf, and had yet to
produce his most profound works. In many ways cut off from the world,
Beethoven was still committed to the idea of "brotherhood" as so powerfully
expressed in his Ninth Symphony . These tensions and contradictions find a
voice in many of his compositions. His symphonies starting with the Third (the
"Eroica") are huge works, as are some of the late quartets. Yet at the same
time, he could compress his works. These sometimes contradictory aspects are
part of Beethoven's character and part of the times in which he lived. And they
make Beethoven one of the most interesting of all the great composers.
Works:
Orchestral music, including 9 symphonies: No.1 (1800); No.2 (1802); No.3
"Eroica" (1803); No.4 (1806); No.5 (1808); No.6 "Pastoral" (1808); No.7
(1812); No.8 (1812); No.9 "Choral" (1824); overtures, including Leonore
(Nos.1, 2, 3) and Egmont ; incidental music
Concertos, including 5 for piano, 1 for violin (1806), and 1 triple concerto
(piano, violin, and cello, 1804)
Chamber music, including string quartets, piano trios, quartets, 1 quintet, 1
septet, violin and cello sonatas, serenades, and wind chamber music
32 piano sonatas, including Op.13 "Pathtique" (1806); Op.27, No.2
"Moonlight" (1801); Op.53 "Waldstein" (1804); and Op.57 "Appassionata"
(1805)

1 opera, Fidelio (1805)

Choral music, including Missa solemnis (1823)
Songs, including song cycle To the Distant Beloved (An die ferne Geliebte ,
1816)

Romantic 1825-1900
Historical Themes
The increasing importance of science in defining a worldview
The rise of European nationalism
A growing autonomy for the arts
Musical Con text
Increased interest in nature and the supernatural
The rise of program music
Nationalism and exoticism
Changing status of musicians

HISTORIC AL THEMES
The increa sing rol e of scien ce i n d efining a worldview
The skepticism resulting from by a clearer understanding of the world and
humanity's place in it changed the way people thought of themselves and
society. Charles Darwin's (1809-1882) The Origin of the Species is one
example of the new attitude.
The rise of European nationali sm
Many areas of Europe (especially Italy and Central Europe) struggled to free
themselves from foreign control. The years around 1850 saw many revolutions
and attempts at revolutions. At the same time, Germany -- never a fully unified
country -- struggled to create a separate national identity.
A growing autono my for th e arts
More and more, art was removed from functional roles and came to be
appreciated for its aesthetic worth. The art of the past became increasingly
revered, and our modern notions of the "artist" and of the "fine arts" were

born.

MUSIC AL C ONTE XT
Increa sed In terest i n Natur e and th e Superna tural
Romantic artists saw nature in a less idealized way than the artists of the
Classical period had.
The natural world was considered less a model of perfection and more a
source of mysterious powers.
Romantic composers gravitated toward supernatural texts and stories.
Schubert's Erlking and Berlioz' Symphonie fantastique are two good
examples.
The Rise of Program Mu sic
Music began to be used to tell stories, or to imply meaning beyond the
purely musical.
Composers found ways to make their musical ideas represent people,
things, and dramatic situations as well as emotional states and even
philosophical ideas.
Nationalism and Exotici sm
Composers used music as a tool for highlighting national identity.
Instrumental composers such as Bedrich Smetana made reference to folk
music and national images (as in The Moldau ), while operatic
composers such as Giuseppe Verdi set stories with strong patriotic
undercurrents.
Composers took an interest in the music of various ethnic groups and
incorporated it into their own music.
Composers also wrote works based on stories of exotic lands and
people.
Changing S tatu s of Mu sician s
A composer was no longer dependent for income on the steady
employment by nobility but relied instead on the support of the public
and the patronage of individuals.
Music was seen less as an occupation and more as a calling.
Specialized training institutions (conservatories) replaced the apprentice
system of the church and the court.

 Women found more opportunities for musical expression, especially as

performers, but social and cultural barriers still limited their participation
as composers.

MUSIC AL STYL E
The nin eteenth century saw the dev elopment of ma ny different
musical styl es, so it i s difficult to d escrib e th e Ro manti c style. But
as in all the period s you are studyi ng, cer tain elements stand o ut:
Dynamic range is wider, and there is a larger range of sound.
There is a greater variety of instruments, including improved or newlyinvented wind instruments.
Melodies are longer, more dramatic and emotional.
Tempos are more extreme, and tempo rubato is often called for.
Harmonies are fuller, often more dissonant.
Formal structures are expanded. These are often determined by the
programmatic content of the piece.

COMPOSE RS
Franz Schuber t (1797-1828)
Fanny Mendel ssohn H en sel (1805-1847)
Hector Berlioz (1803-1869)
Felix Mendel sso hn (1809 -1847)
Frdric Chopin (1810-1849)

Robert Schuman n (1810-1856)

Franz Lisz t (1811-1886)
Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
Giusepp e V erdi (1813-1901)
Clara Schu mann (1819-1896)
Bedrich Smetana (1824-1884)
Johannes Brah ms (1833-1897)
Georges Biz et (1838-1875)
Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky (1840 -1893)
Antoni n Dvork (1841 -1904)
Ruggiero Leoncavallo (1857-1919)
Gustav Mahler (1860-1911)
Claude D ebussy (1862-1918)
Richard Strauss (1864-1949)
Amy Bea ch (1867-1944 )

FRANZ PE TE R SCH UBE RT

Born: J an uary 31, 1797. Vienna, Aust ria
Died: November 19, 1828. Vienn a, Austria

In hi s own word s...

"No one understands another's grief, no one understands another's joy... My
music is the product of my talent and my misery. And that which I have written
in my greatest distress is what the world seems to like best."
Austrian co mposer, on e of th e earl iest of the Roma ntic movement.
Schubert wrote prolifically in all g enres, but is b est rememb ered
for his song s.
Schubert died at the age of thirty-one. One of his last wishes was to be buried
near the composer he had most admired: Ludwig van Beethoven . The
similarities of their lives are easy to see. Both struggled in many ways to create;
both expressed in their music qualities that we identify with both the Classical
and Romantic styles.
Schubert was the son of a middle-class schoolteacher who expected that his
son would follow in his career. Franz's musical gift was recognized early and
as a boy he sang in the Imperial Court. As a young man, however, he followed
the wishes of his father and accepted a teaching post. His musical activities
continued in his spare time and he surrounded himself with educated and likeminded members of the middle class. Here he found an immediate outlet for his
music. By 1818, he resigned his teaching duties and turned to full-time
composition. He continued to have the support of his friends, even while his
success with publishers was limited. Before long, however, Schubert had
another battle to fight -- illness. As early as 1822 the debilitating effects of
syphilis began to take their toll, and along with his health, his financial
condition declined. Nonetheless, he continued to compose to the end,
producing some of his most profoundly beautiful music in his final years.
Schubert is most clearly identified with his more than 600 songs. Such a large
output is, in and of itself, remarkable. What is more remarkable is the quality
of these works. Some are simple strophic pieces, almost like folk songs, while
others are complex through-composed settings that create miniature dramas.
All, however, aimed toward the Romantic ideal of poetic expression. Along
with this, Schubert often allowed the accompaniment to take an equal role with
the singer in setting a mood or evoking an image. His "Erlknig" is a perfect
example of this, with the thundering of the piano imitating the galloping of a

horse. Schubert perfected these techniques and put them to use in more
ambitious works, his song cycles. Here each song possesses its own identity,
and yet they are dramatically and musically linked. His were some of the
earliest song cycles, and still stand as some of the finest.
Schubert wrote more than songs, however, even if these pieces were not fully
appreciated during his lifetime. His symphonies are relatively conservative in
their approach to form, but Schubert infused them with a lyrical content that
seemed to overflow these bounds. The same is true of his chamber music,
especially his string quartets and the famous "Trout" quintet. One of his last
works, the "Great" C major Symphony (so-called by Robert Schumann , who
rescued it from oblivion), represents this side of Schubert. Schumann talked
about its "heavenly length" -- perhaps not so much a measure of time, but a
description of the way Schubert's melody flows onward, sometimes with
surprising harmonic twists.
Works:
More than 600 Lieder, including "Erlknig" ("Erlking", 1815) and 3 song
cycles, among them Die schne Mllerin (The Lovely Maid of the Mill , 1823)
and Winterreise (Winter's Journey , 1827)
9 symphonies, including No.8 ("Unfinished", 1822)
Chamber music, including 15 string quartets, 1 string quintet, 2 piano trios, the
"Trout" Quintet, one octet, various sonatas
Piano sonatas, dances and character pieces
Choral music, including 7 Masses, other liturgical pieces and part songs
Operas and incidental music for dramas
Schubert, like Mozart, composed a huge number of works in his short life. In
concert programs and recordings his works are often identified by a number
preceded by the letter "D". This stands for Otto Erich Deutsch, who catalogued
them in chronological order (so that a low "D number" indicates an early
work.)

RIC H ARD WAGNE R

Born: May 22, 1813. L eipzig, German y

Died: February 13, 1884. Venice, Italy

In hi s own word s...
"True drama can be conceived only as resulting from the collective impulse of
all the arts to communicate in the most immediate way with a collective
public... Thus especially the art of tone, developed with such singular diversity
in instrumental music, will realize in the collective artwork its richest potential -will indeed incite the pantomimic art of dancing in turn to wholly new
discoveries and inspire the breath of poetry no less to an undreamed-of
fullness. For in its isolation music has formed itself an organ capable of the
most immeasurable expression -- the orchestra."
German op era co mposer, cond ucto r and musi cal writer. Wagn er
changed the con cept of opera by v iewing i t as a "total art wor k" (
Gesamp tku nstwer k ).
It is telling that Richard Wagner's artistic beginnings lie in both music and
drama. At the age of fifteen he wrote his first play and a year later his first
musical composition. He was largely self-taught in music, although he did study
privately when he was a university student in Leipzig. His career centered
almost exclusively on the theater, and he wrote his first opera at the age of
twenty, while serving as chorus master at the opera theater in Wrzburg. His
first great success came with Rienzi in 1842, followed soon after by The Flying
Dutchman ,Tannhuser and Lohengrin .
Wagner fled Germany after the political upheavals of 1848, spending the bulk
of this time in Zurich writing the text for his Ring Cycle , as well as a number of
books on music. The most famous is the two-volume Opera and Drama , in
which he set out his new ideas on reforming opera. The most infamous is his
Jewishness in Music , a virulent antisemitic diatribe. In 1862 he returned to
Germany, settling in Bavaria under the patronage of young Ludwig II. Here
Wagner completed Tristan und Isolde , a tale of forbidden love made all the
more fitting by the fact that he was at that time having an affair with Cosima
von Bulow, daughter of Franz Liszt and the wife of Tristan 's conductor, Hans
von Bulow. In 1866 Wagner returned to Switzerland and continued work on
the Ring , taking time out to compose a completely different type of work, the
comedic Die Meistersinger von Nrnberg .

As each part of the Ring Cycle was finished and performed, Wagner became
more and more determined to create a theater capable of realizing the
complicated lighting and staging he envisioned. Once again, Ludwig stepped
in. In 1874 he committed to building just such a theater in Bayreuth. Two years
later, Wagner's complete cycle of four music dramas was presented there.
While an artistic success, it was a financial disaster, and Wagner had to turn
his efforts to recouping his losses. Out of this effort grew his final music drama,
Parsifal , a tale of love and redemption. It premiered in 1882; Wagner died
that winter while on a trip to Venice.
It is no overstatement to say that Wagner changed the face of opera. From his
earliest works, he began to break away from the structure of separate numbers
to one of continuous drama (he ultimately called them music dramas rather
than operas). Other composers were heading in this direction, but none so
relentlessly as Wagner. Perhaps more important was his concept of the "total
art work," in which the composer controlled all the elements of the dramatic
production and put them to work in projecting the drama. Musically, this was
reflected in the idea of the Leitmotif, a musical theme that stands for a person,
thing or idea. Wagner's music dramas are seamless webs of these musical
ideas, with the music itself telling as much of the story as the action on the
stage.
Perhaps due to the uncompromising nature of Wagner's musical ideals, or
perhaps due to the difficulty of his politics and personality, he served (and still
serves) as a polarizing figure in music. His admirers (often devotees) carried
his legacy into the twentieth century, while his detractors either went in
opposite directions or made use of some of his ideas while distancing
themselves from him as much as possible. Although Wagner's place in history is
established, the judgment of that position will be a source of controversy far
into the future.

Works:
13 operas (music dramas), including Rienzi (1842); Der fliegende Hollnder
(The Flying Dutchman , 1843); Tannhuser (1845); Lohengrin (1850); Tristan
und Isolde (1865); Die Meistersinger von Nrnberg (The Meistersingers of

Nuremberg , 1868); Der Ring des Nibelungen (The Ring of the Nibelung ),
consisting of Das Rheingold (The Rhine Gold , 1869), Die Walkre (The
Valkyrie , 1870), Siegfried (1876) and Gtterdmmerung (The Twilight of the
Gods , 1876); and Parsifal (1882)
Orchestral music, including Sigfried Idyll (1870)
Piano music, vocal music, choral music

JOH ANNE S B RAH MS

Born: May 7, 1833. H amburg, German y
Died: April 3, 1897. Vienn a, Austria
In hi s own word s...
"It is not hard to compose, but it is wonderfully hard to let the superfluous notes
fall under the table."
German compo ser. Brahms cr eated a styl e that bl ended th e lyrical
and intel lectual and served as a co ntrast to the progressiv e style
of the N ew Germa n Sch ool.
Johannes Brahms grew up surrounded by a practical world of music. His father
was a double bass player, and Brahms took early lessons in piano, theory and
composition. As a teenager, he gained intimate familiarity with serious and
popular styles, arranging music for his father's orchestra and playing piano in
local dance halls. At twenty he began touring as an accompanist and began to
make important contacts. Among these were Robert and Clara Schumann ,
both of whom had a lasting effect on his life and career. Robert, in his role as a
critic, first brought Brahms' name to the notice of the German public, calling
him a "young eagle." Clara became an emotional focus for Brahms, one that
would last throughout his life.
Brahms spent many years working as a conductor and pianist, hoping for a
prestigious appointment that never materialized. He did, however, serve two
years as director of the Berlin Singakademie. In 1868 he settled in Vienna,
where he would remain for the rest of his life. He soon composed two works

that assured him both fame and financial security: the German Requiem
(premiered in 1869) and his orchestral Variations on a Theme by Haydn
(1873). With this success behind him, he finally finished his first attempt at a
symphony. The work was premiered in 1876 to great acclaim, and Brahms was
hailed as the true successor of Beethoven . This was followed by three other
symphonies, all of which have become standards of repertory, along with a
large body of important works in virtually every genre (except for opera,
which, like marriage, he consciously avoided throughout his life).
In 1890, at the age of fifty-seven, Brahms announced his retirement from
composition. He was coaxed out of retirement by the clarinetist Richard
Mhlfeld, for whom Brahms wrote some of his last (and greatest) chamber
works. Brahms died of cancer in 1897, not long after the death of his one love
and close friend, Clara Schumann.
Brahms is an important figure in German music, standing almost as a rock of
classicism in the onrushing stream of the new styles created by Wagner ,Liszt
and others. His music is unshakably absolute, never drawing on extramusical
images or ideas. His study of the music of earlier composers, including those of
the Renaissance, added to the more conservative elements of his music. He
often turned to older forms of expression, most notably that of variation. At the
same time, his music has a strong personal aspect to it. His German Requiem ,
for example, is neither a sectarian religious work, nor a dramatic stage work
(as was Berlioz 's). Rather, it is a response to the subject of death, freely
drawing passages from the Bible to create a piece that is both personal and
national. All these qualities combine to make Brahms one of the truly distinctive
voices of the late nineteenth century.
Works:
Orchestral music, including 4 symphonies (1867, 1877, 1883, 1884-1885);
Variations on a Theme by Haydn (1873); 2 overtures ( Academic Festival ,
1880 and Tragic , 1886); 4 concertos (2 for piano, 1858, 1881; 1 for violin,
1878; 1 double concerto for violin and cello, 1887)
Chamber music, including string quartets, quintets, sextets; piano trios, quartets,
and 1 quintet; 1 clarinet quintet; sonatas (violin, cello, clarinet/viola)
Piano music, including sonatas, character pieces, dances and variation sets (on
a theme by Handel, 1861; on a theme by Paganini, 1862-1863)

Choral music, including A German Requiem (1868), Alto Rhapsody (1869),

and part songs
Lieder, including Vergebliches Stndchen (Futile Serenade , 1881), Four
Serious Songs (1896), and folk song arrangements

20 th Century 1900-Present
Historical Themes
Phenomenal changes in technology
The advent of instantaneous global communications
The growth and eventual decline of totalitarian culture
Musical Con text
Ambivalant attitudes toward the musical past
A widening gap between "art" and "popular" music
The advent of sound recording
The birth of a "World Music" culture

HISTORIC AL THEMES
Phenomenal changes in technology
We live in a century that has moved from the earliest automobiles to supersonic

jets and space travel. Science has progressed at a rate unthinkable to earlier
generations. We have learned how to eradicate some of the most dangerous
of diseases, and to predict and control the forces of nature. We possess the
technological ability to control nearly every aspect of our lives. And we also
have developed the tools to end all life in an instant.
The advent of instantan eous global commu nicatio n
We take for granted the fact that we can send and receive messages instantly,
at the click of a button. All aspects of communication, entertainment and
learning have been fundamentally reshaped by these advances. In fact, what
you are doing at this very minute would have been unthinkable a generation
ago.
The growth and eventual decli ne of totalitarian cultur es
The Russian and Chinese revolutions and the rise of Adolf Hitler in Germany
ushered in governments the likes of which had never been seen. The totality of
their control and their ability to crush not only human life but also the human
spirit is one of the most troubling legacies of our day. At the same time, their
decline, along with movements for freedom and democracy in places as
different as Poland and South Africa, is a testament to the ultimate strength of
the human spirit.

MUSIC AL C ONTE XT
Ambivalen t Atti tudes to ward th e Musical Past
Some composers have made the conscious decision to distance
themselves from the styles and values of the past.
Claude Debussy said: "The century of the airplane ought to have its own
music."
Other composers have just as consciously tried to return to some aspects
of the past, especially the elements of the Classical style.
A Widening Gap b etween "Art" a n d "Popular" Music
Popular music, especially jazz, country and rock, became the central
musical focus of the majority of people in the Western world, and its
reach covers the globe.
Composers in the "art" traditions have come to be seen as less relevant
in day-to-day life.

 Composers whose music has become more and more complex have
widened the gap between art and popular music.
The Advent of Sou nd Recording
The distribution of music made possible by recording was instrumental in
the growth of popular styles.
Recordings have changed the way we listen to music. Works from all
musical periods are available at any time.
The techniques of recording and audio production have become
important musical elements in their own right.
The Birth of a World Music Cultur e
Western music, popular as well as art traditions, has become a world
language.
At the same time, Western musicians have become more and more
interested in the music of other cultures. Western composers with nonWestern ancestry have likewise sought out the music of their heritage.
Non-Western ideas have enriched Western styles and have been
accepted enthusiastically.
In the age of global communication, a new "world music" style is starting
to emerge. This style freely mixes elements from multiple cultures and is
not dependent on the heritage of its creator.

MUSIC AL STYL E
All sounds are possible (even no sounds).
New instruments and the sounds of popular music have changed the
soundscape of the twentieth century.
Contrapuntal textures prevail in art traditions. Popular traditions are
centered on homophonic textures.
Rhythmic language can be enormously complex.
Melodies can be long and abstract or reduced to small gestures.
Any harmonic combination is possible. Composers have made use of
extreme dissonance as well as microtonal intervals.
Form can be controlled to an almost infinite degree, or it may be the
result of improvisation and chance.

COMPOSE RS
Scott Joplin (1868-1917)
Arnold Schoenb erg (1874-1951)
Charles Ives (1874 -1954)
Maurice Ravel (1875 -1937)
Bla Bartk (1881-1945)
Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971)
Anton Web ern (1883-1945)
Alban Berg (1885 -1935)
Serge Prokofiev (1891-1953)
Lillian Hardin (1898-1971)
Duke Elling ton (1899-1974)
Aaron Copla nd (1900-1990 )
Richard Rodger s (1902-1979)
Olivier Messia en (1908-1992)
Witold Lu tosla wski (1913-1994)
Leonard Bern stein (1918 -1990)
Gyrgy Ligeti (1923- )

Pierre Boul ez (1925- )

George Crumb (1929- )
Steve R eich (1936- )
Chinary Ung (1942- )
Paul Lansky (1944- )
Libby Lar sen (1950- )

ARNOL D SCH OE NBE RG

Born: Septem ber 13, 1874. Vienn a, Austria
Died: J uly 13, 1951. L os An geles, C A
In hi s own word s...
"Whether one calls oneself conservative or revolutionary, whether one
composes in a conventional or progressive manner, whether one tries to imitate
old styles or is destined to express new ideas -- one must be convinced of the
infallibility of one's own fantasy and one must believe in one's own inspiration.
The desire for a conscious control of the new means and forms will arise in
every artist's mind; and he will wish to follow consciously the laws and rules
that govern the forms he has conceived 'as in a dream.' "
Austrian co mposer. Sch oenb erg's d evelopment of the twelve-tone
method of compo sitio n wa s a turni ng point in twen tieth century
music.
Few composers have presented as radically new an idea as Schoenberg did
with what he called his "Method of Composing with Twelve Tones Related Only
to Each Other." In it, he broke with a system of tonal organization that had

developed over hundreds of years and had become a hallmark of Western

music.
Schoenberg began his musical studies on violin at age eight. Although he had
no compositional training, he began composing his own music. In 1895, he
began lessons with Alexander von Zemlinsky, only three years his elder. From
1901 to 1903 he held various conducting posts in Berlin. In 1904 he moved to
Vienna, and there began teaching ( Alban Berg and Anton Webern were early
pupils). In 1919 he founded a society for performance of new music, and in
1925 returned to Berlin to teach. In 1933 he was forced, as a Jew, to leave
Berlin. Ironically, he had converted to Lutheranism in 1898, but after fleeing to
Paris he renounced the Christian faith and returned to Judaism. In 1934 he
emigrated to the United States and in 1936 began teaching at UCLA. He
remained in Los Angeles until his death in 1951.
Schoenberg's early music was clearly marked by the style of the late nineteenth
century, and influences of Brahms ,Mahler and others can be seen in pieces
such as his Verklrte Nacht . But as his compositional style developed, it
became more concise and contrapuntally intricate. At the same time,
Schoenberg's chromaticism intensified to the point that any strong tonal focus
disappeared. Such works as Pierrot lunaire are in a fully atonal style. The
music of this period is also marked by a style that is referred to as
expressionist, and Schoenberg had contact with, and a great deal of
admiration for, the expressionist painters and writers (Schoenberg himself
painted in an expressionist style). These ideals can be seen in the dark and
dreamlike atmosphere conveyed in Pierrot lunaire , based on the expressionist
poetry of Albert Giraud. The kinds of internal conflicts we associate with Freud
and his school of psychoanalysis are played out in exquisite musical detail.
From 1915 to 1923, Schoenberg produced relatively few works, in part due to
wartime service. At the same time, he was working on his theoretical ideas of
twelve-tone writing. Starting in 1923, with his Suite for Piano , he began writing
in a fully twelve-tone musical language. Along with this came a return to more
classical means of formal organization and larger works such as his Variations
for Orchestra . Although he never abandoned these principles, he never
extended them to other elements as his student Webern had. And after his
move to the United States, he more freely blended tonal elements within his

twelve-tone writing.

Works:
Orchestral music, including Five Pieces for Orchestra (1909), Variations for
Orchestra (1928), and concertos for violin (1936) and piano (1942)
Operas, including Die glckliche Hand (The Blessed Hand , 1913) and Moses
und Aron (incomplete, 1932)
Choral music, including Gurrelieder (1911), Jakobsleiter (Jacob's Ladder ,
1922) and A Survivor from Warsaw (1947); smaller choral works, including
Friede auf Erden (Peace on Earth , 1907)
Chamber music, including 4 string quartets, serenade, wind quintet, string trio,
and string sextet Verklrte Nacht (Transfigured Night , 1899)
Vocal music, including Pierrot lunaire (Moonstruck Peter , 1912)
Piano music, including Three Piano Pieces, Op.11 (1909)

IGOR STRAVINSKY
Born: J un e 17, 1882. Oranienbaum, Russia
Died: April 6, 1971. New York, NY
In hi s own word s...
"Consonance, says the dictionary, is the combination of several tones into a
harmonic unit. Dissonance results from the deranging of this harmony by the
addition of tones foreign to it. One must admit that all this is not clear. Ever
since it appeared in our vocabulary, the word 'dissonance' has carried with it a
certain odor of sinfulness. Let us light our lantern: in textbook language,
dissonance is an element of transition, a complex or interval of tones that is not
complete in itself and that must be resolved to the ear's satisfaction into a
perfect consonance."
Composer and conductor. Ru ssian by birth, later a ci tizen of
France and th e United States.
Igor Stravinsky is often considered something of a revolutionary, in part based

on the riotous reception of his ballet The Rite of Spring . Stravinsky's career,
however, suggests more evolution than revolution. Perhaps no other composer
in this century -- or any -- has written in such a variety of styles. And it is the
unique genius of Stravinsky that his musical personality is detectable in each of
these styles.
Stravinsky came from a musical family, although his training was limited,
reflecting his family's desire that he pursue studies in law. As a student at the
university in St. Petersburg, he made the acquaintance of Nicolai RimskyKorsakov, and studied with the older composer. His music quickly caught the
attention of Serge Diaghilev, the director of the Ballets Russes in Paris.
Stravinsky was commissioned to write a ballet for the theater, his Firebird . This
was quickly followed by Petrushka and The Rite of Spring .
Stravinsky continued his association with Paris, but with the advent of World
War I and the turmoil in Russia that would lead to the October Revolution,
Stravinsky took refuge in Switzerland. After the war he returned to Paris,
writing more ballets for Diaghilev, as well as a wide variety of other works,
many (such as his Piano Concerto) serving as performance vehicles for the
composer. In 1939, he emigrated to the United States, where he attempted
unsuccessfully to write music for films. He continued composing late into his life,
and when he was well into his eighties he embarked on a full schedule of
performances as conductor, both in concert and on record. These recordings
serve as valuable documentation of Stravinsky's ideas concerning his own
music.
Along with his changing nationalities, Stravinsky's music underwent remarkable
change over the course of his life. His early music (for example, the Symphony
in E flat ) show the influences of his Russian models. His ballets show a wider
range of influences, including that of Claude Debussy . By The Rite of Spring ,
Stravinsky had broken new ground entirely, writing in a complex rhythmic style
and a harmonic style that included the use of polytonality. This increasing
complexity came to an abrupt end with his move to Switzerland, and he
produced a seminal group of pieces in a pared-down instrumental style (often
without strings), the most notable being the small dramatic work, Histoire du
soldat for four speakers and a small instrumental ensemble. When he returned
to Paris, he continued this more austere style, and added to it an interest in

older forms and methods, beginning his well-known neoclassical period. The
culmination of this can be seen in his opera The Rake's Progress , a modern
adaptation of the classical style of Mozart 's late comedies. Late in his life,
Stravinsky once more changed styles, embracing the methods of twelve-tone
and serial composition. What resulted is a remarkable series of works including
his ballet Agon and a great deal of religious music.
In all these works, certain qualities remain constant. First and foremost is a
clarity of sound, an almost transparent texture heightened by his masterful use
of orchestration. Along with this is an approach to rhythm that articulates his
melodies with a certain dryness, adding to the clarity of sound. Finally, there is
a concise and economical approach to form. This has its roots in the simplified
style of his music from the 1920s, but was a hallmark of his style throughout his
career.
Musical Examples:
"Augers of Spring" from Le Sacre du Printemps
"Ragtime" from L'histoire du soldat
Symphony in C, first movement

Works:
Orchestral music, including Symphonies of Wind Instruments (1920), Concerto
for Piano and Winds (1924), Dumbarton Oaks Concerto (1938), Symphony in
C (1940), Symphony in Three Movements (1945) and Ebony Concerto (1945)
Ballets, including L'oiseau de feu (The Firebird , 1910), Petrushka (1911), Le
sacre du printemps (The Rite of Spring , 1913), Les noces (The Wedding ,
1923) and Agon (1957)
Operas, including The Rake's Progress (1951), opera-oratorio Oedipus Rex
(1927), other dramatic works including Histoire du soldat (The Soldier's Tale ,
1918)
Choral music, including Symphony of Psalms (1930), Canticum sacrum (1955),
Threni (1958) and Requiem Canticles (1966)
Chamber music, piano music (solo and for two pianos), songs

GE ORGE C RUMB
Born: October 24, 1929. Ch arlest on, WV
In hi s own word s...
"In Ancient Voices of Children , as in earlier Lorca settings, I have sought
musical images that enhance and reinforce the powerful yet strangely haunting
imagery of Lorca's poetry. I feel that the essential meaning of this poetry is
concerned with the most primary things: life death, love, the smell of the earth,
the sounds of the wind and the sea. These ur-concepts are embodied in a
language which is primitive and stark, but which is capable of infinitely subtle
nuance."
Ameri can co mposer and teacher. Crumb has d evelop ed a style that
uses new tech niques in a dramatic, narrative man ner.
George Crumb's career is rather typical for American composers in the second
half of the twentieth century. His training was largely in American universities
(he received his Doctor of Musical Arts from the University of Michigan). In
turn, he has spent the majority of his career teaching composition at various
universities. He is now Professor Emeritus at the University of Pennsylvania,
where he began teaching in 1965. He has received a number of awards
(including a Pulitzer Prize in 1968 for his Echoes of Time and the River ), as
well as numerous honorary degrees.
Crumb's music is a rich blend of new and innovative techniques, often involving
aspects of theater. His scores often call for unusual instrumental combinations.
His Lux aeterna , for example, adds a sitar to a chamber ensemble, and his
Black Angels is written for an amplified string quartet, which he calls on to play
various percussion instruments as well as bowing water goblets. In addition, he
asks his players and singers to use new ways of producing sounds. This is
especially true of his vocal music. Here Crumb allows the singer to turn her
voice into a different kind of instrument, using clicks, sighs, laughs and yells to
create dramatic effects (he also asks instrumentalists to speak, sing or shout,
often as a part of playing). Other techniques, such as singing into the piano (to
produce extra resonance) or singing though a cardboard tube (to create a

sense of physical and even spiritual distance) add new tonal colors to the
human voice. Many of his works were written for the virtuoso singer Jan
DeGaetani, and their collaborations have been a rich source of new vocal
technique.
Crumb's music also stands out for his use of theater. In Vox balanae he calls for
the musicians to wear masks and to perform under a blue light. In his pieces,
musicians often leave and reenter the stage, or play from offstage. The written
scores also share this sense of theater and symbolism -- repetitive sections, for
instance, might be written on a circular staff -- and his music is as visually
intriguing as it is musically satisfying. The majority of his vocal pieces are
settings of the Spanish poet Federico Garca Lorca, and it is in these pieces that
he seems to have found his most successful and immediate style. Not
surprisingly, these are among his most often performed works.
Works:
Orchestral music, including Echoes of Time and the River (1967) and A
Haunted Landscape (1984)
Vocal music based on Lorca poetry, including Night Music I (1963), four books
of madrigals (1965-1969), Songs, Drones and Refrains of Death (1968), Night
of the Four Moons (1969) and Ancient Voices of Children (1970)
Chamber music, including Black Angels (for electrified string quartet, 1970),
Lux aeterna (Eternal Light , for voice and chamber ensemble including sitar,
1971), Vox balanae (The Voice of the Whales , for amplified instruments,
1971) and Quest (for guitar and chamber ensemble, 1994)
Music for amplified piano, including 2 volumes of Makrokosmos (1972 and
1973), Music for a Summer Evening (1974) and Zeitgeist (1988); piano music
( Processional , 1984)

LEONARD BE RNSTEIN
Born: August 25, 1918. L aw rence, MA
Died: October 14, 1990. New York, NY
Ameri can co mposer, conductor, pi anist a nd writer. H e wro te i n

virtually all genres, often merging popular and classical styl es.
Leonard Bernstein was something of a musical polymath. In the world of
Western art music he enjoyed a worldwide reputation as a conductor and a
composer. He was also a great communicator, and perhaps more than
anybody else he was able to explain music (especially Western art music) to a
wide audience. At the same time, he created music for the Broadway stage,
and successfully integrated popular styles (especially jazz) into his musical
vocabulary.
For all this, Bernstein began his musical study rather late. His family bought a
piano when he was ten years old, and he began study without real
encouragement from his family. He progressed, studying with various teachers,
and attended the prestigious Boston Latin School. He went from there to
Harvard (1935-1939) and then to the Curtis Institute, where he studied
conducting with Fritz Reiner and Serge Koussevitsky. He also kept one foot in
the more popular world, playing with the Revuers in New York (a musical
theater group that included Betty Comden and Adolph Green). By 1943 he
was assistant to Arthur Rodzinski, the conductor of the New York Philharmonic.
It was here that he gained national and worldwide attention, substituting for an
ill Bruno Walter in a broadcast concert.
His conducting career progressed rapidly, and he was closely associated with
the New York Philharmonic (where he served as music director from 1958 to
1969), the Israel Philharmonic and the Boston Symphony Orchestra. He was in
demand throughout the world and was the first American to conduct at Milan's
La Scala opera house. Through most of his career he was a passionate
supporter of contemporary music, though in his later years he also turned back
to older styles, especially the late romantics such as Mahler . Bernstein also
used the podium as a way to popularize the music he loved. In 1958, he
began a series of televised Young People's Concerts that brought symphonic
music into the homes of Americans.
During this time, Bernstein was also prolific as a composer. He is best
remembered for his music for the stage and films. In 1944 he created the ballet
Fancy Free for Jerome Robbins, and in the same year a musical based on a
similar theme, On the Town . He also composed music for the film On the

Waterfront . But his most spectacular success was the musical West Side Story ,
a modern retelling of Romeo and Juliet . It has enjoyed both critical and
popular success on stage, and was eventually made into a hit film. Bernstein
also wrote a great deal of concert music, some of which was popularly
influenced and some of which was more clearly oriented toward the
mainstream classical style of the twentieth century. Although he was conversant
in just about any approach (including the use of twelve-tone techniques), he
concentrated on a modern tonal language, sparked by a dynamic rhythmic
sense and his brilliant sense of orchestration. In all of his endeavors he
promoted not only himself, but also the causes of music in America and
American music. He was able, in the words of his biographer, Joan Peyser, "to
proclaim that an American can be a remarkable and exciting musician."
Works:
Orchestral works, including the Jeremiah Symphony (1942), Symphony No.2
"The Age of Anxiety" (piano and orchestra, 1949), Serenade (violin, strings
and percussion, 1954), and Symphony No.3 "Kaddish" (1963)
Works for chorus and orchestra, including Chichester Psalms (1965) and
Songfest (1977)
Operas, including A Quiet Place (1983)
Musicals, including On the Town (1944), Wonderful Town (1953), Candide
(1956), and West Side Story (1957)
Other dramatic music, including the ballet Fancy Free (1944), the film score
On the Waterfront (1954), and Mass (1971)
Chamber and instrumental music, solo vocal music