Participatory Research Tools

National FSA Training
Module 7
Module7: Participatory research tools
Participatory Research Tools
Objectives
By the end of this module participants will:
1. Understand the origins of participatory approaches and the differences between
conventional research approaches and participatory approaches
2. Be able to list and apply key principles of participatory approaches
3. Ensure that in any PRA of their choice triangulation will be used
4. Be familiar with a basket of PRA tools and the context in which they should be applied
5. Have been encouraged to practise selected tools
Content
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
Origins of Participatory Rural Approaches

7.1.1 The emergence of Rapid Rural Appraisal
7.1.2 The emergence of Participatory Rural Approaches
7.1.3 PRA versus other research methods
7.1.4 Criteria for trustworthiness in PRA
Key principles in Participatory Rural Approaches
Possible dangers of PRA
PRA tool box
7.4.1 Introduction
7.4.2 Direct observations
7.4.3 Semi-structured interviews
7.4.4 Types of interviews
Mapping and modelling
7.5.1 Introduction
7.5.2 Transect walk
7.5.3 Venn or "chapati" diagram
7.5.4 Mobility mapping
7.5.5 Livelihood analysis
Calendars
Ranking
7.7.1 Preference or pairwise ranking
7.7.2 Matrix ranking
7.7.3 Wealth ranking and well-being grouping
Trends
7.8.1 Time trends
7.8.2 Historical profile
Gender analysis
7.9.1 Introduction
7.9.2 The Harvard Analytical Framework
7.9.3 Gender Analysis Matrix
7.9.4 Gender sensitive reporting
7.9.5
Key terminology
Formal/Verification/Structured Survey
A questionnaire based survey of a sample of respondents who are representative of a particular
population, from which statistical inferences can be drawn.
Informal/Exploratory/Unstructured Survey
This is a data collection strategy (survey) based on informal interviews using a checklist aimed
at describing farmer circumstances, understanding what they do, and reviewing possible
improvements base on farmers own views. Much of the data collected is qualitative and has the
capacity of generating information that can not be collected by formal surveys. In most cases
statistical inferences are hard to use (See Mettrick, 1993, UNDP, 1994; Matata et al., 2001;
Meena, et al., 2001). The fact that it is called informal does not make it less useful. This is a
mere way of differentiating it from the formal surveys that we are used to. Sometimes this kind
of survey has no formal and hard methods that one must adhere to. Different approaches and
data collection tools can be used depending on the field situation.
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)
This is one type of informal survey. Sometimes called Sondeo, Rapid Relaxed, Rapid
Reconnaissance survey. It is rapid, yet more cost effective than formal, data collection method
in the rural setting. Usually taken with individual respondents although occasionally a number
of respondents might be interviewed at the same time.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)
The PRA is another method for data collection when conducting an informal survey. This is a
survey usually done with a group of respondents and involves a diversity of approaches that are
used to collect data. The rural people themselves in partnership with the researchers and
extension agents carry it out at all stages.
7.1
Some origins of Participatory Rural Approaches
7.1.1
The emergence of Rapid Rural Appraisal
In the 1950s and 1960s it was widely believed that all it took to improve the economic situation
of developing countries was financial inputs and modern technology. The Green Revolution is a
typical example of such a transfer of technology from the modern industrialised countries to the
poorer nations. In the 1970s, however, it became clear that the transfer of technology did not
solve the problems of most people in developing countries. Development workers and
researchers began to understand the complex relationship between environment, economy,
culture, and politics in rural societies, and began to view and tackle the various aspects of rural
life as part of an integrated system. It was realised that a system e.g. the complex agricultural
systems found in most sub-Saharan countries, develops through adaptive change rather than by
linear progress, that it is dynamic and its parts interact by influencing each other. It is not
possible to effect change in one element of the system in isolation without affecting the other
parts. Consequently, the system as a whole has to be understood in order to identify and help
bring about desired changes.
Along with the emergence of this new development model, new research techniques were
developed to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of the complexities of rapidly
changing and highly uncertain societies and communities. One of these new research methods
was Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). RRA methods have adopted a number of features from
ethnographic research techniques, such as an emphasis on understanding a peoples own point
of view. RRA embodies the principle that different people perceive and understand reality in
different ways. Thus, community members, development workers, and researchers often see and
interpret environments in ways that are very different, but equally important. RRA is
characterised by an applied, holistic, and flexible approach of progressive learning, conducted
by multidisciplinary teams, emphasising community participation. Having been developed
alongside Farming Systems Research, RRA methods have been applied mainly in agricultural
development. However, RRA methods by now have found widespread application in many
different fields, including research on urban housing problems, impact assessments of natural
disasters, and studies of attitudes to health practices.
During an RRA participation and involvement of local people was recognised but restricted to
providing information. Professionals went to rural areas and obtained data from local people,
took it away and processed it, sometimes to find out what they (the outsiders) thought would be
good for them (the local people). The expert was still the main actor. The knowledge of the
villagers counted but only for the outsiders to use. They were the ones who provided the
solution.
7.1.2
The emergence of Participatory Rural Approaches
Participatory Rural Approaches were developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s by researchers
in international development as an alternative to conventional sample surveys. Its an intensive,
systematic, but semi-structured learning experience carried out in a community by a multidisciplinary team which includes community members. Its not a single event, it needs a followup. PRA is a way of learning from, and with, community members to investigate, analyse, and
evaluate constraints and opportunities, and make informed and timely decisions regarding
development projects. PRA are facilitated by outsiders but more than RRA it involves rural
people themselves in investigation, in the diagramming, presentation, analysis and ownership of
information, in the identification of preferences and priorities, and in planning, action,
monitoring and evaluation. Unlike in RRA it shifts the initiative and the action from outsider to
insider, from the training professional to the rural people themselves.
The approaches of PRA owe more to anthropology and ethnographic research methods than to
sociology and sample survey research. In other words, its purpose is more to gain an
understanding of the complexities of a topic rather than highly accurate statistics on a list of
variables. Moreover, in PRA understanding qualitative nuances within a topic is just as
important as finding general averages. For example, a study on the health status of a community
could use sample survey methodology to obtain accurate statistics on a small number of
carefully chosen demographic variables, but PRA methods would be used to obtain a
differentiated understanding of the populations attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour towards disease
and health care. PRA is applied most effectively in relatively homogeneous rural communities
which share common knowledge, values, and belief, although it has also been used in more
complex urban environments. Its short duration and low cost also make it possible to carry out
a series of PRAs rather than having to rely on the results of one large survey.
It is a method by which a research team can quickly and systematically collect information for:
General analysis of a specific topic, question, or problem

Needs assessments
Feasibility studies
Identifying and prioritising projects
Project or program monitoring and/or evaluation
Implementing development activities where new information needs to be collected
Participatory approaches require attitudes that favour:

Participation
Respect for community members
Interest in what they know, say, show and do
Patience, not rushing, and not interrupting
Listening, not lecturing
Humility
Methods which empower community members to express, share, enhance, and analyse
their knowledge
Participatory Rural Approaches are especially well-suited for application in community
development as it involves the field team and community members in all aspects of the study,
the design of the research tools, the collection of information, and the analysis of the findings.
Only data which will actually be used by development workers and community members in
their work is collected, and a high degree of community participation in the study guarantees
that the collected information is relevant. On-the-spot analysis ensures that gaps in the
knowledge acquired can be filled immediately, before leaving the field. In conventional survey
research the different steps (design of questionnaire, data collection, data analysis, writing of
report) are segregated hierarchically and done by different individuals or groups. In a
quantitative survey every interview has equal weight, whereas in PRA every interview or
observation is more important than the previous one, as the multidisciplinary team continuously
builds on its previously accumulated learning experience. PRA raises peoples self-awareness,
suggests viable solutions, and helps people analyse complex issues and problems.
7.1.3
PRA versus other research methods
Survey research is still a very popular social research method, and is commonly used by
universities and research institutions, as well as government and non-governmental
7
organisations. It derives much of its popularity from its formal and standardised research
techniques, which produce quantifiable, representative, verifiable and comparable data, which
can be statistically analysed. Survey enumerators do not have to make any independent
decisions and, if well trained, can collect the data without requiring the primary researcher to
take part in the data collection in the field.
While data collection by sample surveys may require less time, data analysis always takes more
time. Data must be coded, entered into a computer, and then analysed in separate steps at a
location away from the research site. Once data collection is completed it is very difficult and
costly to collect missed or wrongly recorded information, as this would require sending the team
back into the field. The costs of obtaining information contained in formal surveys often exceed
the values of the data. Survey research also suffers from the disadvantages of its inflexibility
and potential data collection in the field, and makes it difficult to gain a deep understanding of
social progress. Its pre-designed and fixed questionnaires do not allow progressive learning
during formal surveys.
PRA techniques complement, and in many cases substitute, other research methods, but they do
not make more formal and detailed surveys and analyses redundant. PRA methods and
quantitative methods do not exclude each other and can be used simultaneously. The choice of
methods depends on the kind of information required and the availability of resources (staff,
time, fund, vehicles). Particularly when accurate quantitative data is needed, as in a
demographic census or a family enrolment, or when sophisticated statistical analysis is required,
PRA methods cannot replace more formal survey techniques. On the other hand, if the main
objective is to learn about community members attitudes and opinions, PRA would be the
method of choice.
Ethnographic research methods were developed during the first decades of this century. In
classic ethnographic fieldwork an individual anthropologist lives in a community for one or
more years and learns about all aspects of the communitys life (e.g. language, agriculture,
religion, policies) through participant observation. The researcher becomes an insider for a
limited period. This method is particularly well suited for gaining an intimate understanding of
a communitys self-perception (an insiders perspective). PRA has used some of the elements of
ethnographic research and shares its holistic approach but it differs in other ways
(multidisciplinary team, short duration, community participation) from ethnographic research.
In most cases PRA will not be able to uncover deep insights into a communitys more sensitive
aspects.
Table 7.1
PRA versus other research methods
Duration
Cost
Depth
Scope
Integration
Structure
Direction
Participation
Methods
Major research tool
Sampling
Statistical analysis
Individual case
Formal questionnaires
Organization
Qualitative
descriptions
Measurements
Analysis/learning
PRA
Survey research
Ethnographic
research
Short
Low to medium
Preliminary
Wide
Multidisciplinary
Flexible, Informal
Bottom-up
High
Basket of tools
Semi-structured
interview
Small sample size based
on variation
Little or none
Important, weighed
Long
Medium to high
Exhaustive
Limited
Weak
Fixed, formal
Top-down
Low
Standardized
Formal questionnaire
Long
Medium
Exhaustive
Wide
Weak
Flexible, informal
Not applicable
Medium to high
Basket of tools
Participant observation
Random sampling,
representative
Major part
Not important, not
weighed
Major part
Hierarchical
Not as important as
hard data
Detailed, accurate
None
At office
In the field and on the

spot
Avoided
Non-hierarchical
Very important
Qualitative or indicators
used
In the field and on the
spot
Little or none
Important, weighed
Avoided
Not applicable
Very important
Detailed, accurate
Source: Theis and Grady, 1991

7.1.4
Criteria for trustworthiness in PRA
"But how does it compare with the real data?"

Many people assert that participatory methods are "undisciplined", and that their subjective
nature means that it can respond to selected members of communities only. Terms like
"informal" and "qualitative" are used to imply poor quality work. Conventional research prefers
rigour and accuracy and it is assumed that this is contradictory to participatory approaches. This
means that researchers who use participatory approaches have to prove the value of their
approach, not the conventional researcher. Conventional researchers use four criteria to
persuade their audience that the findings of their research can be trusted (Pretty et al., 1995):
1. Internal validity: confidence about the 'truth of findings'
2. External validity: possibility to apply findings to another context or another group of people
3. Reliability: will the findings be repeated if the inquiry is replicated with the same or similar
subjects in the same or similar context?
4. Objectivity: how can we be certain that the findings have been determined by the subjects
and context of the inquiry, and not by the biases, motivations and perspectives of the
investigators?
Trustworthiness criteria were developed to judge whether or not any given research was
methodologically sound. For PRA criteria were suggested like judging the impact of research on
people's lives, have people been changed by the process, to what extend did the investigation
prompt action. Drawing on these, a set of 12 criteria were developed (see Box 7.2). These
11
criteria can be used to judge information from PRA, just as statistical analyses provide the
ground for judgement in conventional science. Use of participatory methods, without for
example triangulation of sources, methods and investigators should be judged as untrustworthy.
Box 7.12
A framework for judging trustworthiness
12 criteria for PRA information:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Prolonged and/or intense engagement between the various groups of people

Persistent and parallel observation
Triangulation by multiple sources, methods, investigators and time
Different actor perspectives and analysis of actor differences
Negative case analysis or sequential revision of hypotheses
Peer and colleague checking, periodical reviews
Participant checking
Reports with working hypotheses, contextual descriptions and visualisations
Parallel investigations and team communication
Reflexive journals
Inquiry audit
Impact on stakeholders capacity to know and act
13
Source: Pretty et al., 1995: 597.2
Key principles of Participatory Rural
Appraisals
Key principles that are shared by all approaches of PRA are:
1. Triangulation
This is an essential methodological concept in PRA. A form of cross-checking. Accuracy is
achieved through diverse information and different kinds of sources of information, not through
statistical replication. Triangulation is done in relation to:
Composition of the team and background of team members
Sources of information (people, places, etc.): The PRA should include a wide range of
view points from different sources of information such as women and men, elders and
youths, various ethnic groups, diverse wealth groups and different professions
Methods: The PRA techniques are taken from a wide range of possible tools which are
tailored to the specific requirements of the study.
Time: ensure to visit a community in both the wet season and the dry season.
2. Multidisciplinary team and group learning process
The members of the PRA team should have different skills and backgrounds. This could imply
members from different disciplines, different sectors or a mixture of outsiders and insiders. The
different viewpoint of team members will complement each other and will provide a more
comprehensive picture. In this way the team will approach the topic of the appraisal from
different viewpoints, which gives new and deeper insights. All members of the PRA team are
involved in all aspects of the study: design, data collection, and analysis (not just in data
collection as in a conventional survey). The PRA is a learning experience in which the
participants also learn from each other.
3. Flexibility and informality
Plans and research methods are semi-structured and are revised, adapted, and modified as the
PRA fieldwork proceeds and when they are used in a different context.
4. In the community
The main aspect of the PRA is learning from, with, and by members of the community
PARTICIPATION! The team should sympathise with the community members and be able to
see their lives and their problems through the eyes of the community members. Most of the
activities are done jointly with community members or by them on their own (e.g. planning,
mapping, and analysis). PRAs are generally too short for outsiders to become insider s.
Therefore it is important to have community members (insiders) participate in the appraisal.
Involving community members can greatly facilitate interpretation, understanding, and analysis
of collected data.
5. Optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecision
The PRA team avoids unnecessary detail, accuracy, and over collection of data (as in sample
survey) which is not really needed for the purpose of the PRA (this is decided through on-thespot analysis). The team asks itself: What kind of information is required, for what purposes,
and how accurate does it have to be?
6. On-the-spot analysis
Learning takes place in the field and the analysis of the information gathered is an integral part
of the fieldwork itself. The team constantly reviews and analyses its findings in order to
determine in which direction to proceed. It builds up understanding and narrows the focus of the
PRA as it accumulates knowledge.
7. Off-setting biases and being self-critical
15
The PRA team actively seeks out the poorest, women, and disadvantaged groups in remote
areas, during the worst time of the year, at any time of day, and avoids talking only to the welloff, the better-educated, the articulate, and the men. The team also has to be careful to analyse
its own biases in order to prevent the PRA from turning into development tourism and collection
of rumours. The team reflects on what is said and not seen, who is met and not met, and tries to
identify possible sources of error and how they influence the interpretation of the gathered
information. The team must also try to avoid value judgements about others.
8. Shift ing attitudes and behaviour
. The use of PRA implies role reversals/shifts
. For both outsiders and local people
WE
7.3
Establish rapport
Converse, catalyze, facilitate, Enquire
Suggest, improvise methods
Watch, listen, learn
Hand over stick
Probe
Assist
THEY:
. Map and model
. Draw
. Rank, score, quantify
. Discuss and analyse
. Inform and explain
. Demonstrate, identify and
choose priorities
. Plan, present, take action
Possible dangers of PRA
Although the potential applications of PRA are numerous and wide ranging, certain
considerations should be taken into account in deciding whether or not PRA is appropriate for
particular situations and projects. Perhaps the most important considerations are:
The availability of appropriate people to conduct the study,

The degree to which project structure and decision-making are sufficiently flexible to
make use of new information, and
The intended use of the findings
Experience, qualifications, teamwork, and varied disciplinary perspectives are critical to the
success of a PRA. If these attributes are not available, participatory appraisal may be
counterproductive and result in questionable findings.
When flexibility is abused it may allow individuals to do anything and call it PRA. If done in a
hurry and constrained too much by circumstances, PRA becomes development tourism which
relies largely on initial findings and merely confirms biases, preconceptions, and stereotypes.
Carelessly-done PRAs not only of questionable accuracy and value, they will also tarnish the
reputation of participatory appraisal in general. The key to successful PRA is not to avoid
superficiality and error completely, but to control them and achieve cost effectiveness through
optimal ignorance and appropriate imprecision. Good PRA skills can only be developed through
practice and through an accumulation of experience in the field. Problems that occur can be any
of the following (Theis and Grady, 1991):
Difficulty of finding the right team

Going too quickly may lead to superficiality
Desire for statistics and quantitative data
Desire for the security of a fixed questionnaire
Difficulty of finding the right questions to ask
17
Difficult of finding the poorest and least educated, especially women

Failure to involve community members
Lack of rapport with the community
Failure to listen and lack of humility and respect
Seeing only part of a situation or problem and not getting the full picture
Making value judgements about others
Being misled by myth and gossip
Generalising based on too little information or too few informants
Overlooking the invisible
Lecturing instead of listening and learning
Raising expectations in the community where the PRA is carried out
Imposing our ideas, categories and values without realising it. This makes it difficult
to learn from them, makes them appear ignorant. When they are all male teams
and neglect of women.
If the approach is wrong, PRA will not work. The right attitudes and behaviour are key
to the success of PRA.
Some myths about PRA:

1. That it is quick: While many of the techniques associated with PRA may be relatively cost
effective methods of encouraging dialogue, joint analysis and learning, the processes of
participatory development that PRA and similar approaches encourage are slow, laborious
and complex.
2. That it is easy: PRA methods are appealingly simple. This is partly why they have attracted
so much attention. They are accessible to a wide range of actors, from villagers to field
practitioners to academics. However, as any experienced PRA practitioner will note the
successful application of PRA requires more skills, especially communication, facilitation
and conflict negotiation skills.
3. That anyone can do it: Anyone can carry out a matrix ranking, transect walk or mapping
exercise but this does not mean that open learning, leading to action will result.
4. That it is just fancy techniques: The popular and visible image of PRA is the range of
techniques that have emerged in the past 15 to 20 years. These prove effective and widely
applicable. However, these methods are only part of a wider shift being seen within
development agencies.
5. That it is based on a particular disciplinary perspective: PRA has not grown out of
universities, it has grown from responses to practical experiences in the field. This lack of
disciplinary background is sometimes seen as threatening (not rigorous, unpublishable). As
a result universities have been the last to take up PRA.
6. That it has no theoretical base: PRA is based on action research approach, one where theory
and practice are constantly challenged through experience, reflection and learning
7. That it is a new invention: PRA has evolved and continues to do so. It is not a magical
package that has suddenly emerged from nowhere. Its lineage can be traced to early
anthropological work, qualitative research approach before the dominance of statistics and
quantification.
Source: Pretty et al., 1995
19
7.4
PRA tool box
7.4.1
Introduction
Participatory Rural Appraisal makes use of a wide range of technique. The choice of a specific
technique is determined by:
the objectives of the study and the kind of information that needs to be collected
the size and complexity of the area to be covered
the available time and resources.
PRA tools can be used for:
exploration: when not much information is available on a certain topic
needs assessment
feasibility studies
identification of priorities for research and development activities
monitoring and evaluation of research and development activities
Researchers are facilitators in the PRA process. There are seven key-points that make a good
facilitator:
be an active listener
be observant
ask questions
be flexible
be organised
be knowledgeable but clear
be assertive but not controlling
A large number of PRA tools have been developed over time. None of these tools were
documented initially and there is a wide variation even within one specific technique. All tools
need to be adapted to the specific conditions and objectives of the PRA. The following chapters
discuss a range of PRA tools as indicated in Table 7.3.
21
Table 7.3
PRA tool kit
Category
Tool
Purpose
Direct observations
Measurements
Indicators
Recording
To support and cross-check

information
Review of secondary data

Semi-structured interviews
Calendars
Ranking
Trends
Gender analysis
Individual interview
Key-informant interview
Group interview
Focus group interview
Village map
Resource map
Social map
Retrospective map
Farm map
Transect walk
Venn diagram
Mobility map
Livelihood analysis
Seasonal calendar
Activity profile
Food calendar
Preference ranking
Pair-wise ranking
Matrix ranking
Wealth ranking
Time trend
Historical profile
Access and control profile
Activity profile
Context profile
Gender Analysis Matrix
23
To get a general understanding of

the target area
To collect a wide range of
qualitative and quantitative
information
To construct and visualise reality
and simplify complicated
information
Seasonal variations and timing

and/or importance of events
Prioritisation of preferences and
priorities
Changes over time
To understand gender
differentiation at household and
community level
7.4.2
Direct observations
One danger with a PRA is that you are misled by myth, rumours and gossip. People often have
beliefs about their values and activities that do not correspond with reality. It is common to be
told about a custom, but probing for the last occasion when it was practised reveals that it has
either lapsed or perhaps was never practised at all. As a consequence, direct observations of
important indicators to support and crosscheck findings are essential. A direct observation is a
systematic observation of objects, events, processes, relationships, or people. Direct
observations have to be recorded.
Methods for direct observations:
Measurement: scales, tape etc. to measure things in the field like field size, weight of
harvests, volume of firewood.
Indicators: should be valid, specific, reliable, and relevant, e.g. house-type as an
indicator for wealth.
Recording: notebooks, record sheets, photographs, collection of samples (e.g. pest
infested crops).
Use all your senses: listen, smell, taste, touch.
Observe variations in clothes.
7.4.3
A semi-structured interview (SSI) is a guided and informal interview where only some of the
questions are predetermined in the form of checklist (list of topics), and other relevant ones
arise during the interview based upon observations, responses, topics the farmer wishes to
discuss, interviewer background and experience, the use of other tools (village map, ranking,
calendars.....). The purpose of a SSI is to collect a wide range of qualitative and quantitative
information while allowing respondents and interviewers the flexibility to pursue topics of
interest. There are seven core components in interviewing that you need to address (Pretty et al.,
1995):
1. Team preparation:
Team preparation should focus on developing and refining an interview guide or checklist and
assigning team responsibilities. Although checklists are meant to guide interviews only, they are
of great importance for the quality of the output, since they are reminders of major topics to be
discussed with the farmers or key-informants. The purpose of a checklist is to suggest starting
points for discussions. It is not a list of questions to be asked, although some of its' items may
be phrased in the form of questions.
General guidelines for checklists:
The establishment of a checklist requires a lot of brainstorming. Following questions
need to be taken into account when writing the checklist:
What are the objectives of the interview, what do we want to find out?
What are the key issues and questions. What is the relevance for the objective?
The guiding principle of a checklist is that it should allow as much flexibility as
possible during the interview.
The topics should follow each other in a logical order.
The sequence of the topics to be addressed is important, sensitive topics for instance
will be discussed at the end of the interview, etc.
It is important in interviewing with a checklist not to 'jump' between the different topics.
Finish one topic before going to the next one.
25
Annex 1 gives a sample checklist of topics for general discussions on household. These topics
are not exhaustive and are not to be phrased as questions. For each topic listed, the interviewer
should always try to probe the farmer as to why or why not, certain data are observed. Be aware
of the separate or complementary role of men and women in each topic area.
2. Interview context:
Issues to be considered here are setting, timing, seating arrangements, non-verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication can indicate dominance, submissiveness,
friendliness, etc. Show an interest in what people are telling you. Do not start a discussion with
another group member. The seating arrangement also has an important impact on what
information is being discussed. If it is an individual interview, can other people hear what is
being discussed?
The interviewer:
Social skills
Interview skills
Motivation
The context:
Time
Place
Other persons
The interviewee:
Social skills
Capacity to answer
The content:
Sensitivity
Level of difficulty
Level of interest
Figure 7.1
Factors influencing an interview
3. Sensitive listening:
During an interview you need to have an open attitude and listen carefully to what is being said
by all participants. In an interview you may encounter people who dominate the discussion, who
interrupt, who joke and are not serious, who are rude, or those who are silent. Try to establish
strategies to deal with these situations. Encourage people to participate in a discussion but do
not help them finish their sentences. Make sure you do not lecture or advise.
4. Sensitive questioning:
The way in which questions are asked and the extent to which one probes largely influence the
quality of research results. It is very difficult to ask open-ended and non-directive questions, and
to probe responses carefully. Examples are given in Table 7.4.
Use adapted language. This means that you should use words, which the person you
interview understands;
If possible, questions should be phrased in such a way that they require explanation
(open-ended-questions) rather than allowing the person you interview to answer with
'yes' or 'no';
Do not ask leading questions which suggest that a particular answer is the correct one;
Formulate questions clearly, do not ask vague questions;
Do not ask more than one question at a time;
Avoid value judgements, keep neutrality about the opinion of the person interviewed;
5. Judging responses:
27
It is very important to judge the information that is created through discussions, and not to
accept the first answer you hear immediately. You need to cross-check information carefully and
verify it. The following can help:
Probe, ask for more details. Questions starting with 'why', 'who', 'where', 'what', 'when',
'which, 'how', ... (i.e. the six helpers) are good probing questions;
Verify answers through triangulation
Judge the responses, are they facts, rumours or opinions
6. Recording the interview:

Recording the details of interviews is vital. In most PRA fieldwork a great deal of valuable
information is lost due to the failure to take good notes and an excess focus on the diagrams
only. Diagrams as they are used in a PRA are a discussion tool and never an end in itself. The
richness of a discussion can never be conveyed in a diagram only. Try to remember the
following (Pretty et al., 1995):
Ask permission to record the discussion
Use a discreet notebook
Record the detail of what is said, and whenever possible, what is not said but sensed (such
as a hesitation to answer or tension)
Record the detail of what is observed and how the interview developed
Record who said it (female/male, young/old, worse off/better off)
Make follow up notes after the interview
Record personal impressions of the interview
7. Self-critical review:
After an interview is over it is important to assess critically which questions were effective and
which were not, how some questions could have been phrased differently, how the context
influenced the flow of information.
29
Table 7.4
Guidelines with examples how NOT to do it and how it could be done.
Guideline
Example of how NOT to do it
Example of how it could be done
Use adapted language. This means that you

should use words which the person you
interview understands.
What is the percentage of yield loss due to

drought?
What is the yield you usually get on this field?

[answer]
What is the yield you will get this year?
[answer]
Can you explain this difference (if there is
any!)? [answer]
If possible, questions should be phrased in

such a way that they require explanation
(Open-ended questions) rather than allowing
the person you interview to answer with 'yes'
or 'no'.
Do you cultivate maize?
Which crops do you cultivate?
Do not ask leading questions which suggest

that a particular answer is the correct one.
You prefer this variety, don't you?
Which variety do you prefer?
Formulate questions clearly, do not ask vague

questions.
What do you think about fertiliser use in

maize?
Do you use fertiliser in maize? [answer]

Can you tell me why (not)? [answer]
Do not ask more than one question at a time.
How many cows do you have, do you take

them for grazing. If so, where and who takes
them there?
Do you have any cows? [answer]

How many? [answer]
How do you feed them? [answer]
...
Guideline
Example of how NOT to do it
Example of how it could be done
Probe, ask for more details. Questions starting

with 'why', 'who', 'where', 'what', 'when',
'which', 'how, ... are good probing questions.
[Answer to a question: This variety is easier

to grow].
Not asking further.
[Answer to a question: This variety is easier

to grow].
How can you tell it is easier? [answer]
What makes it easier to grow? [answer]
...
Avoid value judgements, keep neutrality

about the opinion of the person interviewed.
I think what you said is right/wrong.
Avoid helping the interviewee finish his or

her sentences.
Be patient
Avoid lecturing and advising.
You should add fertiliser after the second

weeding!
How do you think you could improve the

yields?
It is important to listen, show interest. Nonverbal communication is important.
Staring in the distance while the farmer is

explaining, picking your fingernails, looking
all the time at your notebook, sitting on a chair
if farmer is sitting on the floor, starting a
conversation with somebody not involved in
the interview, ...
Look at the farmer while he or she is talking,

nodding your head; ...
Source: Grobben and Schouten, 1996
7.4.4
Types of interviews
Individual interview:
In an individual interview you ask for representative information. Information from this
interview is more personal than from group interviews, and is more likely to reveal conflicts
within the community since respondents may feel they can speak more freely. Interviews are
conducted with an opportunity sample of purposely selected individual respondents. An
opportunity sample would include farmer leaders, innovative farmers, women farmers who are
both members of and heads of households, farmers who represent major cropping systems in the
area, poor farmers, and traditional farmers who have resisted new technologies. Many
communities have at least one "trouble-maker" who disagrees with everything. Responses from
these people can provide valuable cross-checks.
Key-informant interview:
This interview will ask for specialist information. A key informant is anyone who has special
knowledge on a particular topic (e.g. a trader on credit). Key informants are expected to be able
to answer questions about the knowledge and behaviour of others and especially about
functioning of broader systems. Valuable key informants are outsiders who live in the
community (e.g. school teachers) or people from neighbouring communities, including people
who have married into the community.
Examples of key-informants are:
an old farmer who knows about the history of the village
a leader who has control over land and water allocation
a poor person who depends on tree products during the hungry season
a woman who participates in the new livestock project
a local trader
Group interview:
This interview is especially useful for community level information. The advantage of a group
interview is that its provides access to a larger body of knowledge, and can provide an
immediate cross-check on information. When groups become too large (more than 20-25)
however, management becomes difficult as the group tends to break into smaller groups. Group
interviews are not useful for sensitive information. They can also be seriously misleading when
the interviewer is believed to have the power to control benefits or sanctions. Group interviews
may reveal people's ideals rather than what actually exists, but triangulation of methods will
reveal the whole picture.
7.5
7.5.1
Introduction
Maps and models are devices that present information in a condensed and readily
understandable form. They are simplified models of reality and are useful in a PRA as they:
simplify complicated information thereby making it easier to communicate and analyse
construct reality and are an analytical procedure
involve community members
Mapping and modelling are a shift from verbally oriented methods to visually oriented ones.
Everyone has an inherent ability for visual literacy. These methods allow non-literate and
literate people to participate in the process as equals. Maps do not only show the location but
also the dimension and scope of issues to be investigated. Maps can be made at different scales:
the region, the village, the farm and even the field, dependent on the objective of the study.
Also, the subject of the map can differ: natural resources, infrastructure, health and so on. Maps
do not necessarily need to present the present situation, they can also show the situation of
several years or even decades ago. We distinguish five maps and models (see Table 7.5).
Table 7.5
Factors to differentiate maps and models
Concept
Space
Time
Relation
Decision
Constraints
Type of map or model

Maps, transects
Seasonal calendar, activity profile, time trend, historical profile
Flow diagram
Decision tree, Venn diagram
Problem tree
Maps or models can be prepared by using colour powders, stones, small sticks, leaves, seeds,
droppings or any other local materials available in the village itself. It can be a new interesting
experience for the villagers. Dependent on the subject and objective of the study, maps can be
made with groups of people or individuals. The maps can be made in the field where it is easy to
ask for referral points, for instance on the top of a hill from which the area can be seen, or can
be made inside the house. It is important to keep in mind that the selection of people who are to
draw the map influences largely the information gathered. According to the status villagers
have, or the tasks different household members have to carry out, the maps will look differently.
For instance, people responsible for fetching water may indicate water sources, cow-herders
will include grazing areas in the map and so on. In that sense, it can be interesting to make a
map on the same subject with different people.
Some examples of sketch maps are presented below. The subject of the map is indicated as well
as which persons in the village could be good key-informants. This list of examples is not
exhaustive and many other types of maps can be drawn.
Village map:
Subject:
Key-informants:
no subject is stated, the villager/community representative draws what

he or she (or they) means by 'village';
all villagers
Village resource map:

Subject:
natural resources in the village: type, distribution, use, users
Key-informants:
different resource users: women, men, cattle herders, children, ...
Specific resource maps can be a soil map (local soil names), or agro-ecological zones.
Village social map:

Subject:
Key-informants:
social infrastructure (schools, clinic, water sources, religious

buildings, ...), houses of different households, ...
women, village health worker, village leaders
Retrospective village/regional land use map:

Subject:
land use in the village/region several years or even decades ago
Key-informants:
village elderly
Farm map:
Subject:
Key-informants:
location of fields, farm, natural resources, cropping patterns, grazing,

storage, ...
individual farmers
The different steps to follow in making a map with villagers or community representatives are
presented below.
1.
Decide upon the subject of the map.
2.
Make a checklist on this subject with the points you want to be covered in the
discussion with the key-informant(s).
3.
Select appropriate key-informants.
4.
Explain these people the purpose of the exercise, ask if they are willing to participate.
5.
Decide together with the key-informant upon symbols to use.
6.
The key-informant starts drawing eventually with some help of the team if he/she is not
familiar with drawing. The map can be drawn on the ground or on a piece of paper. If
drawn on the floor, look for materials to visualise different aspects of the village/farm.
Ask for referral points, the north may not be the top of the drawing.
Leave it as much as possible to the resource persons although his or her way of seeing
the spatial location of different items may be different than the team's but his or her
view is most important because it explains his or her rationale.
If you find others eager to participate in mapping, yet feeling hesitant to join, go to
them and encourage them to participate. There could be 5-6 villagers preparing the map
of the village at the time
When the group or individuals who drew the map on the ground finishes, the group or
individuals which stand around and look may start interacting and sometimes suggest
changes or additions.
7.
Ask questions about the different items represented in the drawing. Triangulate the
information indicated in the map. Ask some of the villagers to point out his/her house,
field, orchards, school etc. on the map/model. The discussion is determined by the
objective of the exercise. The checklist serves as a reminder of topics not to be left out
from the discussion. Respect the guidelines on asking questions and probing.
8.
Copy the map drawn on paper and note the discussion. If possible, take a couple of
photos of the map/model drawn on the ground.
7.5.2
Transect walk
A transect is a cross-section or straight cut through a survey area or village territory to capture
the greatest diversity of, for example, land use. Observed land use, soils, slopes, vegetation,
crops, cultural practices, physical and social infrastructure, water availability, erosion and
special features are written down. Constraints and problems related to different topics and
related solutions are discussed while making the transect. A transect may be used to get a
general impression of an area or may focus on very specific topics, such as livestock, forestry or
health and sanitation conditions. The laying out of transects is a process which may help reduce
bias in making observations in the survey area. The observations and initial discussions will
help focus the survey exercises that follow.
Selection of transect walks
There are various ways to select transect lines: remote sensing (very technical), random
sampling of routes, reviewing maps to estimate lines of greatest diversity (e.g. after initial
zonation) or asking villagers to take the team through most of the different land use types
distinguished by the villagers. Transects can be chosen based on village resource maps. Local
soil classification as a basis for the selection of transects may be very helpful. The final
selection of the transect line depends on the objective of the walk and its' subject, e.g. health and
sanitation conditions, maize cultivation, need for and use of physical infrastructure, catchment
area. Transects may be loops or a trail leading up and down into the forest area above the
village. A transect may be identified from north to south, high to low, or any other direction as
long as it covers all major ecological and production zones and assures representation of
maximum topographical, resource and socio-economic variation of the villages. Through
discussions a logical starting point for the walk has to be identified. This may be the highest
point of the area or the boundary of a village. Several walks may be undertaken depending on
the variation in the terrain. Each walk should cover as much diversity as possible.
Selection of villagers
The number of villagers who accompany the team should exceed the number of outsiders. A
ratio of 2 to 1 is preferable. If there is a group of e.g. 5 outsiders it is preferable to split the
group and have them walk separate transects. Outsiders may include some semi-outsiders, such
as agricultural extension agents, veterinary supervisors or health workers, who have been in
regular contact with the villagers for at least half a year to one year.
To select villagers to accompany the team:
Ask key-informants about persons who know the village territory very well.
Ask key-informants for persons who know a lot about e.g. various soils in the area.
Ask for villagers who are willing to assist in the transect.
You may also ask the village to select a representative group of resource users. If the transect
concerns a specific topic, one can ask the villagers to indicate their own specialists from the
different groups concerned with this topic. One should avoid having a non-representative group
of villagers such as only rich farmers, only male farmers, only tenants. The villagers who
accompany the transect walk not necessarily have to be heads of their households.
When
Walks should be carried out at a time convenient to villagers who will accompany the team.
Walking a transect may take several hours depending on the length of the transect walk.
However care should be taken that the walking of the transect does not take a whole day as the
actual transect walking should be followed by analysis and discussions the same day.
Task division
Various responsibilities for observations, note taking and discussions have to be assigned to
group members. A forester could note down natural vegetation, effects of wildlife, wildlife
habitat, an economist could note down land ownership, land use rules and regulations, and so
on. Everybody who joins in the transect is allowed to ask questions and lead into discussions.
However one of the group should be appointed as the facilitator who may need to ask questions
to make sure that all necessary points are discussed. The facilitator should also critically observe
the way the team is introduced along the transect, the way questions are asked, notes are taken.
This facilitator should not have any other tasks. One of the villagers may be selected to fill in
several transect characteristics. If this proves difficult an outsider may take on this task. People
encountered along the route should be casually interviewed to give meaning and context to
issues identified. However you have to make sure that the people you meet are not in a hurry.
Precautions
If altitude is recorded this should be done in ranges, eg. 1350 m - 1425 m, and not as
1275 m.
In a transect, spatial data may be gathered with the objective of getting initial ideas on
the distribution of resources. Detailed information on prices, labour-input, yields etc.
are only relevant if eg. they are a problem or constraint related to the different land use
systems.
Do not make the transect longer than is necessary to cover the diversity of the area in
relation to the topic at hand.
Steps
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Make a checklist with points of observation during the transect walk.

Divide the points of observation among the team members.
Prepare sheets of paper divided into columns and rows, leaving space for a diagram at
the top. Topics to be addressed can be indicated in the first column, leaving room for
other topics to be added by the group.
Select villagers to accompany the team:
- Ask a key-informant for individuals who know the village territory very well;
- Try and select old villagers as they know more about changes which have occurred;
- Select both men and women.
Ask the villagers if they are willing to participate. Inform them about the timing,
meeting point, length of the walk.
Explain the objective of the transect to the villagers who join the team;
Select the transect walks. The transect should lead the team through as divers an area as
possible.
Start walking. Group members pay special attention to their points of observation.
Observations on other topics can be noted down as well. Discussions with the
accompanying villagers should centre around the constraints of the different land-use
categories together with tried-out solutions, their results and other possible solutions
(this should be noted down in the diagram). This needs to get a lot of emphasis. It may
be helpful to ask for problems, opportunities and solutions per area that you go through.
Make notes of all vital information you gather and draw sketches wherever necessary.
Collect specimens of any new plants, weeds, seeds, grass or crops, which you might
have not seen before. Look for elderly villagers who know about these matters. In case
you come across any indigenous practices of farmers like soil conservation, irrigation,
land use technique etc. collect information about them. Photo's can be taken of
important features.
You do not need to adhere to the original route of the transect. Deviate from the route
from time to time to observe the surrounding area and gather any relevant and useful
information. Travel slowly and patiently and try to understand the physical features in
the village from different perspectives. Proper observations are not possible if you walk
fast.
It is always easy to make more useful observations if you travel on foot paths and
across the agricultural lands rather than walking along the main road in the village.
Upon return in the village compile the information. Produce a diagram indicating
different resources, characteristics, management, constraints and solutions. Symbols
should be used as much as possible to make the diagram as understandable as possible
for all group members.
Present the findings in a format easily comprehensible for outsiders (researchers as well
as villagers). For villagers who did not join on in the transect walk other villagers who
accompanied the team should explain how it was done. Discuss the findings in a larger
group.
Give the transect maps to the villagers.
7.5.3
Venn or "chapati" diagram
This PRA technique helps outsiders to understand the importance villagers give to different
organisations inside and outside the village. It reveals the impact of these organisations, the
extent of overlap and the influence exerted in the villager as perceived by the villagers. While
using this simple technique villagers allot different size of paper discs for different
organisations. The size of the circle indicates the importance or scope of an institution. The
distance of the paper discs from the village depends upon its relative influence or closeness to
the villagers.
During the preparation of the Venn diagram the villagers often find it easier to concentrate on a
particular type of organisation at a time, such as, all credit organisations, all agricultural
organisations or all service organisations. In programmes where a particular group is involved,
for example, a womens programme, it is better to get the Venn diagram prepared by women.
Often women and mens view of the relevance and importance of institutions differ
considerably. It might therefore be useful to have diagramming done separately by women and
men.
Steps to make a Venn-diagram
Before:
Cut paper discs of different sizes and keep them ready
Carry large sheets and sketch pens etc.
Select a suitable place and set the climate for a frank discussion
Invite people from all sections of the village to participate in the discussion
Decide the entry topic before starting the discussion, e.g. credit organisation or service
organisations etc.
Initiate a discussion on the particular topic.

During:
1. Ask the villagers to make a list of all the institutions functioning in the area including
government and non-government organisations and village organisations (groups).
2. Ask the villagers to choose a large disc for an important and a smaller one for a less
important institution (as they feel) and write names of the institution on the paper circles.
3. Then ask them to draw a circle on the large paper sheet denoting their village and position
the paper discs (name of institutions written on them) around that. The paper circles may or
may not overlap. The distance of the paper circle from the centre will denote the intensity
of involvement of that particular institution in the village.
4. Allow them to change the positions of the paper discs if they want to (after second round of
discussion).
5. At the end of the participatory exercise ask the villagers to paste the discs on the paper
sheet.
Note: Distance of a chapati from the village does not mean geographical distance.
After:
Try to understand the relationship of these organisations with the villagers from the
diagram (for example, a bigger paper circle marked electricity placed at a distance from
the village would mean that the villagers are aware how useful electricity would be in their
life, but it was not available in the village).
Record the findings. Record differences of views between men women, rich and poor
people of the village.
Thank all participating villagers for sharing information.
7.5.4
Mobility mapping
This tool can be used for data collection and as a tool for analysis. This tool is mainly concerned
with the contacts between an individual or group and the outside world. Contacts and decisionmaking within a community are closely linked. Spatial mobility can be used as an indicator for a
person's contact with, and knowledge of, the outside world and her/his authority in the
community. It may also indicate freedom, wealth, empowerment, education or consciousness.
The mobility map allows you to record, compare, and analyse the mobility of different groups
of people in a community (e.g. old men, women, children, educated people).
Steps
Before:
Select a suitable location for the discussion
Decide beforehand with the group for whom the mobility map is being prepared.
Remember that the mobility pattern of different groups in a community might differ
greatly.
During:
Ask the group to write on small pieces of papers or on the floor with chalk, names of
different places they visit frequently (daily/weekly).
Ask them to place those pieces of paper at different distances from their village (name of
village is written on another piece of paper and placed centrally).
Now ask them for the various reasons for which they visit that particular place.
Ask them to connect these places with the village with the different seeds or colours or
symbols.
Ask them the frequency of the visit and the distance of the place from the village as well as
their mode of travel.
Take a detailed record of mobility pattern of different groups and compare. Relate this
information with other already available information such as seasonal variations in mobility,
mobility of poor women and livelihood, changing trend in forests and present mobility pattern
etc.
After:
Organise the presentations by the villagers for triangulation, record the information and thank
everyone for the participation.
7.5.5
Livelihood analysis
Livelihood diagrams are used to help interpret the behaviour, decisions and coping-strategies of
households with different socio-economic characteristics. For example, a female-headed
household with irregular income is likely to have different problems and needs, or spending
patters, than the household of a rich trader or a government employee, and may adopt different
strategies in the case of crisis. The tool focuses on the economic profile of households. Variables
can include:
Household size and composition
Livestock ownership
Number of labour migrants in the household
Proportion of income by source
Crops
Livestock
Trade and craft
Remittances
Expenditures
Seasonality
Relative income
Credit and debt
The situation of the different wealth groups can be understood much better. It can be a next step
after wealth-ranking/well-being grouping.
Steps
1. Define a household in that particular community
2. Choose variables to be recorded (household size, livestock etc.)
3. Decide from which different economic groups you want information and select a
representative household of each group.
4. Design a data collection table
5. Meet the members of the household and organise the discussion
6. Ask the family members about different source and proportions of their income, for
example agriculture, small business, remittance from outside, pension, livestock etc.
7. Ask them to explain the different sources and proportion of income, through diagrams in the
form of chapatis or bars on the floor on paper using seeds or colours. Ask them to draw a
pie-chart or a circle using various coloured seeds, and fill in the circle in different
proportions.
8. Initiate discussion on the diagram and obtain information from the members of the
household
9. Interview a number of households (at least 5-6 in a village) from different socio-economic
groups or based on gender and compare data.
10. Cross check information with direct observation.
11. Prepare the livelihood analysis diagrams
Precautions
Take a detailed record of the diagrams developed by the villagers or socio-economic

groups or gender groups and any other special information that emerges out of the
discussion
The final diagram could be used to discuss if there exists any deficit in the family budget or
if the income from any particular source could be further increased
7.6
Calendars
Calendars are diagrams showing the timing and/or importance of events over a period of time,
year, production season or day. The seasonal analysis enables the PRA team to understand the
villagers perceptions of seasonal variations of a wide range of topics like availability of fodder,
food supplies, work load, labour demand, credit demand, incidences of livestock diseases in a
village in a given year. The team would understand very clearly how villagers would interpret
this data in their own style. Information of the existing cropping calendar would also help to
understand the changes that would take place when interventions are introduced to improve
crop/livestock production and land use. The workload of women throughout the year can also be
known from the calendars.
A seasonal calendar attempts to establish regular cycles or patterns of activities and incidents
within a community over 12 or 18 months. One calendar usually covers one topic. However
different calendars can be used when interpreting the drawings to try and clarify linkages. The
final calendars can be important in determining labour availability, times of diseases and food
shortages or variations in cash flow.
Data are collected from various groups in the village. This depends on the objective of the
exercise. If a village has distinct agro-ecological zones, groups can be selected from these so
that differences in cycles based on agro-ecological potential are reflected in the calendars. One
can also make an effort to make the calendars with groups from different wealth groups or
according to gender so that these differences are reflected as well.
The themes of seasonal calendars will vary from village to village. Themes also vary depending
on the objective of the survey. One has to identify priority issues. One should focus on themes
that show variability within the year and that are relevant to the survey. The choice of the factors
also depends on possible follow-up activities. Commonly used topics include:
- annual rainfall, water availability, temperature;
- cash and food crops in the field, agricultural production;
- cattle milking, availability of animal fodder;
- demand for agricultural and non-agricultural labour;
- food availability;
- human, crop and animal diseases;
- collection of water, firewood;
- household work;
- cash flow.
Steps
The following steps are a guideline for making a seasonal calendar with farmers or keyinformants:
1. Make a checklist of what should be discussed in the exercise.
2. Decide on how to organise the data. There are several ways to organise the data. Large
sheets of paper may be used or sketches may be made on the ground on loose sand.
3. Select villagers or key-informants. The seasonal calendar can be made for each wealth class
separately with men and women. Ask if the selected people are willing to participate.
4. Introduce yourself and briefly explain the exercise.
5. Prepare the calendar on the ground or on a large sheet of paper. Make sure that all
participants in the exercise can see the calendar easily. Make 19 columns. The first one is to
indicate the crop or any other subject, the 18 others are for the months. The calendar starts
at the beginning of an agreed season, e.g. February. Ask the villagers to indicate important
social or religious festivities on the calendar. This serves as a control to check if villagers
and outsiders are using the same time reference. While most calendars start with the first
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
month of the year there may be compelling reasons to start with the advent of rain, planting
time, or some other significant event in the yearly cycle of the community.
Start with the cropping calendar. Ask the participants what the first crop is they sow. Fill
this out in the first column on the first line.
Ask when the first farmer sows his or her crop. Indicate this on the calendar.
Ask when the last farmer sows his or her crop. Indicate this on the calendar as well and
draw a line between the two points.
Ask the same questions about all the following cultural practices for this crop and indicate
in the same way.
Repeat this for all the crops cultivated in the village.
The same can be done for any other topic, e.g. all the major activities in animal husbandry,
food availability or off-farm labour activities.
After all the activities are indicated, ask the participants which is the month with the
heaviest workload, the next busiest month, the least busiest month, the second last busiest,...
This can be visualised by a number of stones under each month (12 for the busiest, 1 for the
least busy).
Discuss the number of stones that have been put and why. Respect the interviewing
guidelines.
Request the group to indicate the constraints felt during the different months of the year, and
discuss solutions tried, their results and possible other solutions.
Copy the calendar on paper and note down the discussion carefully.
7.7
Ranking
Ranking or scoring means placing something in order. Analytical tools such as ranking
complement semi-structured interviews by generating basic information that leads to more
direct questioning. They may be used as part of an interview or separately. Ranking is
particularly useful for sensitive information, especially for income or wealth. Informants are
generally more willing to provide relative values regarding their wealth than absolute figures
(e.g. "Rank your income sources by importance", rather than "How much do you earn?").
7.7.1
Preference or pairwise ranking
This tool is used to determine the main preferences and priorities of individuals or groups for a
set of items (such as tree species, government services, seed varieties, soil and water
conservation measures). The priorities of different groups can be compared against one another
(men and women, young and old, rich and poor). This ranking allows us to determine the main
problems or preferences of individual community members, identifying their ranking criteria,
and easily compare the priorities of different individuals. Individuals compare two activities or
problems at any given time. The total number of appearance in the table reflects the relative
preference.
Steps:
1. Choose a set of problems, or preferences to be prioritised.
2. Choose with the help of the interviewee, six or less of the most important items in this set.
3. Note each of them down on a separate card.
4. Put two cards in front of the interviewee and ask her/him to choose the biggest problem,
most preferred option, and to give reasons for this choice. The question that forces the
respondent to make the choice is important. Question might be: "Which of these two do you
prefer to grow" Mark the response in the appropriate box in the matrix.
5. The informant should then be asked why he or she made the choice. In other words: "What
is good about the winner?" You continue to probe until nothing further arises. Then you ask:
"What is bad about the loser" to find out all the negative qualities. Do not ask leading
questions. Write down all the reasons.
6. Present a different pair and repeat the comparison until all possible combinations have been
considered (all boxes of the matrix have to be filled). To keep the informant interested pick
different pairs each time. Rather than comparing item A against B, item A against C, item A
against D, compare A and B, then C and D, then E and F, then C and A, etc.
7. List the problems or preferences in the order which the interviewee has ranked them. The
frequency of occurrence of each item indicates the rank, i.e. the highest frequency is the
most preferred. List favourable and unfavourable criteria by each item.
8. Repeat the exercise for a number of individuals and tabulate their responses.
7.7.2
Matrix scoring and ranking
Matrix scoring and ranking allows a team to rank items based on criteria. Criteria common to all
individuals participating in the exercise are identified. These criteria may vary from group to
group. Matrix scoring gives an opportunity to the outsiders in understating clearly the priorities
of villagers in selecting any crop variety, vegetables, tree species, breed of livestock, selecting a
particular soil conservation method or even identifying the more suitable source of credit for
men. This exercise not only provides an opportunity to outsiders to learn, but also to the
villagers in understanding their own reasons for selecting any particular item, source etc.
Steps:
1. Choose, or ask people to choose, a class of objects that is important to them (e.g. tree
species, fruit).
2. List the 5 or 6 most important items.
3. From each item you elicit criteria by asking: "What is good about each item? What else?"
(continue until there are no more replies); "What is bad about each item? What else"
Continue until you have 10-20 criteria or until there are no more replies.
4. List all criteria. Turn all negative criteria into positive ones by using the opposite, e.g.
"vulnerable to pests" becomes "resists pests", "expensive" into "cheap".
5. Draw up a matrix with the items across the top and the criteria down the side.
6. For each criterion ask which object is the best. "Which is best, then next best?", "Which is
worst, then next worst". Of the two that are remaining ask "Which is better". If you do a
scoring then discuss with the informant(s) how many counters (stones, seeds, leaves) to
allocate as a maximum per cell or per row. They must then fill each box with the relative
value of the item. Rank or score directly into the matrix.
7. Ask: "Which criterion is the most important"
8. Force a choice: "If you could have only one of these, which would you choose?" This can
lead to new criteria.
9. Calculate total score and rank.
10. Repeat for a number of interviewees.
This methods works well with groups and individuals. Doing it with a group has some
advantages:
a wider range of experiences is used
responses tend to be faster
if one person gets tired another can take over
you will get more criteria
disagreements will be revealing issues for further investigation
Limitations of matrix scoring are that:
it does not handle weighting of the criteria
it is only useful for comparing fairly similar items that are readily interchangeable
7.7.3
Wealth ranking and well-being grouping
In every community there are differences in wealth. These differences influence people's
behaviour and coping strategies, including the adoption of technology. Wealth ranking is based
on the assumption that community members have a good sense of who among them is more or
less well off. The main idea is that villagers use their own knowledge and criteria to do the
ranking and outsiders learn to understand the way the villagers interpret the economic status of
each family living in the villager. Wealth ranking allows a PRA team to:
investigate perceptions of wealth differences and inequalities in the community
discover local indicators and criteria of wealth and well-being
establish the relative position of households in a community (social stratification)
The information about the different socio-economic groups is extremely important. Once
different groups are known it is much easier for the facilitators to get them involved in the
planning process. This is especially true for poor people who often are not so vocal or are
suppressed by gatekeepers to articulate their problem and their needs. It is only by these means
that it can be prevented. The rich people in a village may manipulate development projects in
such a manner that future benefits of the projects would go only to them and not to the real
target groups of the projects.
Precautions:
Assure that this exercise is done in confidence and does not cause bad feelings within the
community.
Wealth ranking does not work well in heavily populated areas.
Scores between villagers cannot be compared.
Method 1: Wealth ranking using the social or village map
Before:
Gather a group of villagers from different parts of the village in a quite place.
Hand-over and display the social/participatory map that has already been prepared by the
villagers. This map may be useful in the exercise.
Have the markers, paper etc. ready.

During:
1. Begin the discussion with the villagers. Ask the villagers to rank the families in the village
according to their wealth in any manner they like. Perhaps it may be easy to begin the
exercise by asking villagers to mark the richest family in the village on the village social
map.
2. Then ask the villagers to mark the second richest, third richest and the fourth and so on, on
the social map. Ask the villagers to explain why those households are categorised as rich by
them and record their criteria. Criteria could be for example types of roofs, landholding
size, ownership of resources, access to resources, etc.
3. Then in the same manner start from the poorest, which household is the poorest persons
house, then little better off and so on.
4. Ask the villagers to prepare a list of households starting with the richest household at the
top of the list and the poorest household appearing at the bottom. Once the list is completed,
start with well-being grouping.
5. Request the participants to group the households in accordance with their wealth or wellbeing.
Precautions:
When villagers rank the families according to criteria do not disturb them by intervening
with instructions/questions. Villagers criteria could be quite different from the PRA team
expectation.
Discuss the information with other villagers for cross-checking/triangulation. But take care
not to do this in public because wealth and personal/family possessions could be sensitive
issues, which may not be liked by villagers to be discussed openly, especially, with
outsiders. Thank the villagers for their help and participation.
Method 2: Wealth ranking using cards
Steps:
1. Make a list of all the households in the village. Do this together with village leaders and
check later on with the Village Extension Officer. Write all the names on a card and number
the cards;
2. Select 3 people in the village who know all the households. The exercise is carried out by
them individually and in private. Explain the exercise and its purpose.
3. Each person can decide himself or herself how many piles of cards he or she wants to make.
They have to divide their fellow villagers according to wealth. The card of the person itself
is taken out of the pile.
4. Ask the person who has divided the pile of cards on what criteria he or she has made the
selection.
5. Bring these results together and make calculations as described below.
Precautions:
stress the secrecy of the information which is obtained.
make sure the informant knows everybody in the village and is not forgetting anybody.
do not give any hints about the criteria on which to stratify the households.
do not forget a pocket calculator.
7.8
Trends
7.8.1
Time trends
Time trends show quantitative changes over time and can be used for a large number of
variables:
Yields
Area under cultivation
Livestock population
Prices
Interest rates
Migration
Population size and number of households
Birth and death rates
Malnutrition rates
Rainfall
Steps:
1. Use paper or other materials.
2. Try to obtain data for the last 10 years.
3. Plot the interaction of two or more variables on the same sheet.
4. Obtain information from secondary sources and interviews.
5. Ask villagers to draw their own time trend diagrams.
6. Where numbers are not available, show trends qualitatively.
When all the information on changes and trends have been collected and recorded get all other
villagers to comment on in so that triangulation of data could be done.
7.8.2
Historical profile
A historical profile reveals information for understanding the present situation in the
community. It provides a summary of key historical events in a community and their importance
for the present situation. They generally focus on incidents such as outbreaks of epidemics,
droughts and famine, and changes in land tenure. But events may also include:
building of infrastructure
introduction of new crops
changes in administration and organisation
major political events
Information is collected from secondary sources (books, reports, archives) and from interviews
with key-informants.
8.9
Gender analysis
7.9.1
Introduction
Gender analysis is relevant in all phases of agricultural research and development, be it

planning, experimentation, evaluation, dissemination, or adoption/impact assessment. Major
tools for analysing gender relations are:
Needs assessment
Labour division by gender and age
Assessment of types of work
Access to and control over resources needed for the various agricultural activities and the
benefits generated by that activity
Explanation of differences between women and men in labour division and access to and
control of resources and benefits
Assessment of the potential effects of a technology on women and men
In the following paragraphs we will introduce 3 different tools for doing a gender analysis:
1. Harvard Analytical Framework
2. Gender Analysis Matrix
3. Gender disaggregation of data
7.9.2
The Harvard Analytical Framework
This is one of the first gender analysis models (developed in 1985 by Overholt et al.) that
identifies and organises information about the gender division of labour in a given community
according to three levels of analysis:
1. an activity profile or role profile
2. an access and control profile
3. a influencing factor or context profile
Ad 1. The activity profile
An activity profile presents the division of labour between various groups based on age and
gender. It answers the question: Who is doing what? The labour activities are split into three
roles: productive, reproductive and community. The profile may also contain the location of
activities and the amount of time spent by individuals in accomplishing them. Difficulties are
often related to labour shortages usually at particular times of the year and often for particular
tasks. This profile enables you to identify the right target group for your activity and check
whose needs are addressed. Through this profile you will be able to foresee the consequences of
the activity for the labour division and total workload by gender. Results of an activity profile
are presented in a tabular form.
When can you make an activity profile?
You can make this profile:
as part of a survey that focuses on a sector (agriculture, livestock, forestry, income
generating activities), or a specific activity (e.g. a diagnostic survey for goats, an adoption
survey for bean varieties).
at the beginning of an on-farm trial or training before you identify trial participants or
trainees.
during an on-farm trial that you already started to identify participants for trial assessments.
How long does it take to make one activity profile?
In general you should be able to finish an interview in about 45 minutes.
How do you make an activity profile?

Select a group of farmers or individuals.
Divide the group into male and female farmers or interview individual farmers talking
separately to men and women. If relevant you can divide groups further according to age
and marital status.
The group or individual list their own activities depending on the objective and theme of the
study. You ask the following key questions:
- Who does what?
- Be specific: men, women, male child, female child, male hired labour, female hired
labour.
- When is it done?
- This can be on a seasonal or daily basis.
- How much time is spent on these activities?
- Optional: Where does the activity take place?
- What is the total workload by gender?
- Why do certain groups have specific tasks, why is the labour division the way it is?
- This will clarify if and how certain inequities or constraints can be addressed. To make
this easier you can restrict the determinants (i.e. why) to: legal, religion, culture,
education, economics or politics.
Compare the different activity profiles and discuss the differences between them with the
group or several individuals.
Summarise the data in a table.
Present the profiles in a report and discuss similarities, differences and factors explaining
these.
How many activity profiles do you need to make?
The number of profiles depends on the anticipated diversity of households. Start with an initial
number of 10 activity profiles (10 households). If after these 10 profiles you do not get new
information anymore you stop. If all profiles are different you add another 5-10 profiles until
you capture all the diversity.
Beware of the following when you make an activity profile:
Avoid going into the field with a pre-established list of activities in table format. The
interviewees should list the activities themselves and the interview should be a
conversation, not just filling the data on a form. You should check if no activities are
missing.
Try to follow a chronological order of activities.
Be precise in note taking and reporting. Certain activities may be done by both men and
women, sometimes one of them taking the lead, the other assisting. Reflect this in your
report by using different codes:
- M/F, done by both men and women, but men more important
- MF, done by both men and women
Table 7.6
Activity profile for cabbage for male headed household in Kibirigwe

irrigation scheme
Activity
1.Land preparation
2.Planting
3.First weeding
Second weeding
4.Top dressing
5.Spraying
6.Irrigation
7.Harvesting
8.Marketing
9.Nursery preparation and seed
planting
Who
F/HL
F/HL
F/HL
F/HL
F
M
M/HL
F/HL
F/HL
F/HL
When
December
Mid-January
Early February
Mid-March
Mid-March
Every week for one month
Once a week when dry
Mid-April
Mid-April
Mid-April
Legend: F=Female, HL=Hired Labour, M=Male

Source: Joldersma and Musyoki, 1999
Ad 2. The access and control profile
The profile indicates differences in access to and control over resources required to undertake an
activity, and benefits from a certain activity by various groups (Box 7.1). Access means that you
can get or use a resource or benefit, while control means that you can decide and have the
ultimate authority about the use of a resource or benefit.
Box 7.1
Resources and benefits
Resources are:
economic or productive resources such as land, seed, water, knowledge, labour, tools, skills
time which is a particularly critical and scarce resource for women
education and information
Benefits are:
basic needs such as the products harvested (e.g. food), clothes and shelter
money earned
asset ownership
Source:
CCICpolitical
et al., 1991
status,
power
If you do not address the question of who controls resources and benefits within a household,
you ignore household members relative bargaining power and presume equality in the
household. Women may have access to land, but no control over its long-term use or ownership.
This may reduce womens motivation to plant trees. Household members may have access to
food, but no control over its allocation within the household. Household members may have
access to income through food production, but no control over how it can be spent. The latter
may reduce a persons motivation to e.g. provide extra labour for a new activity.
Through an access and control profile you can identify barriers to womens and mens access to
and control over resources required for a certain research activity. You will also be able to
identify possible benefits for women and men as a result of the specific activity. Analysis of
access to and control over resources and benefits can create a framework for studying
production constraints and proposed solutions.
When can you make an access and control profile?
An access and control profile is specifically useful in diagnosis, but also useful in evaluating
adoption and impact assessment.
How long does it take to make one access and control profile?
In general you should be able to finish an interview in about 45 minutes.
How do you make an access and control profile?
Select a group of farmers or individuals.

Divide the group into male and female farmers or interview individual farmers talking separately to
men and women. If relevant you can divide groups further according to age and marital status.
The group or individual list resources and benefits. For each resource and benefit you specify access
and control by gender. Ask the following key questions:
- What resources do men and women require for their work?
- Who has access to these resources?
- Who has control over these resources?
- What benefits do women and men obtain from their work?
- Who controls these benefits?
- What explains the situation as it is?
Compare the different profiles and discuss the differences between them with the group or several
individuals.
Summarise the data in a table.
Present the profiles in a report and discuss similarities, differences and factors explaining these.
How many access and control profiles do you need to make?

The number of profiles depends on the anticipated diversity of households. Start with an initial
number of 10 activity profiles (10 households). If after these 10 profiles you do not get new
information anymore you stop. If all profiles are different you add another 5-10 profiles until
you capture all the diversity.
Beware of the following when you make an access and control profile:
Find a proper translation of the terms access and control in the required language. In Kiswahili
the following expressions might be used (Joldersma and Musyoki, 1999):
access: ruhusa ya kutumia au uwezo
control: uamuzi na umilikaji au udhibiti
Table 7.5
Access and control profile of dual cattle of a male-headed household
Resources/benefits
Resources:
Land
Drugs
Cattle
Labour
Boma structure
Farm equipment
Supplementary feed
Pasture
Time
Benefits:
Milk consumption
Cattle
Milk sales
Ploughing
Hides
Manure
Ghee
Access
Control
F/M
M/F
F/M
F/M
F/M
F/M
F/M
F/M
F/M
M
F/M
M
M
F
F
F
F
F
F/M/C
F/M
F/M
F/M
F
F
F/M/C
F
M
F
F
F
F
F
Ad 3. A context profile
The context profile focuses on policies, cultural factors and social factors, and analyses factors
that influence the prevailing division of labour and access to resources and benefits. Examples
are legal rights, macro-economic processes, education, health, community norms, social
hierarchy, migration, birth rate, scarcity of land, and social networks. The analysis can look at
both international and national conditions, as well as regional and local context
7.9.3
Gender Analysis matrix
The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM) is a tool to determine the impact of interventions,
considering factors as time, labour, resources and culture. It presents the expected effects of an
activity on the gender related position of different categories of the target group in the form of a
matrix.
The four categories of analysis (rows in the matrix) are women, men, the household and the
community. The target groups can be changed though to fit the specific activity:
Women refers to women of all ages who are in the target group, or to all women in the
community. If appropriate you can make a sub-category based on age or marital status or
position, e.g. women in male-headed households or women in female-headed households.
Men refers to men of all ages who are in the target group, or to all men in the community. If
appropriate you can make a sub-category based on age or marital status or position, e.g.
elders and youngsters.
Household refers to women, men and children residing together (nuclear or extended
household). If appropriate you can make other sub-categories based on
composition/management (female headed/male managed, male headed/male managed) or
resource endowment (resource rich, resource poor).
Community refers to everyone within the project or mandate area as a whole. The purpose
of this level is to extend the analysis beyond the household. However, communities are
complex. If a clearly defined community is not meaningful in the context of your
intervention this may be eliminated.
The four factors of analysis (columns in the matrix) are the potential changes in labour, time,
resources and socio-cultural factors:
Labour refers to changes in tasks, level of skill required (skilled versus unskilled, formal
education, training), and labour capacity (how many people and how much they can do; do
people need to be hired or can members of the household do it).
Time refers to changes in the amount of time (3 hours, 4 days) it takes to carry out the task
associated with the project or activity.
Resources refers to changes in access to capital (income, land, credit) as a consequence of
the activity, and the extent of control over changes in resources.
Cultural factors refers to changes in social aspects of the participants lives (changes in
gender roles or status) as a result of the activity.
A simplified GAM does not focus on the above factors but instead focuses on positive possible
effects, negative possible effects, and possible actions to reduce negative effects.
Format 1.
Gender Analysis Matrix.

Labour
Time
Resources
Culture
Men
Women
Household
Community
Source: Schaap, 1998
Format 2.
Simplified Gender Analysis Matrix.

Positive possible effects
Negative possible
effects
Possible actions to
reduce negative effects
Men
Women
Household
Community
Source: Schaap, 1998
When can you make a GAM?
You can make a GAM:
in planning and design of activities, e.g. a trial, to assess the potential effects of possible
solutions.
at the end of an activity to assess the effects of the tested technology. You will be able to
check if the technology has the intended benefit, if additional research is required to reduce
for example possible negative effects. You will also be able to formulate indicators for
monitoring and evaluation.
during adoption and impact studies.
How long does it take to make a GAM?
When you do this with the community it may take 1.5-2 hours.
How do you make a GAM?
Select a group of farmers.
Preferably the GAM is filled in by both men and women, if possible in separate groups,
each with about 10 participants.
For each factor discuss the impact of the intervention on each category. When you work in
separate groups each gender gives their opinion on expected changes for themselves and for
the other gender. Ask the following key questions:
- What effects will the technology have in terms of labour, will there be new tasks or will
tasks be reallocated? Are new skills needed to implement this technology? Will the
work be lighter or more heavy when applying this technology? What are the effects for
men, women, the household and the community?
- Will the new technology affect time allocation? Will it take more or less time? Will this
affect the time available for other activities? How are the effects on time for men,
women, the household and the community?
- What effect will the technology have on resources and benefits? Will you need more or
less resources? What will be the benefits of the technology? What are the effects for
men, women, the household and the community?
- Is the new technology culturally acceptable, or will it require new roles for men and
women? Will this be accepted or may there be barriers which will hinder adoption of the
technology?
Compare the different GAMs and discuss the differences between them with the groups in a
plenary session.
Present the GAMs in a report and discuss similarities, differences and factors explaining
these. Assess:
- if the effects listed are desirable and consistent with your objectives
- how the activity will affect those that do not participate
- if there are unexpected results
Beware of the following when you make a GAM:

After the boxes have been filled in with the changes caused by the technology, an appreciation
should be given of these changes. The following symbols can be used to indicate whether the
effects are conform the objectives or not (Joldersma and Musyoki, 1999):
a plus sign (+) if it is consistent with the intervention objectives
a minus sign (-) if it is contrary to the intervention objectives
a question mark (?) if the participants are unsure whether it is consistent with or contrary to
the intervention objectives
a minus/plus sign (+/-) if the effects are more or less neutral
Remember though to write the key words in the matrix cells. A matrix with only signs cannot be
used to improve the technology. Also the signs (e.g. plusses and minuses) cannot be added up,
because some effects may be more important than others. Therefore, a GAM should not be used
as a quantitative analysis tool but rather as a basis for discussion. For example, a technology
may require extra cash or extra labour, but this may be outweighed by extra yield or income.
Table 7.8
GAM for yam miniset technology (both male and female opinion)
Category
Women
Labour
Will increase due
to nursery
management (-)
Time
Some time will be
saved in getting
corms (+)
Men
No sign. change
(+/-)
Will not take a lot

of the time for other
activities
(-/+)
Household
Labour demand
for seedling
preparation will
increase (-)
Increased
workload for
nursery
management and
transplanting (-)
Better use of
labour (+)
Extra time required

but this will not be
a problem if
activities are shared
(+/-)
Community
Time saved,
especially in
planting and setting
planting materials
(+)
Resource
Increased availability of
planting material (+)
Increase income (+)
Increase in food (+)
Some money required to
buy yams, chemicals (-)
Increased cash income (+)
Increased food (+)
Better land use (+)
Increase in food (+)
Increase in cash (+)
Better land use (+)
Culture
No cultural
change (+/-)
Better land use (+)

Food and cash increase (+)
Improved food security (+)
No change (+/-)
No change (+/-)
Sharing labour
between men and
women (+/-)
Table 7.9
GAM for drainage furrows on vertisols
Categories
Women
Positive effects
Increased cash from
sale of increased yield
More food
More income
Negative effects
More work
Takes more time
More expensive
More drinking by men
Polygamy less food, male
dominance
Men
More land use

Introduction of cash
crops
More food
More income
More drinking
More wives
Higher status
More food
More income
More labour available
Less grazing land

More work
More expensive
Diversification
Improved living
standard
More labour
availability
Education level
improved
Loss of communal land
Household
Community
More demand for labour

More work
More expensive
Possible actions
Hired labour instead of
drinking
Form groups
Sell surplus food and buy
fertiliser
Government policy to reduce
tax
Destock
Introduce zero-grazing
Paddocking
Hire labour
Appropriate implements
Encourage consultations
between male and female in
income distribution
Community work

Table 7.10
GAM ox-weeder trial (Interviewees: men)
Target
group
Women
Labour
Time
Resource
Culture
+ reduced
workload
+ save time
+ more time to
undertake other
things
+ change culture
(responsibility in
relation to weeding)
Men
+ facilitated
cultivation of
other crops
- more work
+ save time
- less access to cowpea

intercrop
+ improve income
+ money gained Income
required from hiring the
weeder is used to buy food
+ timely weeding
+ increase in crop yield
+save money which was
used to hire casual labours
+ manure
Household
+ reduced
workload
Community
- more
workload for
men who
hired the oxweeder
+ more time for

women to be
with their
children
+ save time
+ reduced production costs

+ improvement in income
- more land required for
growing intercrops
+ hiring the weeder
+ support the technology
dissemination in the village
(men)
+ more important in
society
+ or change of
culture, men are
assuming more
responsibility for
weeding
+ children more
time to undertake
other activities at
home
+ more important in
society (men)
Source: Gender training LZARI, 1999
7.9.4
Gender sensitive reporting
If agricultural research and development is conducted in a gender-sensitive way it should be

reflected in the reporting style. Boxes 7.2 and 7.3 provide some guidelines. The below
mentioned guidelines can also be used when you were not aware of gender issues while
planning and implementing your research. For example, if you did not purposively sample men
and women when you started your research, you can cross-check your data and report how
many men and women were part of your sample or how many participated in your trial: you can
disaggregate your data according to sex (see Table 7.11 and 7.12).
Disaggregation of data by sex refers to quantitative data collection, analysis, and presentation
based on male/female responses or criteria. It does not show a social relationship between men
and women but differences based on sex (e.g. labour allocation based on sex, income earned by
sex).
Table 7.11
Labour activities of men and women in bean production
Activity
Land preparation
Planting
Weeding
Harvest and post-harvest
Seed preparation
Marketing
Total
Table 7.12
Men
0
0.5
0
4.5
0
0
5.0
Labour days / ha
Women
13.0
12.5
25.0
13.5
3.0
1.0
68.0
Educational background of respondents in Shinyanga Region
Level
No education
Adult education
Primary education
Secondary education
Teacher Training
college
Bible school
% of respondents
Male
Source: Otsyina and Rosenberg, 1999.
Female
Total sample
34
16
46
1
2
46
13
40
0
1
40
14.5
43
0.5
1.5
0.5
Box 7.11
Guidelines for gender-sensitive reporting
Guideline
Do not use the terms: farmers, labourers, heads of
household, consumers, producers, poor. Be clear who you
talk about. Try to use specific categories in terms of
resource endowments, gender, age, role.
Example
Describe the type of sampling (at random, purposive) and

sampling characteristics.
Twenty female headed households included in

the sample.
Indicate what tools and methods were used, and how you
used them.
Women and men were interviewed separately

Farmer assessments with women, and older
men.
Resource poor farmers

Male labourers
Female head of household
Elderly women
Do not use census data if you can avoid it. In general

census data omit unpaid family labour, labour of children
under 15 and all labour by the women called housewives.
Provide background information on who does what for the
specific topic at hand, e.g. labour division.
What resources and benefits are related to the topic at
hand? Who has access to and control over these.
Source: Joldersma and Musyoki (1999); N. Kabeer (n.d.)
Male head of the household plants maize.

Female children collect water.
Male children herd cattle.
Women have access to annual cropping land but
do not control the land.
Women sell goats and use the money to buy
things such as food, school uniforms.
Present sex disaggregated data

Make gender sensitive conclusions and recommendations
where appropriate
Box 7.3
Use gender sensitive or neutral language
Table 7.13
A checklist of components and suggested PRA methods
Sexist term
Recommended synonym
Business
man
Agent, traderDetailed checklist
Information
Chairman
Chairperson
Enterprises information
Crops, livestock, other
Man, mankind
People, human beings
Man-made
Handmade products (tree, medicinal,
Man day
Person day crafts, etc.) including natural
products; production trends,
Mother tongue
First language
Family structure
Seasonal trends and issues
Livelihood objectives and

sources
Input sources
Labour
Decision making/access/
implementation/benefits
shifts and reasons; and use of

outputs under different
conditions (related to
weather, risks, market)
Local definition of house
hold; head of household
(HH); number and age; under
stand variation; tends in size
and house hold head types
Food, feed and cash
shortages and times of
abundance in relation to
demand; strategies to deal
with issues and constraints
Farmers priorities,
production objectives and
view points; contribution of
agriculture to livelihood;
willingness to improve and
invest and on what; what
does the farmer value most;
percentage of total income
coming from agricultural
products and from other
sources out side agriculture;
level of diversification.
Farm input from what
external and internal sources;
information source services,
trends; strategies to deal with
situation; problems
Sources; seasonal needs,
peak periods; strategies for
handling; calendars
Division between
male/female, age or other
factors.
Suggested PRA tools

Transect walk; historical
trends diagram, focused
discussion; observation
Focused discussion with

wealth groups, gender
analysis
wealth groups, gender
analysis, annual cash, feed
and food fluctuations using
seasonal calendar
Construct livelihood pie
indicating relative sources of
income and expenditure
(actual and potential)

wealth groups; gender
analysis
Activity calendars and/ or
gender analysis, discussion
with focus groups
Gender analysis; focused
discussion at various scales
(HH, community,
catchment); Venn diagrams
Land
Production methods
strategies and problems
Socio-economic concerns
Problem cause-effect
Source: Stroud, 1997
Size of holding; number and

size estimates of parcels,
distance (even if in out side
benchmark location); type of
situation(topography, soil
type, water, etc.) and how
used; ownership and
inheritance arrangements;
dynamics of rentals and
sales; common land
management over time
Pest and disease problems,
severity and ranking of
importance; weed issues; soil
management practices; crop
and livestock husbandry
practices; tree presence, use
and preference; water issues
for humans and livestock;
germplasm (animal and
plant) available and criteria
for selection; transport
situation; risks and avoidance
strategies; grazing; use of
off-farm resources (eg. Bush,
woodlots, forests, etc.)
Market, prices and
infrastructure aspects;
relationships with
middlemen; sources and
systems of credit; policy
issues (refer to last survey
component ); agricultural
product outlets
Major issues, problems, or
conflict of any type, severity
of problems who is
affected, how much area;
priority ranking; relationship
of NRM issues to others;
NRM problem analysis
using cause effect diagrams;
ideas for solutions or
strategies
Farm maps at various scales;

HH community, catchment;
focused discussions based on
maps and issues.
Observation; discussion with

selected household members;
consider wealth categories
when sampling; maps may be
useful to orient problem to
place and place
characteristics
Discussion based on issues;

observations
Cause effect diagrams with

accompanying focused
discussions at various scales
in addition to wealth
category point of view
References
Chambers, Robert (1980). Rapid Appraisal: Rational and Repertoire IDS Discussion Paper No.
155, Sussex.
Chambers, Robert (1993). Participatory Rural Appraisal. In: Norman Hudson and Rodney
Cheatle (eds.) (1993). Working with farmers for better land Husbandry.
Conway,Gordon R. (1986). Agro-ecosystem Analysis for Research and Development. Bangkok,
Winrock International.
Grobben, Patricia and Chira Schouten (1996). Training Exercises for Farming
Research. Methodological document no. 2. RNRRC Khangma, Bhutan.
Systems
Joldersma, Rita and Samuel Musyoki (1999). Gender Analysis Tools: user guide for application
in agricultural research and extension. Draft. 27 pp.
Pretty, Jules N., Irene Guijt, John Thompson and Ian Scoones (1995). A Trainer's Guide for
Participatory Learning and Action. IIED Participatory Methodology Series, IIED, London.
Kamal, K., Sabine P and Banita Sood (1995). Participatory Rural Appraisal for Village
Integrated Resource Management Planning. Guidelines for application of PRA-Techniques in
Village Integrated Resource Management Planning (VIRMP) in German Changar EcoDevelopment Project.
Khan Keen University (1987). Rapid Rural Appraisal: Proceeding of the 1985 International
Conference: Thailand, 1987.
Luder Cammann (1991). Rapid Appraisal for Farming Systems Development, Module No. 4 in
the International Training Course in Farming Systems Development. Fieldafing, FRG held in
October 4-29, 1991.
Lyimo, S.D., Y.A. Msangula, A. Mushi, M. Mbegera, E. Muna, H. Mcharo and U. Doring
(1994). Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) report for the Chagga Homegardens and the
Lowlands in Moshi District Kilimanjaro Region Tanzania.
Lyimo, S.D. and R.V. Ndondi (1988). A Participatory Rural Appraisal in Kwalei Catchment,
Lushoto District Tanzania.
Lynn M. Webber and R.L. Ison. (1995). Participatory Rural Appraisal Design; Conceptual and
process Issues, Agricultural Systems 47 (1995) Pages 107 131.
Matata, J.B, P. Anandajayasekaram, T.N. Kiriro, E.O. Wandera and J. Dixon (1999). Farming
Systems Approach to Technology Development and Transfer: A source book.
McCracken, J.A, J.N. Pretty, G.R. Conway (1988). An Introduction to Rapid Rural Appraisal
for Agricultural Development. IIED.
Meena, et al. (2001).
Mettrick, Hall (1993). Development oriented research in agriculture: an ICRA textbook. The
International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture. Wageningen, The
Netherlands.
Moser, Caroline O.N., Annika Tornqvist and Bernice van Bronkhorst (1998). Mainstreaming
Gender and Development in the World Bank: progress and recommendations. Environmentally
and socially sustainable development series. The World Bank, Washington, U.S.A. 38 pp.
Otsyina, Joyce A. and Diana Rosenberg (1999). Rural Development and Women: What are the
best approaches to communicating information? In: Gender and Development Vol.7, No.2, July
1999: 45-55.
Overholt, Catherine, Mary B. Anderson, Kathleen Cloud and James E. Austin (1985). A Case
Book: Gender roles in development projects. Kumarian Press.
Schaap, Mirjam (1998). Reference Guide for Gender Responsiveness in Project-Cycle
Management, with specific reference to FAO Trust Fund Projects. Working Paper 1/98, FAO
Representation Nepal.
Schubert B., A. Abbernaa, Stephen Kachelness, Joseph K., Martin K., Elizabeth M., Hanna, S.
(1994). Facilitating the introduction of a Participatory and Integrated Development Approach
(PIDA) in Kilifi District, Kenya, Volume II. From Concept to Action: A manual for Trainers and
Users of PIDA.
Stroud, Anne (1997).
Theis, J. and Grady, H.M. (1991). Participatory Rapid Appraisal for Community Development:
a training manual based on experiences in the Middle East and North Africa. IIED and Save the
Children Foundation, London.
Wella, E.B., and K. Kingma (1997). Training manual on Participatory Rapid Appraisal for
District staff, commodity researchers and farming system researchers. Working Paper No. 23
Farming Systems Research Programme. Lake Zone Agricultural Research and Training
Institute, Ukiriguru.
Further reading
Ashby, J.A. (undated). Evaluating Technology with Farmers: a Handbook. IPRA Projects, CIAT.
Chambers, Robert, Arnold Pacey and Lori Ann Thrupp (eds.) (1989). Farmer First: Farmer
innovation and agricultural research. Intermediate Technology Publications, London. 218 pp.
Grandin, Barbara (1988). Wealth Ranking in Smallholder Communities: A Field Manual.
Intermediate Technology Publications, London.
IIED (1994). Special Issue on Livestock. RRA Notes no.20, April 1994.
Pretty, Jules N., Irene Guijt, John Thompson and Ian Scoones (1995). A Trainer's Guide for
Participatory Learning and Action. IIED Participatory Methodology Series, IIED, London.
267 pp.
Theis, J. and Grady, H.M. (1991). Participatory Rapid Appraisal for Community Development:
a training manual based on experiences in the Middle Eats and North Africa. IIED and Save the
Children Foundation, London.
Wilde, Vicki L. (1998). Socio-economic and Gender Analysis: Field Handbook. FAO, Rome.
Annex 1
A sample checklist for a general PRA
General Topic to begin

dialogue
Land
Location
Quality
Tenure
Off-farm
Labour
Household structure
Labour available
Capital
Demands on labour
Income
Credit
Household
consumption needs
Cash
Food
Infrastructure
Water
Fuel
Shelter & construction
Transport
Communication
Human health
Legal services
Co-operatives and
organisations
Credit
Agricultural services
Inputs
Marketing
Processing and storage
year began farming at site

farming enterprises such as crops, trees,
livestock
Changes in selection of enterprises over
time
geographical location of the village, size of
village, number of households, area under
cultivation
slope, topography, soil fertility levels,
access to water
how acquired, rights to use or transfer,
access, control and responsibilities of men and
women, availability for expansion, tree tenure
access to forest, water, lands grazing and
other collection areas
family size, number of family and other
workers,
hired labour
farming, domestic, gathering, off-farm,
unpaid and paid activities, activities of women
and men
peak and slack periods
major sources of farm and off-farm
income, who benefits
availability of credit, from who, purpose,
requirements, who benefits
primary use for cash, timing of needs,
usage and needs of women and men
principal food consumed, when are
shortages, what is gathered, bought and sold
sources of drinking and non-drinking water
sources of fuel
sources of building material and use
distance to all-weather roads, tarmac road
availability of phones, post
availability of doctor, nurse, clinic,
medicine
how are conflicts resolved, access to
services
types and services provided
types of lenders, terms, accessibility
extension services for various agricultural
enterprises, access
availability, costs, quality
commodities, size of markets, how are
payments made and who benefits
storage facilities, processing
Annex 2
Example of wealth ranking
In this example 3 persons have been asked to classify 10 households in the village according to
their criteria of wealth.
Key informant 1 (could distinguish 3 categories according to cattle ownership):
Pile
Number of the cards
Weight
(households)
1 (the richest)
4,8,9
1/3 = 0.33
2/3 = 0.66
3 (the poorest)
1,5,6,7,10
3/3 = 1
Key informant 2 (could distinguish 4 categories according to land ownership):

Pile
Number of the cards
Weight
(households)
1 (the richest)
5,8,9,
1/4 = 0.25
2/4 = 0.50
1,4
3/4 = 0.75
4 (the poorest)
3,6,7
4/4 = 1
Key informant 3 (could distinguish 5 categories according to cattle ownership):

Pile
Number of the cards
Weight
(households)
1 (the richest)
2,8
1/5 = 0.2
4,9,10
2/5 = 0.4
3/5 = 0.6
1,5
4/5 = 0.8
5 (the poorest)
5/5 = 1
Attribution of average weight to each of the cards:

Number of
the card
Weight
according to key
informant 1 (3)
Weight
according to key
informant 2 (4)
Weight
according to key
informant 3 (5)
Weighted
average
weight (/12)
0.75
0.8
0.83
0.50
0.2
0.33
0.66
0.6
0.75
0.33
0.75
0.4
0.50
0.25
0.8
0.67
0.33
0.25
0.2
0.25
0.33
0.25
0.4
0.33
10
0.4
0.42
Anomalies: rich according to one person and poor according to another

Classification of households according to weighted average weight
Weighted average weight-class
Number of cards
- 0.25 (the richest)
0.26
- 0.50
2,4,9,10
0.51
- 0.75
3,5
0.76
- 1 (the poorest)
1,6,7
Annex 3
Gender related output, tools and inclusion aspects for different phases of a research activity
Research phases
1. Diagnosis
Expected output
Problems, needs and opportunities
specified by target groups and gender
(who is affected by what and how, within
and between households; time and
resources available for other promising
activities)
2. Planning
Targeting of possible interventions

Search of solutions / criteria for solutions
Ex-ante evaluation of effects of possible

solutions for target groups by resource
endowment, gender, etc. (who is likely to
benefit and how?)
Choice of options for experimentation
Possible tools and methods

Literature review
Analysis of secondary data
Interviews with key informants
Social mapping
Resource mapping
Daily calendar
Seasonal calendar
Activity profile (e.g. per enterprise who
is doing what and when)
Access/control profile of resources and
benefits
Timelines
Trend lines
Problems and opportunities inventory
Problem ranking
Constraints or context profile
Interest analysis
Survey
Classification of households (e.g wealth
ranking type of exercise using other
criteria)
Literature review
Semi-structured interviewing for ITK
Preference ranking of solutions
Objective tree
Ex-ante evaluation (gender analysis
matrix)
Modelling
Logframe
Whom to involve and how to do it

Consider various types of households
(resource endowments, male headed, female
headed)
Male and female key informants
Individual and group interviews with men
and women, making an effort to reduce sociocultural and structural barriers for their
participation (time, location, language, local
customs, male/female interviewer)
Gender sensitive team of researchers and/or
extension staff
Gender desegregated presentation of data
As above under diagnosis
Identify criteria for choice of appropriate

solutions by type of household, gender and
age
Gender analysis matrix to be made with both

men and women

Research phases
3 Experimentation
4 End of research activity

evaluation and re-planning
5 Recommendation and
dissemination

Expected output
Trial design in accordance with resources
of target group (e.g. size of trial plot)
Results (qualitative and quantitative)

specified for different types of
households and men and women within
households
Linking results of experimentation to
initial problem definition men/women
Verification resources required for
technology with access and control
profile
Definition of further action (re-initiating
research cycle, continued
experimentation, dissemination)
Formulation of targeted extension
messages (types of household and
gender)
Gender sensitive recommendations to
other stakeholders (policy makers,
stockists, etc.)

Farmer selection considering
access/control profile of resources (e.g.
access to inputs) and benefits, and
activity profile
Daily and seasonal calendar
Participatory monitoring (opinions by
gender and age)
Preference ranking

As above under diagnosis
Specify selection criteria for farmers
participating in experiments (type of
households, male/female farmers)
Specify role/contribution of men and women
in experimentation activities
Presentation of desegregated data (number of
male/female farmers participating in
experimentation, opinions by gender and age)
Problem and objective tree
Ex-post access and control profile

Ex-post gender analysis matrix
Media use profile of various categories

of farmers/stakeholders
Media selection for various categories

of farmers/stakeholders
Formulation of extension programme

(objectives, messages, target groups,
channels of information, methods,
organisation)
Preparation of extension material
Implementation and monitoring of

extension programme
Discussion of extension proposal
Use of gender sensitive images and

illustrations in extension material (leaflets,
posters, video)
Gender sensitive data collection and
reporting (e.g. number of men and women
participating in extension activities)
Participatory and gender sensitive

monitoring/evaluation methods and tools
(PRA tools, forms, graphs)
Check validity of problem and objective tree

with those made during the planning phase
Make access and control profile and gender
analysis matrix, involving both men and
women
Compare ex-post and ex-ante access/control
profile and gender analysis matrix (type of
changes, desirability of changes)
Formulate gender sensitive extension
messages (using data activity profile and
access/control profile)
Specify sources of information for men and
women, including access to written sources, to
select most promising communication
channels (e.g. using Rapid Appraisal of
Agricultural Knowledge Systems)
Farmer representatives in these meetings
(men and women)

Research phases
6 Adoption and impact studies
Source:

Expected output
Adoption rates, effects and impact of
messages according to type of household
and gender
Reasons/factors explaining adoption and
non-adoption, specified by type of
household and gender
Influence of skills, knowledge and
attitude of male and female extension
staff on adoption rates

Logframe analysis
Analysis of monitoring/evaluation data
Gender analysis matrix
Semi-structured interviewing
households (resource endowment and
gender)
Force-field analysis
Survey of households (type, gender)
Semi-structured interviewing extension
staff, other stakeholders/actors
Survey extension staff, other actors

Use logframes of planning and replanning
phases as a basis for formulating relevant
research questions for adoption and impact
studies
Verify data of various gender analysis
matrices, made with both men and women
Consider various types of households and
both men and women for adoption and impact
studies
Before starting a formal survey, identify
major variables and their interaction through
qualitative assessment to focus survey and
hypotheses.
Annex 4:
Roles
Male
Female
Shared
Sample of an Activity Profile

Activities on which project focused
Intention
Reproductive
Productive Community
Actual
Reproductive
Productive
Community
Annex 5:
Sample of an Access and Control Profile

Access
Women
Resources:
Land
Equipment
Labour
Cash
Education/training
Other
Benefits:
Income
Asset ownership
Basic needs
Education
Power/prestige
Other
Men
Control
Women
Men
Annex 6:
Sample of a Gender Analysis Matrix
Labour
Men
Women
Household
Community
Time
Resources
Benefits
Culture

Participatory Research Tools

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

Participatory Research Tools

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

National FSA Training

Module7: Participatory research tools