COURSE ONE

TWO POLE CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Circuit elements are systems characterized by input and output magnitudes and by the
relationship between them. We denote the instantaneous input or excitation magnitude by x(t)
and the instantaneous output or response magnitude by y(t). The relationship is generally nonlinear.

t1

t (0)

M0
y0

x(t )

t2

y (t )
x0

Curves y(x) represented in plane (y,x) for the different values of t are called operational
characteristics. A point M 0 ( x0 y 0 ) on the curve at the moment t 0 is called operational point.
The value of the derivative in a point at moment t 0 is called dynamical parametre Pd .

Pd =

dy
/ t =t
dx 0

The circuit elements are classified according to the fact that the characteristic is linear or
non-linear, variable or invariable with the time:

y = Cx

Linear elements invariable with the time

Linear elements variable with the time or parametric

Non-linear elements invariable with the time y = y (x)

Non-linear elements variable with the time y = y ( x, t ) or y = y[x(t ), t ]

y = C (t ) x(t )

Irrespective of the nature of magnitude pair (x,y) the hub voltage u (t ) and the current intensity

i (t ) are uniquely determined at the hubs of the circuit elements and their product is denoted:
p = u i
called instantaneous power; the power integral in ratio with the time during the interval t 2 t1
is the energy W12 .
1

t2

W12 = pdt
t1

If at least in one point of the operation characteristic, the instantaneous power is negative
p<0, the circuit element yields power in the hubs and it is called active element, source or
generator.

If in any point of the operating characteristic, the power is positive p>0 the element
receives power from the hubs and it is called a passive element, receiver or load. Their
operational characteristics are only placed within scales 1and 3.
Passive elements able to amass energy in an electric or magnetic field are called reactive
(the coil, the condenser). The resistor irreversibly transforms the energy into heat.

THE RESISTOR

The characeristic equation of the resistor is:

u = u[i (t ), t ] or i = i[u (t ), t ]

The charcteristic curve in plane [u, i ] at moment t is called characteristic voltagecurrent, in plane i-u characteristic current-power, respectively.

The linear resistor variable with the time

i (t)

u (t)

The characteristic equation is:

u (t ) = Ri (t ) or i (t ) = Gu (t ) R =

1
G

(1)

namely Ohms Law, where R>0 ( ) and G>0 (siemens conductance)

in plane (u,i) the characteristic curve is a straight line which passes through the origin, the
voltage and the current having the same variation with the time.

u
u
i

If we multiply both terms of the equations (1) by i(t) and by u(t) respectively, we get the
instantaneous power p

p = ui = Ri 2 = Gu 2

(2).

Irrespective of the reference sense of the voltage or current , power p is positive and
corresponds to the electro-calorific effect of irreversible transforming of electric energy into heat
- If R = 0 G = and u (t ) = 0 , the equation (1) becomes:
u=0

- SHORT CIRCUIT

if R = (G ) = 0 equation (1) becomes i = 0

and the element is called open or broken circuit.

Linear resistor variable with the time (parametric)

has the characteristic equation u (t ) = R(t ) i (t )

R(t ) = parametric resistance with the symbol

i (t)

u (t)

R(t)
3

An example of parametric resistor is the potentiometer whose mobile contact alternately

swings in the two senses with frequency f . Denoting R0 = the resistance at t = 0 and Rmax the
peak amplitude of the part variable with the time. The parametric resistance has the expression:

R (t ) = R0 + Rmax sin 2ft

Ro Rmax
Ro + Rmax

R0 + Rmax sin 2ft

Ro Rmax

The voltage variation with the time differs from that of the current .
If the resistor is passed by a sinusoidal current, i (t ) = I

max

sin (2f1t + ) , the hub voltage

u (t ) has the expression:

u (t ) = R0 I max sin (2f 1t + ) +

Rmax I max
R I
cos[2 ( f f 1 )t ] max max cos[2 ( f + f1 )t + ]
2
2

The expression has two frequency terms f f1 and f + f1 and a frequency term f1 .
A switch is modelled as a circuit element by a parametric resistor which modifies the
resistance from a very low value when the ciruit is closed, to a very high value when it is open.
An ideal switch is represented at the closing of the circuit by the short circuit element and at the
opening of the circuit by the open circuit element.
The real switch can be modelled by an ideal switch with two linear resistors invariable
with the time, the first having very high R1 and the second very low resistance R2 , as shown in
the figure below.
4

The coil

When not magnetically coupled, the coil is a passive cirucit element with the following
characteristic equation:
= [i (t ), t ]

(t)
The graphic symbol is:
u (t)

The characteristic curve in plane (, i ) is called characteristic flux-current. The link

equation between the flux and the hub voltage or the voltage inductive drop is the evolution
equation:
u=

d
(3)
dt

By integrating in the interval 0 t , we get:

t

(t ) = (0) + u (t ) dt
o

(0) = u (t )dt

Since the magnetic flux is conditioned by the previous values of voltage, the coil is a
memory element.

The absolute continuity of the magnetic flux

t

By writing (t ) = u (t )dt ( 3 ) where u (t ) is an integrable function, the magnetic flux

defined by the equation (3) in interval (-, ) is an absolute continuous function of time.
Irrespective of the means of switching the coil, in the electric circuit, the magnetic flux
does not vary discontinuously (the magnetic flux in the coil is preserved).

The linear coil, invariable with the time and not magnetically coupled

(t ) = L i (t )
has the equation: i (t ) = (t )
L = 1
L = independent inductance from , i, t ( H )

>0 mutual inductance

In plane (, i ) the characteristic curve is a straight line through the origin and,
consequently, the magnetic flux and the current have the same form of time variation. Taking
into account (4), equation (3) becomes:
u (t ) = L

di
dt

(5)

Integrating on interval 0-t we get:

t

i (t ) = i (0) +

1
u (t )dt = i (0) + u (t )dt
L 0
0
0
t

unde i (0) =

1
u (t )dt
L 0

( 6)

The current strength i (t ) at the moment (t ) is conditioned by the current strength at the
initial moment (0) and previous values of voltage u (t ) 0 < t < t .
The linear coil invariable with the time and not magnetically coupled is completely
characterised by its own inductance L and current strength at the initial moment i (0) .

By multiplying the equation (5) by idt and integrating we get energy Wm amassed in the
magnetic field of the coil.
t

Wm = u (t )i (t )dt = L i di =

1 2 1
1 2
L i = i =
2
2
2 L

where we assumed that i (0) = 0 .

Irrespective of the current sense in respect with that of voltage, the magnetic energy is
positive and thus, the coil is a passive element.

The theorem of the current uniform continuity in the coil

Writing equation (6) at moment t + dt and substracting term by term from the equation,
equation (5), it results that:
i (t + dt ) i (t ) =

1
L

t + dt

u (t )dt
t

If in the time interval [0 T ] voltage is bordered u (t ) < U , integral in the second term
approaches zero, for dt 0 . Thus, the first term of the equation is cancelled.
Therefore: If the hub voltage is continuously bordered in interval [0, T ] , the electric
current is continuously uniform in interval (0,T). The electric current in a coil cannot suddenly
jump from a finite value to another finite value and thus it is not possible to insert a step current.
The applied voltage is bordered.

The linear coil, variable with the time and not magnetically coupled

The characteristic equation is:

(t ) = L(t ) i (t )

(7)

where L(t ) is the parametric inductance.

The hub voltage is computed by the following relation:
u (t ) =

dL(t )
d (t )
di (t )
= L(t )
+ i (t )
dt
dt
dt
7

where L(t )

di (t )
= the inductive voltage drop by pulsating (due to the current variation with the
dt

time);
i (t )

dL(t )
= parametric inductive voltage drop (due to inductance variation with the time).
dt
THE CONDENSER

Is a passive circuit element, with the characteristic equation:

q = q[u (t ), t ] sau u = u[q (t ), t ]

The characteristic curve in plane (q, u ) at a moment t is called characteristic chargevoltage.

u (t)

u
The link equation between the electric charge and the current strength is:
i=

dq
(8)
dt

Integrating equation (8) in interval 0 t , we get:

t

q(t ) = q(0) + i (t )dt

0

(9)

q(0) = i (t )dt

The electric charge q (t ) at moment (t ) is conditioned by the initial charge and the
previous values of strength i (t ) , 0 < t < t ; Hence, the condenser is a memory element.

The absolute continuity of the electric charge

Equation (9) can be written:

t

q(t ) = i (t )dt (10)

where i (t ) is an integral function, the electric charge defined on interval ( , ) is an absolute

function continuous in time. Irrespective of the condensers linking and switching means the
electric charge does not vary discontinuously.

The linear condenser invariable with the time

The characteristic equation:

q (t ) = Cu (t ) or u (t ) = Sq(t )

where C>0 [F ] does not depend on q, u , t

S = mutual capacity [DF ]
In plane [q, u ] the characteristic curve is a straight line passing through the origin and
thus the electric charge and voltage have the same variation form with the time.
Since i =

dq
du
and q(t ) = Cu (t ) i (t ) = C
dt
dt

Integrating, it results that:

t

1
u (t ) = u (0) + i (t )dt = u (0) + S i (t )dt
C0
0
u (0) =

1
i (t )dt
C

Hence, voltage u (t ) at moment t is conditioned by the initial voltage u (0) and previous
values of the current 0 < t < t .
The linear condenser invariable with the time is completely determined by capacity C
and initial voltage u (0) . Multiplying the equation:
i (t ) = C

du
dt

by u (t )dt and integrating we get the energy amassed in the electric field of the condenser We .

1
1 2 1
We = u (t )i (t )dt = C u du = CU 2 =
q = qU
2
2C
2
0
0

where we considered u (0) = 0 .

Irrespective of reference senses, the condensers energy is positive, which makes the
condenser a passive element.

The theory of the voltage uniform continuity at the condensers hubs

In a similar manner with the magnetic flux, the electric voltage at the condensers hubs
continuously vary in the open interval (0,T) if the current strength is bordered in the closed
interval [0, T ] .
THEREFORE: Voltage at the condensers hub cannot pass from a finite value to another
finite value if the current strength is bordered.

The linear condenser variable with the time (parametric)

The characteristic equation:

q(t ) = C (t ) u (t )
where C (t ) = parametric capacity.
Graphically, the parametric condenser is represented below:
i (t)
u (t)

C(t)

The current strength is derived form the relation:

i (t ) =

dq
dt

unde q(t ) = C (t ) u (t )

si
i (t ) = C (t )
The first term C (t )

dC (t )
du
+ u (t )
dt
dt

du
represents the pulsating component
dt

10

u (t )

dC (t )
represents the parametric component.
dt

THE INDEPENDENT GENERATOR

This is an active circuit element, whose hubs voltage does not depend on the current
strength, its characteristic equation being: u = e(t ) .
In plane (u,i) the operating characteristic is a straight line parallel to axis (0,i).

Since a voltage value uniquely corresponds to a current strength, the generator can be
considered a nonlinear active resistor with current control .
As a circuit element, the independent generator is characterised by the manner in which
the electromotive voltage e(t ) varies with the time.
The generator is of direct voltage if the electromotive voltage e(t ) = E is constant.
In the direct current the dependence of hub voltage U b to the current strength I is due to
the internal resistance of generator R g .
The real generator of direct voltage is characterised by the electromotive voltage E and
internal resistance R g and Joubert equation has the form:
E U b = Rg I g
The operation characteristic is a straight line which does not pass through the origin .

11

THE INDEPENDENT CURRENT GENERATOR

This is the active element which has the current strength independent of voltage and its
characteristic equation is :
i = i g (t )
In plane (u,i) the operation characteristic is a straight line parallel to the axis 0-u.

The current generator is completely characterised by the manner in which the injected
current i g (t ) varies with the time. If the current strength is constant with the time, i g (t ) = I g the
source is of direct current. The current strength of real injectors depend on voltage. In direct
current this is due to the internal conductance G.

12

The real injector is characterised by the current injection I g and conductance G g .

On considering the equation:
E U b = Rg I g
and dividing both terms by R g =

1
, we get:
Gg

I g I = G g U b , where l g = G g U g is the short circuit current of the generator

The equations of voltage drop in the generator and current decrease in the current
generator are dual and the correspondence of dual magnitude is the following:
E g I g ; U 0 I ; Rg G g ;
As circuit elements sources admit dual models of the voltage generator and current
generator.

WAYS OF VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VARIATION WITH THE TIME

CONTINUOUS as defined by the equation: Y (t ) = C

SINUSOIDAL Y (t ) = max sin (t + ) < t <

STEP UNIT
(Heaviside)

0
ht =
t

< t < C = const.

t < 0
t 0

If the step unit is delayed by t 0 , it is denoted by h(t t 0 )

0 t < t 0
h(t t 0 ) =
1 t t 0

A bordered function f (t ) defined on interval < t < , multiplied h(t ) is cancelled

for t < 0 and remains unchanged for the rest.

13

h
h(t-t0)

h(t)
1
t

t
t0

f(t-t0)

f(t)

f(t-t0).h(t-t0)

f(t).h(t)

The function delayed by t 0 can be written as:

0 t < t 0
f (t t 0 ) h(t t 0 ) =
f (t t 0 ) t t 0

0 t < 0
SLOPE UNIT - r(t ) =
t t 0

(t)
(t-t0)

t
1
t0

The slope unit function is equal to the non-definite integral of the unit function.
14

r (t ) h(t )dt = th(t )

0

The delayed slope unit function can be written as:

r (t t 0 ) = (t t 0 ) h(t t 0 )
RECTANGULAR UNIT IMPULSE (of unit area)
0 < t < 0

1
0 t < t1
p (t , t 0 ) =
t
1

0 t1 t <

1
t1

1
t1

t
t1

t0

t1

With the help of unit function, the function p (t , t1 ) is written:

p(t , t1 ) =

1
[h(t ) h(t t1 )]
t1

tg > t > 0

t > t1

h(t ) = 1
h(t t1 ) = 0

h(t ) = 1

h(t t1 ) = 1

Impulse function (Dirac function):

We insert formally (t ) =

dht
= h (1) (t ) and consider as limit of the impulse p (t ,t1 ) for
dt

t1 0 .

(t ) = lim p(t , t1 )
t1 0

f(t)

15

(t)

f(t)

(t-t0)

(t-t0)
t

Since (t ) = lim p (t , t1 )
t1 0

integrating,

(t )t = lim p(t , t )dt = 1

t1 0

Multiplying both terms of the equation

(t ) =

dh(t )
= h (1) (t ) with a function f (t ) continuous in its origin, bordered and integrable
dt

and integrating between si we get:

0+

f (t ) (t )dt = f (t ) (t )dt = f (0) (t )dt = f (0)

This property is called filtering.

EQUIVALENT THEOREMS OF REACTIVE ELEMENTS

THEOREM 1 The linear coil invariable with the time of inductance L and initial current
i L (0) is equivalent either with current generator i g (t ) = i L (0) h(t ) connected in parallel with

coil L, with the initial current nil, or with electromotive generator e(t ) = Li L (0) (t )
connected in series with coil L having the initial current nil.

16

Using the equation determined for the linear coil invariable with the time
i (t ) = i (0 ) +

1
u (t )dt
L 0

1
i (0 ) = u (t )dt

According to Kirchhoffs first law by using function h(t )

t

i (t ) = i L (0) h(t ) +

1
u (t )dt
L 0

to the first term in the second member corresponds the current generator
i g (t ) = i L (0) h(t ) , and to the second term the inductance coil L and initial nil current.
If both terms of previous relations are multiplied by L and are derived in respect with the
time we get:
L

di
= L i L (0) (t ) + u (t )
dt

for scheme 2

THEOREM 2 A circuit made up of a linear coil of inductance L and initial nil current,

connected in parallel with a current injector i g (t ) is equivalent to a circuit having an

electromotive generator e(t ) = L

di g
dt

in series with coil L

17

1
If we write Kirchhoffs first law in a node, i (t ) = i g (t ) + u (t )dt .
L0

By
L

deriving

in

respect

with

the

time

and

multiplying

by

L,

we

get:

di g (t )
di (t )
=L
+ u (t )
dt
dt

i u (t ) = L

di g (t )
dt

+L

di (t )
di
= e( g ) + L
dt
dt

THEOREM 3 The linear condenser, invariable with the time of capacitance C and initial

voltage u c (0) is equivalent either to the electromotive generator e(t ) = u c (0) h(t ) in series
with C having the initial voltage nil, or to the current generator i g (t ) = Cu c (0) (t ) in parallel
with the condenser of initial voltage nil.

Considering the relation:

0

1
1
u (t ) = u (0) + i (t )dt cu u (0) = i (t )dt
C0
C

and using function h(t ) it becomes:

t

1
u (t ) = u 0 h(t ) + i (t )dt
C0

Multiplying by C and deriving we get:

C

du
= C u c (0) (t ) + i (t )
dt
18

According to Kirchhoffs first law this corresponds to figure 2.

THEOREM 4 A circuit made up of a linear condenser invariable with the time of capacitance C

and initial nil voltage, connected in series to an electromotive generator is equivalent to the
circuit having in parallel to condenser C a current generator i g = C

de
.
dt

From Kirchhoff ' 2nd equation written as

1
i (t )dt e = u (t ) derived and multiplied by C we
C 0

get:
i (t ) = C

de
du
+C
, namely scheme (b)
dt
dt

SERIES AND PARALLEL CONNECTIONS OF TWO POLE ELEMENTS

Let us consider m two-pole elements passed by currents ik , with hub voltage u k .

The series connection is obtained by connecting hubs 1 cu 2, 2cu 3, etc.
T1 Kirchoff at node k1 it results that: ik = ie
and voltage at hubs (1), (m) has the expression:
m

ue = uk
k =1

The

parallel

connection

is

obtained

by

connecting

together

hubs

1,2...m ,respectively. Applying T2 Kirchhoff to the loop made up of elements k

1,2,...m

si k + 1 , it

results that:
u k = u k +1 = u c

k = 1,2,...m .
19

Applying T1 Kirchhoff to one of the nodes, we get the total strength of the current ie .
m

ie = i k
k =1

CIRCUITS WITH RESISTORS

m

u e = u K (ie )
k =1

Series

Re = R K
k =1

the equivalent resistor has the characteristic equation ie = ik (u e )

Parallel

k =1

and Re =

1
m

R
k =1

Mixed

it contains dipole elements connected in series and parallel .

CIRCUITS WITH COILS

SERIES

We consider m linear coils characterised by inductivity LK or reciprocal

inductivity K = LK1 and currents strengths at the initial moment ik (0) , connected in series.

ik (t ) = ie (t )
Voltage at the coils hubs k has the expression:
u k (t ) = LK

die
dt

Voltage at the circuits hubs is computed in the following manner:

m
m 1
m
di
u e (t ) = u k (t ) = LK e =
k =1
k =1 dt k =1 K

die

dt

Le = LK

therefore e =

1
1

20

1
Current ik (t ) = i K (0 ) +
u e (t )dt
L|K 0

PARALLEL

Applying T1 Kirchhoff we derive that:

m
m
m 1
ie (t ) = ik (t ) = ik (0) +
k =1
k =1
k =1 LK

Therefore, Le =

t
u e (t )dt
0

1
1

L
k =1

CIRCUITS WITH CONDENSERS

We shall consider m linear condensers having capacity C K and hub voltages at the initial
moments u K (0) .
When connecting in parallel, conditions are met by equalling the currents i K (t ) = ie (t ) .
The characteristic equation of condenser k is written as:
t

u K (t ) = u k (0) +

1
ie (t )dt
C K 0

Hence, voltage u e has the expression:

m 1
u e (t ) = u K (t ) = u K (0) +
k =1
k =1
k =1 C K
m

Thus: C e =

1
n

PARALLEL

t
ie (t )dt
0

C
k =1

u e (0) = u K (0)
k =1

The equality of voltages is implied

u k (t ) = u e (t )

The strength of current ik through the capacity condenser C K is given by the relation
below:
ik (t ) = C K

du e
dt

The total current ie is obtained by:

m

k =1

k =1

ie = ik (t ) = C K

du e
dt
21

and C e = C K
k =1

CIRCUITS WITH INDEPENDENT GENERATORS

SERIES

The electromotive voltage of m generators series connected computed with the

formula below are:

m

ee (t ) = e K (t )
k =1

Due to the restriction in the series connection, the generators which are independent from
current can be series connected only if they have the same current.
i gk (t ) = i ge (t ) k = 1,2...m
The series circuit with m generators of continuous voltage E k and internal resistors R gk
is equivalent to the voltage generator E e and internal resistor R ge .

k =1

k =1

E e = E k ; R ge = R gk
The circuit with m current generators I gk and internal resistors R gk series connected is
equivalent to m voltage generators E K = R gk I gk and resistors R gk series connected.
The electromotive voltages E e and internal resistor R ge of the equivalent voltage
generator has the expressions:
m

k =1

k =1

E e = R gk I gk ; R ge = R gk
Going back to the scheme of the current generator we get:
m

I ge =

R
k =1
m

R
k =1

PARALLEL

gk

I gk
gk

The current generator is an active element, of resistive type with voltage

control; then, it results that the current strength i ge (t ) of the equivalent generator with m current
generators parallel connected is computed with the relation below:
22

i ge (t ) = i gk (t )
k =1

Due to the restriction of parallel connexion, the independent voltage generators can be
connected in parallel only if they have the same electromotive voltage
ek (t ) = ee (t ) k = 1,2...m
The parallel circuit with m generators of direct current I gk and internal conductance G gk
is equivalent to the current generator I ge and internal conductance G ge :
m

k =1

k =1

G ge = G gk ; I ge = I gk
The circuit with m voltage generators E k and internal resistors R gk parallel connected is
equivalent to m current generators I gk =

EK
connected in parallel.
R gk
m

EK
k =1 R gK

I ge =

R ge =

m 1

k =1 R
gk

EK

Therefore, the current generator will have: E e =

gk

1
R
gk

23