Chemical Monitoring and Management

Chemical Monitoring and Management
Contextual Outline
The state of our environment is an important issue for society. Pollution of air,
land and water in urban, rural and wilderness areas is a phenomenon that affects
the health and survival of all organisms, including humans. An understanding of
the chemical processes involved in interactions in the full range of global
environments, including atmosphere and hydrosphere, is indispensable to an
understanding of how environments behave and change. It is also vital in
understanding how technologies, which in part are the result of chemical
research, have affected environments. This module encourages discussion of
how chemists can assist in reversing or minimising the environmental problems
caused by technology and the human demand for products and services.
Some modern technologies can facilitate the gathering of information about the
occurrence of chemicals both those occurring in natural environments and
those that are released as a result of human technological activity. Such
technologies include systems that have been developed to quantify and compare
amounts of substances.
This module increases students understanding of the nature, practice,
applications and uses of chemistry and the implications of chemistry for society
and the environment.

1. Much of the work of chemists involves monitoring the reactants and
products of reactions and managing reaction conditions
Students Learn To:
outline the role of a chemist employed in a named industry or enterprise,
identifying the branch of chemistry undertaken by the chemist and explaining
a chemical principle that the chemist uses
Maria Skyllas Kazacos is an electrochemist. She was the inventor of the
Vanadium Redox Battery which was developed at the UNSW during 1980s and
1990s. It is now commercialised around the world in a wide range of energy
storage applications. It is a rechargeable battery.
Named Enterprise
Development of the Vanadium redox battery
Branch of Chemistry
Electrochemistry
Chemical Principle
Batteries work by using spontaneous oxidation reduction reactions to produce a
flow of electricity
identify the need for collaboration between chemists as they collect and
analyse data
Collaboration means the sharing of ideas, facilities and resources.
Chemists work in teams. Some will have particular expertise and roles in the task
at hand. Some may have expertise in and access to special technology, others in
understanding previous work, others in analysis of new data and so forth.
International collaboration in science and technology is therefore natural,
especially as many problems that need scientific/technological solutions (eg.
Pollution, spread of disease, climate change) do not respect national frontiers.
This means that collaboration is a vital aspect of the collection and analysis of
data. Collaboration avoids unnecessary duplication of research or equipment (eg.
Large Hadron Collider of CERN), can reduce costs and maximise the knowledge
base and peer review and assessment available for a specific task.
International Collaboration
Advantages:
- Save time (no need to repeat something another scientist has done, gains
information from experts in another branch)
- Save cost (no need to duplicate expensive equipment, the money can be
used for other purposes)
- Ideas (discussion and contact can stimulate thoughts, different people
think differently, better problem solving and more effective data analysis)
- May be needed to reach critical mass of expertise and/or resources
- Whole > sum of parts
Disadvantages:
2
- Reduces diversity + spur of scientific competition

- Tension between competition and collaboration
- Added complexity of decision making
describe an example of a chemical reaction such as combustion, where
reactants form different products under different conditions and thus would
need monitoring
Maximum amount of desired product formed, unwanted products minimised
- Reaction goes to completion, not coming to an unfavourable equilibrium
- Reaction rates need to be reasonably quick in order to produce products
quickly
No pollutants produced either from the reactants itself or the impurities in the
starting materials
If the reaction is being used to generate energy, the maximum amount of
energy be produced
Cost, must be economically viable. Is it cheaper to use more energy or a
catalyst to speed up the reaction
Combustion of a gas (CH4 or C3H8) in a Bunsen burner needs monitoring.

-
High temperature flame, air hole fully open, sufficient oxygen reaches the
fas for complete combustion
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) => CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
[methane]
C3H8(g) + 5O2 => 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
[propane]
Air hole partly open, incomplete completion occurs, producing carbon

monoxide
2CH4(g) + 3O2 => 2CO(g) + 4H2O(g)
[methane]
2C3H8(g) + 7O2(g) => 6CO(g) + 4H2O(g)
[propane]
Air hole closed, carbon produced. Heated carbon gives low temperature
flame yellow colour
CH4(g) + O2(g) => C(s) + 2H2O(g)
[methane]
C3H8(g) + 2O2(g) => 3C(s) + 4H2O(g)
[propane]
Adjusting the fuel-to-air ratio is important in internal combustion engines

and in industrial combustion of fuels. The more complete the combustion,
the greater the amount of energy released. Incomplete combustion
produce poisonous CO
The products of combustion are determined by the amount of oxygen present. Eg

Car Engine:
2C8H18(l) + 10O2(g) => 16CO(g) + 18H2O(l)
[complete]
2C8H18(l) + 13O2(g) => 8CO(g) + 8C(s) + 18H2O(l) [incomplete]
Combustion must be monitored to ensure there is sufficient oxygen for complete
combustion because
-
CO is poisonous and is absorbed by human blood more readily than

oxygen, cause death
Build-up of soot in engines and exhaust systems cause inefficiency
Soot and smoke are pollutants to the atmosphere
3

-
Complete combustion releases more energy than incomplete combustion
Modern cars have catalytic converters that reduce the emissions using various
catalysts. Electronic fuel injections are computer controlled devices that control
the fuel-air mixture to ensure complete combustion.
Students:
gather, process and present information from secondary sources about the
work of practising scientists identifying
- The variety of chemical occupations
- A specific chemical occupation for a more detailed study
Branch
Description
Environme Determines how substances interact in the environment
ntal
Monitoring concentrations of substances (pollutants) in air,
chemistry
water, soil
Polymer
Developing new polymers with particular properties
chemistry
Studying polymerisation and how it can be more efficient
Studying properties of polymers
Industrial
Chemistry of industrial processes such as manufacturing of
chemistry
compounds
Food
Preservation and use of foods
chemistry
Food additives
Pharmaceu Discovery, testing, synthesis, commercial development of
tical
chemicals for medicine
chemistry
Nuclear
Production and use of radioisotopes in medicine and industry
chemistry
Studying fundamental nature of nuclear reactions
Forensic
Collection of evidence for use in law
chemistry
Identifying and tracing origins of substances found at crime
scenes
Analytical
Determination of what substances are present in samples and
chemistry
how much is present
Physical
Study and measurement of physical aspects of compounds and
chemistry
reactions (rates, energy, structures, nature of bonding)
Organic
Study of compounds of carbon
chemistry
Usually associated with living matter
Inorganic
Study of compounds that are not organic, non-carbonchemistry
predominant
Metals, extraction, reactions and compounds
Professor Kazacos invented the Vanadium battery. This uses the principle of
oxidation and reduction reactions (electron transfer) to produce electricity from a
battery. Her battery is rechargeable and uses different oxidation states of
vanadium to produce the electron flow. The research involved testing many
different combinations of electrodes and electrolyte solutions of vanadium with
different oxidation states to find effective reactions combinations.

2. Chemical processes in industry require monitoring and management
to maximise production
Students Learn to:
identify and describe the industrial uses of ammonia
Fertilisers (sulfate of ammonium, ammonium nitrate and urea) NH 3 is reacted
with H2SO4 to form (NH4)2SO4 and with HNO3 to form NH4NO3
HNO3 (used in explosives such as NH4NO3, TNT trinitrotoluene and
nitroglycerine)
Fibres such as plastics such as rayon, nylon and acrylics
Household cleaners NH4OH destroys bacteria, used in cleaning products
Pharmaceuticals NH4OH is used to kill bacteria antiseptic soap and
mouthwashes
identify that ammonia can be synthesised from its component gases, nitrogen
and hydrogen
describe that synthesis of ammonia occurs as a reversible reaction that will
reach equilibrium
identify the reaction of hydrogen with nitrogen as exothermic
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g)
-92kJ
This reaction is reversible and will reach equilibrium in a closed system. The
reaction is slow, exothermic and the equilibrium naturally lies to the left.
explain why the rate of reaction is increased by higher temperatures
A rise in temperature will increase the particle movement in the substance, this
increases the chance and force of collision of the particles, increasing the
amount of successful collisions that exceed the activation energy. Therefore, the
reaction rate is increased for both the forward and reverse reactions.
explain why the yield of product in the Haber process is reduced at higher
temperatures using Le Chateliers principle
Le Chateliers principle states that if a system at equilibrium is disturbed, the
system will adjust so as to minimise the disturbance.
The Haber process is exothermic. If heat is added to the reaction, according to Le
Chateliers principle, to minimise the effect, the equilibrium will move to the left
to favour more reactants and decreases the product.
explain why the Haber process is based on a delicate balancing act involving
reaction energy, reaction rate and equilibrium
The rate of reaction must be increased as naturally the Haber process takes too
long and produces too little yield. To speed up the reaction, a moderate amount
of heat must be added to increase particle movement, increasing the rate of
successful collisions.
The reaction naturally lies to the left, so conditions must be altered so the
equilibrium lies to the right, producing more yield. Adding heat to speed up the

reaction rate will end up favouring the equilibrium to the left as the reaction is
exothermic, which is undesired.
Therefore, a compromise must be reached to produce most yield. The reaction is
carried out between 450oC and 500oC. This allows the rate of reaction to
increase. The removal of the NH3 and increasing the pressure will cause the
equilibrium to lie to the right.
explain that the use of a catalyst will lower the reaction temperature required
and identify the catalyst(s) used in the Haber process
A catalyst speeds up the rate of reaction by lowering the activation energy
needed for a reaction to proceed without participating in the reaction. Because
the activation energy is lower, not as much heat energy is required for the
reaction to proceed.
The catalyst used in the Haber process is magnetite (Fe 3O4) with its surface layer
reduced to free iron (Iron or iron oxide).
analyse the impact of increased pressure on the system involved in the Haber
process
The Haber process is the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen to produce
ammonia. This is an exothermic, reversible reaction where the equilibrium lies to
the left.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2 NH3(g) +92kJ
According to Le Chateliers principle, if the pressure on the system is increased,
the reaction will proceed so that the pressure is reduced. That is, the side with
the least number of gaseous moles.
In the case of the Haber process, the RHS has less gaseous moles, so when the
pressure is increased, the equilibrium will move to the right favouring the
production of NH3.
explain why monitoring of the reaction vessel used in the Haber process is
crucial and discuss the monitoring required
Monitoring of the vessel is crucial to ensure maximum yield (usually about 30%)
for safety, oxygen mixing with hydrogen sould lead to an explosion and that no
pollution occurs. Monitoring required:
-
ratio of gases fed in N2:H2 = 1:3

purity of gases any oxygen present would cause explosion
temperature and pressure must be maintained to ensure maximum yield
the performance of the catalyst
no gases are escaping but the H2 and N2 were returned to the reaction
vessel and NH3 was removed
disposal of wastes
Note: NH3 is removed by cooling the reaction mixtures. This is possible because
N2 and H2 are non-polar and have weak dispersion forces whereas NH 3 is polar
6

and forms H-bonds. As a result, the NH 3 has a higher BP. When these gases are
cooled, NH3 will condense first.
Students:
gather and process information from secondary sources to describe the
conditions under which Haber developed the industrial synthesis of ammonia
and evaluate its significance at that time in world history
Germany was reliant on saltpetre (sodium nitrate) from Chile for the production
of bombs and crops using industrial ammonium for fertiliser and nitrates
produced by it for explosives. This was transported by ship. Need for ammonia
bad increased due to the increase in population need for more food, great use
of land for cropping. The war also demanded more bombs. The British had
planned to block Germanys supply of saltpetre in the sea.
The Haber process gave Germany a distinct advantage in the war. This increased
the length of the war and added greatly to the death toll. The Allies found not
only did Germany no longer need to import saltpetre but they did at a greater
expense.
Fritz Haber produced ammonia in 1908 but in 1914, Carl Bosch successfully
converted it into an industrial process.

3. Manufactured products, including food, drugs and household
chemicals, are analysed to determine or ensure their chemical
composition
Students learn to:
deduce the ions present in a sample from the results of tests
describe the use of atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS) in detecting
concentrations of metal ions in solutions and assess its impact on scientific
understanding of the effects of trace elements
Atomic Absorption Spectrum (AAS)
- allows quantitative analysis of many elements especially metals
- extremely sensitive can detect ppm
- can detect presence of more than one element in the sample
How It works
AAS depends on the fact that eletrons exist in particular energy levels. An
electron can move from one energy level to a higher one by absorbing
electromagnetic radiation of a particular frequency.
If electron falls to a lower energy level, it will emit radiation of particular
frequency. Each element absorbs and emits radiation at particular frequencies. It
is then possible to analyse a sample with more than 1 element.
A sample of solution is sprayed into a flame to create a vapour of atoms. At the
same time a light beam is passing through the flame. The light is at the
wavelength known to be absorbed by that element.
Atoms of the element absorb some of this light which is analysed by a detection
system, which calculates and displays the absorbance. By comparing it to the
absorption of standard solutions the concentration can be determined. This is
possible because the absorbance is proportional to concentration.
A standard is made by spraying a range of standard solutions of known
concentration containing the element. The light absorbed by these is plotted
against the concentration of the solutions and a calibration curve is obtained.
The unknown solution is then tested and the absorption recorded. The
concentration can then be read from the calibrated graph. New standards are
made each time a test is done.
Trace elements elements in very small amounts
Students:
perform first-hand investigations to carry out a range of tests, including flame
tests, to identify the following ions:
- phosphate: Ag+ ion, yellow ppt; Ba2+ ion, white ppt
- sulfate: Ba2+, white ppt
- carbonate: HNO3, CO2 bubbles
- chloride: Ag+ ion, white ppt
- barium: Light Green flame, H2SO4 white ppt (BaSO4)
- calcium: Orange flame, NaF white ppt
8

-
lead: NO Flame test (toxic), Cl- white ppt (PbCl2); NH3 white ppt (Pb(OH)2),
KI Yellow ppt
copper: Green flame, OH- blue ppt (Cu(OH)2)
iron: No reaction flame, Fe(OH)2 green ppt, Fe(OH)3 brown ppt
Anion
Formula
Test
Carbonate
CO32-
Add HNO3, CO2 Bubbles will form
Sulfate
SO42-
Add Ba2+, white ppt forms
Chloride
Cl-
Add Ag+, white ppt forms
Phosphat
e
PO43-
Add Ag+, yellow ppt forms

Add Ba2+. White ppt forms
Cation
Formula
Flame Colour
Precipitation Test
-
Barium
Ba2+
Light Green
Cl ion, white ppt (PbCl2)

NH3, white ppt (Pb(OH)2)
KI, yellow ppt
H2SO4, white ppt (BaSO4)
Calcium
Ca2+
Orange
NaF, white ppt
Copper
(II)
Cu2+
Green
OH-, blue ppt (Cu(OH)2)
Iron (II)
Fe2+
No Reaction
OH-, green ppt (Fe(OH)2)
Iron
(III)
Fe3+
No Reaction
OH-, brown ppt (Fe(OH)3)
Lead
(II)
Pb
2+
N/A
(Toxic vapour)
gather, process and present information to describe and explain evidence for
the need to monitor levels of one of the above ions in substances used in
society
Health Effects
Lead is a toxic heavy metal. It interferes with the enzymes in the body, inhibits
the synthesis of haemoglobin and interferes with energy production by cellular
mitochondria. Long-term overexposure can cause anaemia, damage to nervous
system, kidney disease and decreased fertility. Only 2mg of lead can be excreted
by the body per day. Excess lead accumulates in the bones and teeth where it
replaces natural calcium.
Evidence
Lead-based paints have proved to be a problem in young children, who crawl on
the ground and inhale and/or ingest lead paint dust or flakes. As AAS allowed an
accurate test of childrens blood lead levels, which showed an alarmingly high
concentration of lead. This led to the legislation being changed and banning
lead-based paints.
AAS also showed people who lived near main roads had a higher lead
concentration in their blood as people who lived away from main roads, this led
to the banning of lead in petrol.

Lead contaminated can also be from lead pipes, solder, car batteries, industrial
emissions, smelting lead ores and mining. The recommended target for blood
lead level is <0.1 ppm.
Monitoring lead levels in the blood are important in communities where lead
pollution is a known problem. This allows conditions to be changed in the
environment to lower the lead contamination and allows immediate medical
attention should anyone need it.
identify data, plan, select equipment and perform firsthand investigations to

measure the sulfate content of lawn fertiliser and explain the chemistry
involved
analyse information to evaluate the reliability of the results of the above
investigation and to propose solutions to problems encountered in the
procedure
gather, process and present information to interpret secondary data from AAS
measurements and evaluate the effectiveness of this in pollution control
Pollution Control
Air and water need to be monitored to ensure that pollution is kept under control.
Heavy metals are highly toxic. They can enter the food chain and bioaccumulate.
Heavy metal levels are monitored to ensure public health is not damaged. Air
samples are routinely collected near smelters and metropolitan sites. The results
are compared with Australian and world standards. Local waterways are routinely
sampled to detect changes in heavy metal ion concentrations that could affect
humans and aquatic life. The mining industry must ensure that the
concentrations of heavy metals in emissions and effluents do not exceed
guidelines.
AAS can be used to analyse the presence of metal ions, including heavy metals
such as lead and mercury. Gravimetric or volumetric techniques are not suitable
as they are insensitive to detect low levels of metal pollutants. AAS is relatively
cost effective, scientifically valid, highly sensitive and an automated system that
is easy to use and can analyse and form results quickly.
AAS data cause government agencies to change legislation to prevent further
contamination by heavy metals. AAS is highly effective and has major health
benefits for communities as well as agriculture and economy.
10

4. Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the
structure of the atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that
further damage can be limited
describe the composition and layered structure of the atmosphere
Name of
Layer
Distance
above
surface
0 15 km
Temperature
Other features
Temp
decreases as
altitude
increases
20 to -50oC
Stratosphe
re
(Ozone)
15 50 km
Mesospher
e
50 85 km
Thermosph
ere
85 km +
Temp increases
as altitude
increases
-50 to 0oC
Decreases as
altitude
increases
0 to -90oC
Increases
Rise in high
frequency
radiation
absorption
-90+ oC
75% of atmospheric gases.

Warmer on surface of earth, areas
of warm air rise and cool air fall,
convection currents. Gases well
mixed.
Little gas moves between
troposphere and stratosphere as
temperature is stable.
Higher regions ozone warmer,
absorbs UV. 25km, greatest ozone
conc. Warmer at top, no
convection, no mixing. Stable.
Few molecules in this zone absorb
radiation
Tropospher
e
(Weather
and
Planes)
Air pressure decreases as altitude increases.

11
Temp increases due to rise in

absorption of high frequency
radiation

Major constituents:
- Nitrogen 78%
- Oxygen 21%
- Argon 0.93%
identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and their sources
Main Pollutant
SO2
NOx
CO
CO2
VOC (Volatile
organic
compounds)
ChloroFluoroCa
rbons
CFC
Methane
Particulates
small solid
particles and
small droplets
of liquid
Lead
Main Sources
Metal sulfide smelting,
combustion of impure fossil fuel
High temperature combustion,
power station, vehicle
Incomplete combustion fires,
cars, slow combustion heaters
Complete combustion, fossil
fuels
Solvents, chemicals, unburnt
fuels oil, petrol vapour,
carpets
Fridges, air-con, aerosol cans
(no longer used)
Effect
Acid rain, smog
Land fill (anaerobic

decomposition of organic
compounds), cow ruminant
(fart)
Combustion, mining, dust
storms, asbestos dust (buildings
pre-1986)
Greenhouse effect
Lead was in petrol until 1986,

lead smelters
Toxic central nervous

system
Acid rain, photochemical

smog
Toxic to human
Greenhouse effect
Respiratory system
problems
Deplete ozone layer
Respiratory diseases
describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper atmosphere UV

radiation shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant
The stratosphere is 90% ozone, it acts as a radiation shield.
There are 3 types of UV radiation
- UV-A 400-320vm, produces Vitamin D and a tan used in photosynthesis
- UV-B 320-280nm harmful causes sunburn, skin cancer, eye cataracts,
decrease immune response, damages plants
- UV-C <280nm, most harmful
Ozone in the stratosphere absorbs all of C and most of B, allowing A through.
Ozone is constantly formed and decomposed.
12

Ozone in the upper atmosphere is formed when UV light decomposes O 2
molecule to produce 2 O free radicals. Each oxygen free radical then combines
with another oxygen molecule to form O3.
O2 (g) + UV -> 2O.(g)
O2 (g) + O.(g) -> O3 (g) H = -106 kJ/mol
Free radicals can react with ozone, UV can decompose ozone by absorption.
O.(g) + O3 (g) -> 2O2 (g)
H = -390kJ/mol
.
O3(g) + UV -> O (g) + O2 (g)
These reactions are exothermic and release heat to the stratosphere.
There is a balance between the formation and depletion of ozone leading to a
steady state in the upper atmosphere.
Ozone in the lower atmosphere (in troposphere) is formed when sunlight reacts
with NO2.
NO2(g) + sunlight -> NO(g) + O.(g)
O2 (g) + O.(g) -> O3 (g)
The formation of ozone occurs when the UV levels and NO 2 levels are at their
highest. (midday etc). it is a pollutant because it oxidises organic tissues,
including plant tissues, and disrupts normal biochemical reactions in the body. It
irritates the eyes and causes breathing difficulties. It also reacts with plastics and
rubber.
describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond
A coordinate covalent bond is one where both of the shared electrons came from
the one atom. Once formed, this bond is indistinguishable from all other covalent
bonds.
Ozone is a bent molecule.
demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using Lewis electron

dot structures
13
14
compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O2 and O3 and account for
them on the basis of molecular structure and bonding
compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the oxygen free
radical
Allotropes different structural form of an element in the same state.

Proper
ty
Colour
and
Odour
O2
(Oxygen
Gas)
Colourless
Odourless
O3 (ozone)
O. (Free
radical)
Pale blue gas

Sharp,
pungent
odour (toxic)
Mp is -193oC
Bp is -111oC
Toxic, reacts
w/ organic
molecules in
living cells
Mp
Bp
Mp is
-218oC
Bp is
-183oC
Solubil
ity in
water
Slightly
soluble
More soluble
than O2
More soluble
than O3
Reacti
vity
Moderately
reactive,
decompose
d by high
energy UV
Highly
reactive,
unstable,
decomposed
by medium
UV
Exist briefly,
reacts
immediately,
highly
reactive w/
living cells
2O. -> O2 (g)
Oxidati
on
ability
Struct
ure
and
bondin
g
Shape
Less
powerful
oxidant
Diatomic
molecule
2 O atoms
held
together by
covalent
bond
O=O
Linear
More powerful
oxidant, react
w/ alkene
3 oxygen
atoms held
together w/
one double
bond and 1
single
coordinate
covalent bond
East radical
contains two
unpaired
valence
electrons
O=O
O
Bent & polar
15
Explanation
BP of O2 is lower than O3
b/c smaller molecular
mass, requires less
energy to break. Intermolecular forces b/w O3
stronger than O2
O2 non-polar, water
poler, not soluble. O3
bent, polar, more
soluble. Radical more
reactive
O3 unstable, easily
decomposes to O2. O2 is
stable (complete valence
shell) Free radical, no full
valence shell, most
reactive
Bonding: O3 polar b/c

donation of e- from
centre leaves it little
positive. Usually as O
atoms have same
electronegativity, e- are
evenly shared. O2 is nonpolar, both dispersion, O3
stronger

Free radicals A neutral species (no charge) that has one or more unpaired
electron. It can be formed by splitting a molecule into two neutral fragments. It is
very reactise as presence of unpaired electron and incomplete valence shell
16
identify the origins of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons in the

atmosphere
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons compounds containing chlorine, fluorine and
carbon ONLY. They have no hydrogen.
Origins
Originally as a refrigerant as it was unreactive, odourless, non-flammable and
non-toxic. Laster were used as propellant in aerosol cans and foaming agents in
polystyrene production. They were used to clean circuit boards and as a
refrigerant in air conditioning systems.
Eg. trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorodifluoromethane, ,1,1,2-trichloro-1,2,2,trifluoroethane
Halons compounds containing carbon, bromine and other halogens. There is

no hydrogen. This is a problem as bromine is more reactive than chlorine and
have a greater potential to deplete ozone. They
are not used as widely as
CFCs.
Origins
Fire extinguishers used on electrical appliances.
Eg. bromochlorodifluoromethane
Halons are fully halogenated chemicals that have long lifetimes in the
atmosphere. They are broken down in the stratosphere releasing reactive
bromine. Bromine is estimated to be responsible for 25% of ozone destruction
over Antarctica and 50% over Arctic. The ozone depleting potential of halons is
10x greater than CFCs. Halons are very aggressive ozone depleting chemicals.
Australia stopped importing halons at the end of 1992. Halons entered the
atmosphere when fire extinguisher were used or tested.
identify and name examples of isomers (excluding geometrical and optical) of

haloalkanes up to eight carbon atoms
Isomers compounds that have the same molecular formula but different
structural formula.
Naming Haloalkanes
1. Identify the halogen functional group, naming with prefixes in front of the
name of the alkane in alphabetical order: Bromo, chloro, fluoro, iodo, If there
are more than one of halogen, use prefix di, tri, tetra etc
2. Count no. of carbons in the longest unbranched carbon chain containing the
halogens and use the appropriate stem name. Attach ane.
3. If there are branched chains, count no. of carbons, identify appropriate stems
and attach yl. If there are more than one, then use di, tri, tetra etc.
4. Halogen and side group names are in front of main stem name, in
alphabetical order ignoring di, tri prefixes
17

5. Number the carbon chain from the side that allows lowest numbers before the
halogens, when there are more than one halogen, place the lowest number in
front of the halogen that will be named first
discuss the problems associated with the use of CFCs and assess the
effectiveness of steps taken to alleviate these problems
CFCs are inert. They are not decomposed by sunlight at low altitudes. They are
insoluble in water and so are not washed away by rain. They diffuse slowly into
the stratosphere. In the stratosphere, they absorb short UV radiation to form two
free radicals:
CCl3F + UV -> Cl. + .CCl2F
Cl. Is very reactive, reacts with O3. ClO then reacts with O. to form O2 and Cl.. Cl.
is then a catalyst to the chain reaction until Cl . reacts with methane or NO2.
Cl.(g) + O3(g) -> ClO.(g) + O2(g)
ClO.(g) + O.(g) -> O2 (g) + Cl.(g)
The overall reaction: O.(g) + O3 (g) -> 2O2 (g)
Termination:
CH4 (g) + Cl.(g) -> CH3. + HCl
NO2 + ClO.(g) -> ClONO2
This results in the depletion of ozone which means more radiation reaches the
earths surface. (cancer, cataracts etc) CFCs are inert, they last up to 150 years
in the stratosphere.
Steps to alleviate problem
The problem with the ozone layer was first observed in the 1970s.
Ban the use of CFC and Halons Montreal Protocol international treaty (1987)
observed by 27 countries
Alternatives used HCFCs and HFCs
Assistance to developing countries to phase out CFCs
analyse the information available that indicates changes in atmospheric

ozone concentrations, describe the changes observed and explain how this
information was obtained
18

The information shows that the ozone levels change seasonally.
It has been observed that ozone level have decreased in the stratosphere
especially over the Antarctic. In 1970s it was discovered that CFCs were
depleting the ozone layer. In the 1980s the ozone less worsened, 1985 it had
declined about 30% and more recently 50%. The greatest decline is during
spring. The winter is extremely cold and no sunlight is present at the Antarctic
but with the coming of spring, UV light is present and ozone is destroyed.
Measurement
Measurements of the total amount of ozone in a column of atmosphere have
been recorded since 1957.
The amount of ozone is measured by spectrophotometers on the ground in
weather balloons or on satellites. This gives a reading of the total ozone in the
atmosphere per unit area in Dobson Units. (One Dobson unit is the amount ozone
that corresponds to a 00.01mm thick of pure ozone at atmospheric pressure. The
normal amount of ozone is 300DU.)
In the past satellites were used to carry a device called a total ozone mapping
spectrophotometer (TOMS), which proved very efficient in recording changes in
ozone levels. The ozone column is determined by differential absorption of solar
radiation at two adjacent UV wavelengths. (measures backscattering)
In 2004 NASA measured the amount of ozone daily using a satellite
spectrophotometer called Ozone Monitoring Instrument (OMI) located on Aura
satellite. It measures backscattering more accurately using a greater range of
wavelengths.
In 2012 NASA launched new satellite NNP with Ozone Mapper Profile Suite
(OMPS) which measure vertical distribution of ozone in the stratosphere as well
as ozone in lower strosphere and troposphere with high vertical resolution.
Students:
19
present information from secondary sources to write the equations to show

the reactions involving CFCs and ozone to demonstrate the removal of ozone
from the atmosphere
gather, process and present information from secondary sources including
simulations, molecular model kits or pictorial representations to model
isomers of haloalkanes
present information from secondary sources to identify alternative chemicals
used to replace CFCs and evaluate the effectiveness of their use as a
replacement for CFCs
HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons) were the first alternative because H-C bond
are decomposed in the troposphere to a significant extent. Only small portions of
them reach the stratosphere. While this means they destroy less ozone, it is still
significant. HCFCs reduce ozone depletion when compared to CFCs and is hence
an effective first alternative to CFCs. However, they still cause some degree of
ozone destruction, so better alternatives must be found.
They are replaced by HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons) which contain no chlorine and
are decomposed in the troposphere. They dont destroy zone. They are more
expensive than CFCs and not as effective. These dont deplete the ozone, and is
hence more effective than HCFCs, however, their practical use is lower, it is
effective in terms of protecting the ozone but not effective in practical use.
There has been a significant drop in production of CFCs but we cant remove
CFCs already in the stratosphere. So come measures are needed to reduce the
effects of problems caused by CFCs such as high UV radiation. These include:
- people using new sunscreens, as advised by Cancer Council
- the use of UV stabilizers in polymers that are exposed to sunlight to reduce
breakdown by UV
20

5. Human activity also impacts on waterways. Chemical monitoring and
management assists in providing safe water for human use and to
protect the habitats of other organisms
identify that water quality can be determined by considering:
- concentrations of common ions
- total dissolved solids
- Hardness
- Turbidity
- Acidity
- dissolved oxygen
- biochemical oxygen demand
21
identify factors that affect the concentrations of a range of ions in solution in

natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans
- Frequency of rain floods and droughts, more or less rain will change
concentration of solute
- Water temperature more solute dissolves if water warmer, increase conc
- Evaporation rate more evaporation, increase concentration
- Soil type mineral content of nearby soils
- Pollution faeces, fertilisers, nitrates and phosphates from agricultural runoff
- Land use:
o Forestry increase soil run off, branches, more leaching
o Farming pesticides, fertiliser
o Mining heavy metals
o Landfill heavy metals, chemical leach, bacteria
o Untreated sewage bacteria
describe and assess the effectiveness of methods used to purify and sanitise
mass water supplies
Process
What is
Physical/Chemical
Assess
removed
process
Screenin Larger,
Physical Process
Low cost, no added
g
undissolved
Sieves are used to screen
chemicals
solids
out any large insoluble
Removes most solids
Eg. Wood,
matter
but not all
plastic
Effective for large
solids
Floccula
Fine
Chemical Process
Very successful
tion
suspended
Al2(SO4)3is added to water
process to reduce
particles
with Ca(OH)2. It forms
turbidity. Removes the
Eg.
Al(OH)3 precipitate, sticky
majority of unwanted
Decomposing
and gelatinous. The
particles easily. Helps
organic
suspended solids stick to
the filtration process
matter, fine
the Al(OH)3, absorption.
speed up and use less
sediment
The Al(OH)3 then clump
energy. Doesnt
together, heavier particles, remove bacteria.
forming lumps called
floccs. The heavy particles
settle out as sludge at the
bottom
Sand
Smaller solid
Physical process
Necessary step after
Filtratio
particles and
Filters are often sand,
flocculation. Doesnt
n
floccs
gravel and coal
remove very fine
solids.
Does not remove
bacteria
Chlorina Bacteria and
Chemical Process
Effective - most
tion
microorganism Chlorine gas added to
harmful microwater:
organisms removed,
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) -> HOCl(aq) +
Giardia
22
pH
Adjustm
ent
Nothing is
removed
H+ + ClHOCl kills the bacteria,

bleach coloured
compounds and remove
tastes and odours in the
water.
Chemical Process
Lime, CO2are added to
adjust the pH to make it
more suitable for
household use
Cyrptospiridium.
Chlorine remains in
water, keeps
disinfecting it.
This step is successful

as it also helps to
improve the safety of
the water.
describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane filters and

explain how they purify contaminated water
A membrane filter is a thin film of a synthetic polymer through which water is
filtered. Its made of poly propylene, polytetrafluoroethylene and polysulphone.
There are pores of fairly uniform size. The size of the hole determines what
remains as the residue.
They can be classified as microfiltration 0.1 micron, ultrafiltration 0.01 micron,
nanofiltration 0.001 micron and can be coated to remove heavy metal ions, or
reverse osmosis membranes depending on the size of the pore.
Microfiltration removes bacteria, protozoan, large viruses, pollen and silt. The
extremely fine holes allow water but not large organic molecules or
microorganisms to pass through. The water is pumped across the surface over
the membrane rather than through it. This reduces blockages, the water then
passes through the membrane and into the core. The filters need to be back
flushed for cleaning.
23
Students:
perform first-hand investigations to use qualitative and quantitative tests to
analyse and compare the quality of water samples
gather, process and present information on the range and chemistry of the
tests used to:
- identify heavy metal pollution of water
Heavy metals refer to metals with a high atomic mass. They are naturally
present in soil and water at low concentrations. Some of these metals are
essential to biological life - trace elements. Pollution caused the levels of heavy
metal in the environment to rise and this causes various health issues for
organisms (including humans).
Human activities cause heavy metals such as Lead and Mercury, which are used
in industries, to enter the environment into waters and soil.
Lead is poisonous to organisms. It damages the nervous system, kidney, cause
anaemia and death. A flame test cannot be conducted (toxic vapour). Adding KI
will form a yellow ppte.
Mercury is also a poisonous heavy metal. It can cause memory loss and
insomnia. If exposed to high levels, it can produce hallucinations, damage the
brain and birth. Add KI, will form a red ppte.
24

Quantitative tests for heavy metals include volumetric and gravimetric analysis,
colourimetry, chromatography ad spectroscopy (AAS Atomic Absorption
Spectroscopy) and mass spectroscopy.
- monitor possible eutrophication of waterways
The process of eutrophication involves the increase in nutrient content of a body
of water resulting in excessive growth of plants, when they die, cause oxygen
depletion during the decay process.
The offending nutrients are most likely to be nitrates (from fertilizers and
untreated sewage) and phosphates (from fertiliser run-off and/or from
detergents).
Eutrophication can be detected by measuring the dissolved oxygen (low
dissolved oxygen would indicate eutrophication) and nutrients such as nitrates
and phosphates.
Phosphates and nitrates are measured using colourimetric tests. Nitrates and
phosphates are reacted with standard reagents to form coloured compounds.
The depth of colour is the measured and converted to concentration unites using
a calibration curve.
gather, process and present information on the features of the local town
water supply in terms of:
- catchment area
A catchment is an area where water is collected by the natural landscape. In a
catchment, all rain and run-off water eventually flows to a creek, river, lake or
ocean. Catchment areas determined by geographical features of the land.
Boundary is defined by a ridge where water flows in the opposite direction away
from the catchment basin.
- possible sources of contamination in this catchment
Contaminate Source
Treatment
Twigs,
Forestry
Screening
branches
Suspended
Eutrophication
Reverse osmosis
solids
Fertilisers
Agricultural run- Reverse Osmosis
pesticides
off
Bacteria
sewage
Chlorination
- chemical tests available to determine levels and types of contaminants
Turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature and conductivity are all carried out
in the field with a Data Logger.
Chemical tests in the lab can be done to determine presence of elements and
ions, including precipitation, flame test, ASS, colourimetry, chromatography.
-
physical and chemical processes used to purify water

25

Screening, Flocculation, Filtration, Chlorination, pH adjustment
- chemical additives in the water and the reasons for the presence of these
additives
Fluoride is added to drinking water after disinfection to reduce dental problems.
It is added in the form of Na2SiF6, H2SiF6 and NaF. This process is supported by
most health organisations. Fluoride interacts with tooth enamel to make is
stronger and more resistant, especially to low pHs. It can also remineralise some
small defects in the tooth before they become cavities. It can also kill some
bacteria.
Hard water is unsuitable for household use. Soap doesnt lather in hard water
and boiling hard water in kettles ruins the kettle. Sodium carbonate decahydrate
(Na2CO310H20) can be added to water to soften it. It is able to make the Ca 2+
ions precipitate out in the form of CaCO3 which is insoluble in water. However, it
doesnt remove other metal ions in the water.
26

Dirty,
contaminated
Screening and
Filtration
Leaves, twigs
and rubbish
removed
Flocculation
Suspended solids,
iron precipitate,
some bacteria
removed
Filtration
Remaining solids
removed
Chlorination
Bacteria and
viruses removed
pH Adjustment
Water for
Household use
27

Chemical Monitoring and Management

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