Production of Materials

Contextual Outline
Humans have always exploited their natural environment for all their needs
including food, clothing and shelter. As the cultural development of humans
continued, they looked for a greater variety of materials to cater for their needs.
The twentieth century saw an explosion in both the use of traditional materials
and in the research for development of a wider range of materials to satisfy
technological developments. Added to this was a reduction in availability of the
traditional resources to supply the increasing world population.
Chemists and chemical engineers continue to play a pivotal role in the search for
new sources of traditional materials such as those from the petrochemical
industry. As the fossil organic reserves dwindle, new sources of the organic
chemicals presently used have to be found. In addition, chemists are continually
searching for compounds to be used in the design and production of new
materials to replace those that have been deemed no longer satisfactory for
needs.
This module increases students understanding of the implications of chemistry
for society and the environment and the current issues, research and
developments in chemistry.

Production of Materials
1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene,
for the production of other substances
construct word and balanced formulae equations of chemical reactions as
they are encountered
identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the
fractions from the refining of petroleum

Ethene is also called Ethylene. It has a double covalent bond between the carbon
atoms and dispersion intermolecular forces. It is a gas at room temperature.
It is most widely used as starting substance for polymers and is obtained from
crude oil as bi-product or from cracking. (Cracking is the chemical process of
breaking large hydrocarbons into smaller molecules.
Decane(g) -> Octane(g) + Ethene(g)
C10H22(g) -> C8H18(g) + C2H4(g)
In the cracking process, catalysts are often used. The products can be controlled
using different catalysts and different temperatures.

identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is
readily transformed into many useful products
Alkanes and Alkenes both readily combust
Combustion of Ethene:
C2H4 + 3O2 -> 2CO2 + 2H2O
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because of the high electron density of
the double bonds. Alkenes undergo addition reactions across the double bond.
Hydrogenation
C2H4(g) + H2(g) Platinum-> C2H6(g) [Ethane]
(Platinum is catalyst)
Halogenation
C2H4(g) + Br2(g) -> C2H4Br2 [1, 2-dibromoethane]
(Used to distinguish between alkanes and alkenes because of colour
change)
Bromine Water
C2H4(g) + HOBr(l) -> C2H4BrOH(aq)
Hydration
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) -> C2H5OH(aq) [Ethanol]

Production of Materials
Substance
Formed
Ethanediol
Ethanol
Dibromoethan
e
PVC
Polyethylene
Polystyrene

Reaction

Use

Cold dilute KMnO4

+ H2O with presence of
catalyst of H2SO4
Addition of Bromine

Antifreeze
Solvent + fuel
Methylated Spirits
Petrol additive

Addition polymerisation

Plastic water piper and

hoses
Buckets, cling wrap
Insulation, coffee cups

Addition polymerisation
Addition polymerisation

identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made
Monomer a simple compound that joins together to form a polymer
Polymer large carbon molecules made by joining monomers together
Polymerisation is a chemical reaction in which many identical small molecules
join to form one large molecule. Ethene joins to form polyethene.

identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this

term
Polyethene is an additional polymer.
An additional polymer forms when small molecules (monomer) such as ethene,
add together to form long molecules (polymers), like polyethene, without the loss
of any atoms. That is, no other product forms.

outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a

commercially and industrially important polymer
[A free radical has an unpaired outer shell electron and is very reactive]
Initiation chemical called initiator starts reaction by opening the double bond of
ethene, forming a free radical
Propagation the monomers join together to form a chain
Termination when a free radical ethene chain combines. A complete molecule is
formed and the process stops
The resulting polymers have varied lengths.
Two different polyethene can be manufactured, depending on the reaction
conditions.
Type of Polyethene
Conditions
Descriptions/Propertie
s
Low Density
Peroxide with O-O bond
Short, branched chains
Polyethene
that breaks to form free
Branches every 6 8
LDPE
radical (initiate)
carbons
High gas pressure and
Low density
temperature
Weak dispersion forces
Low MP
3

Production of Materials
High Density
Polyethene
HDPE

Long straight chains

Unbranched
Strong dispersion forces
High MP, dense
identify the following as commercially significant monomers:
vinyl chloride
styrene
by both their systematic and common names
describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms
of their properties
Name
Polyvinyl Chloride
Polystyrene
Polyethene
(ethylene)
(chloroethene)
(ethenylbenzene)
Proper
Hard, very brittle,
Hard, brittle, clear
LDPE
HDPE
ties
decomposes when
Light weight,
NonChemical
heated
insulates when gas
conductor, resistant,
passed through
flexible,
durable,
strong
hard
Structu
re

Uses

Ziegler-Natta catalyst
Low gas pressure and
temperature

External cladding,
guttering and down
pipes, electrical
conduit, waste water
pipes, rigid panels
and floor tiles

CD cases, plastic
drinking glasses,
computer and
television cabinets,
Styrofoam

Glad wrap,
plastic
bags, milk
and juice
containers,
insulation
of wires
and cables

Pipes,
petrol
containers,
toys,
plastic
buckets,
lunch
boxes,
freezer
bags

Students:
gather and present information from first-hand or secondary sources to write
equations to represent all chemical reactions encountered in the HSC course
identify data, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to compare the
reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine
water
analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations,
molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation
process
Computer Animation
Description: the structural formulas of compounds move and combine with each
other to form polymers

Production of Materials
Pros: the breaking and forming of bonds are easily visible, the atoms are clearly
defined
Cons: do not show size of the atoms, do not show how it is a 3D object, and do
not show the twisting bonds
Model Kits
Description: differently coloured and sized sphere are joined together by sticks to
form a molecule
Pros: the twisting bonds can be simulated, the model is 3D, the breaking and
forming of bonds are seen
Cons: the atoms are not the right size, there is space inside the model
2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to
reduce our dependence on fossil fuels
Biomass Mass of living matter in an area, cellulose is major component

discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained
from the petrochemical industry
Finding alternative sources of hydrocarbons
For
Against
Fossil fuel is non-renewable, finite
Expensive to find new resources
Burning fossil fuel pollutes air with
greenhouse gases
Plastics made are non-biodegradable
explain what is meant by a condensation polymer
describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed
Condensation polymers are formed when monomers join and release a small
molecule such as water. It involves the reaction between 2 functional groups.
Monomers may have different functional groups on either end eg. amino acids,
or sometimes consist of two different monomers. The most common functional
groups are COOH (carboxylic acid), OH (alcohols) and NH 2 (amines). Eg. Glucose
-> cellulose, amino acids -> proteins [natural] Polyester [synthetic]
Eg. when glucose forms cellulose, the 2 OH groups (hydroxyl) react to form a H 2O
molecule and leaving an O bond between the monomers. Amino acids form
proteins.

describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a

condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass

The cellulose polymer is a condensation polymer where beta glucose is the

monomer. Every second glucose group is inverted. This leads to a linear
molecule. The polymers are closely packed with hydrogen bonding. Cellulose is
therefore strong and rigid.

Production of Materials
There can be 10000 glucose
monomers in one cellulose
polymer.
Cellulose is a condensation
polymer and is a major
component of biomass. It is the
structural component of cell
walls.

identify that cellulose contains the basic carbon-chain structures needed to

build petrochemicals and discuss its potential as a raw material
Cellulose contains the basic carbon-chained structures needed to build
petrochemicals.
For and Against Cellulose as a raw material
For
Against
Renewable resource
Takes land and water to grow crops
Less greenhouse gas and particulate
More expensive
pollution
Biodegradable
One use only, not durable
Readily available
Harder to break down
Major component in biomass
Uses fossil fuel energy to produce
Can be obtained from waste
Takes time
Addition Polymerisation and Condensation Polymerisation
Addition
Condensation
Double bonds break and monomers
No double bonds
join together
No by-product formed
Small molecules like water formed as
by-product
Non-polar substance
Polar-substance
Dispersion
Dipole-dipole and Hydrogen bonding
No functional groups
Functional groups on either end of
monomer
Only 1 type of monomer
Can be 2 monomers joined together
Students:
use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources
and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named
biopolymer. This analysis should name the specific enzyme(s) used or
organism used to synthesise the material and an evaluation of the use or
potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties
Name: Biopol The trade name of the biopolymer is Biopol. Biopol is a
polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) and it is a co-polymer consisting of the monomers 3hydroxybutryate (PHB) and 3-hydroxyvalerate.
6

Production of Materials

Organism Used: Alcaligenes Eutrophus: It is grown in tanks with a carbon-based

food source.
Uses: In the food industry, it is used for disposable utensils, cups and plates as
well as plastic wrap for packaging and a coating for paper and cardboard. It is
also used for disposable razors, nappies, rubbish bags, shampoo and cosmetic
containers.
In agriculture it is used a carrier for slow release insecticides, herbicides or
fertiliser. In medicine, it is used for gauzes, sutures, implants and coatings for
drugs.

Properties
insoluble in water but is soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons
very high melting point
UV light resistant as well as being acid and base resistant
Completely degradable to carbon dioxide and water when exposed to soil and
rivers and other sewage
Decomposes quicker when there is no oxygen so it is advantageous in
landfills
Biocompatible with a minimal chance of being rejected by the body
Nontoxic substance
Renewable resources
Stable in both air and in humidity
High tensile strength
Permeable to oxygen
Relate use to Property
Food utensils Insoluble in water, acid and base resistant, non-toxic, high
melting point. Does not react with food and is safe as it is non-toxic, safe to carry
hot foods.
Disposable tools degradable to CO2 and H2O, decomposes quicker w/o oxygen,
nontoxic, renewable. Environmentally friendly, easily decomposes in landfills
Medical suture Biocompatible, biodegradable, high tensile strength. Will not be
rejected by the body or react with the body and will naturally decompose, no
further surgery is needed to remove them.
7

Production of Materials
3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from
renewable resources such as plants
describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a
catalyst in this process and the catalyst used
Dehydration is the removal of water from the alcohol. An OH group is removed
from one carbon and hydrogen from another carbon and a double bond is
formed. Ethanol is stable and does not spontaneously convert to ethene but will
in the presence of concentrated H2SO4 (catalyst). The reaction is heated.
C2H5OH(l) H2SO4-> C2H4(g) + H2O(l)

describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of

ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst
used
Water adds across the double bond of ethene. The catalyst used is dilute H 2SO4.
One of the double bond breaks, one carbon forms covalent bond with H and one
carbon forms covalent bond with OH. The reaction is also heated.
C2H4(g) + H2O(l) <H2SO4- C2H5OH(l)

describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and
non-polar substances
Describe
Ethanol is the second most used solvent after water. It is used in chemistry and
pharmacy where alcohol-water mixtures are used to dissolve natural oils and
inorganic substances such as iodine that are usually insoluble in water. The
substance to be dissolved is often dissolved in ethanol and then this mixture is
diluted with water. Ethanol is used widely as a solvent in cosmetics.
Account for
Ethanol has a functional OH group with makes the molecule polar. It can
therefore form dipole-dipole and hydrogen bonds and thus dissolve other polar
substances. However, the other half of the molecule contains only C and H and is
non-polar. It forms dispersion forces on this part and can therefore dissolve nonpolar substances. Therefore, ethanol is a useful solvent as it dissolves both polar
and non-polar substances.
Ethanol is the least toxic of all alcohols. Consumer products listed as containing
alcohol always contain ethanol as the alcohol.

Production of Materials

outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a
renewable resource
C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) -> 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) Molar Heat of combustion: 1367kJ/mol
When ethanol is made from biomass, it is a renewable resource. When it is made
from fossil fuel, it is a non-renewable resource.

describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted

yeast (micro-organism, enzymes)
heat (35 37 degrees)
No oxygen (anerobic)
Water (sugar solution)
Sugar source (glucose)
Sulfur dioxide to kill bacteria (optional)
Nutrients for yeast growth (optional)
Max 15% ethanol, more than that, yeast gets killed

summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process

C6H12O6(aq) Yeast(35-37)-> 2C2H5OH(l) + 2CO2(g)

define the molar heat of combustion of a compound and calculate the value
for ethanol from first-hand data
The Molar Heat of Combustion of a substance is the heat released when one
mole of the substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen at standard
atmospheric pressure with the final products being CO 2 gas and liquid water.
The molar heat of combustion is always positive even when the enthalpy change
is negative (by definition).

assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the

advantages and disadvantages of its use
Advantages
Disadvantages
- More complete combustion, cleaner - Not proved that it releases less
than fossil fuels
greenhouse gas
- Easily transportable liquid
- Still requires fossil fuel energy to
- Petrol containing 10 20% ethanol
make ethanol
can be used in normal engines
- Large areas of agricultural land
- Renewable resource, from waste
- Soil erosion, deforestation, fertiliser
product otherwise burnt
run off, salinity
- Carbon neutral
- Disposal of large amounts of smelly
waste
- Lower heat of combustion therefore
less energy for same amount of
octane
identify the IUPAC nomenclature for straight-chained alkanols from C1 to C8
CnH2n+1OH
To names alcohols:
1. Use the stem name according to the number of carbon atoms
2. Remove e and replace with ol
9

Production of Materials
3. Note the position of the OH group receives the lowest number
Students:
process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits,
digital technologies or computer simulations to model:
- the addition of water to ethylene
- the dehydration of ethanol
process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes
involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane

1. Processing crushing/grinding
2. Filter concentrated sugar solution
3. Fermentation with yeast about 3 days, 10-15% ethanol
4. Distillation 95% ethanol
5. Dehydration
process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol
as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage
Ethanol was first produced by the fermentation of starches and sugars. As the
demand for petrol increased with an increase of cars, crude oil fractions were
catalytically cracked for more yield and the by-product was ethylene. It became
more economical to produce ethanol from ethylene than sugars. In 2002, the
Australian government offered large subsidies to encourage use of biofuel.
Ethanol is used as a petrol additive in cars and engines. E10 is petrol with 10%
ethanol. In Brazil, fuels have 25% ethanol and cars are modified to accommodate
that. 40% of its fuel demand is replaced by ethanol.
The growing and processing of suitable crops, fermentation and separation are
energy consuming processes and expensive, although plant waste materials can
be used. As it is impossible grow enough crops to supply the whole world with
ethanol, it will be unlikely that ethanol will be our total fuel for the future. It will
help reduce air pollution but still produces a lot of greenhouse gases in its
production. As we are running out of crude oil, ethanol might be an effective way
of extending our petrol reserves.

10

Production of Materials

solve problems, plan and perform a first-hand investigation to carry out the
fermentation of glucose and monitor mass changes
present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation
for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol
identify data sources, choose resources and perform a first-hand investigation
to determine and compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid
alkanols per gram and per mole

11

Production of Materials
4. Oxidation reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source
of energy
explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of
electrons
identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by
other metals to the relative activity of metals
The activity series of metals from most reactive to least reactive is also based on
the ease at which the metal loses electrons. The more active the metal, the more
easily the electron is lost. This means that when the more active metal is placed
in a salt solution of a less active metal, the more active metal will lose electrons
and move into solution while the less active metal will gain electrons and move
out of solution.
A displacement reaction is a reaction in which a metal converts the ion of
another metal to the neutral atom.
Oxidation and Reduction
Redox reactions include all reaction in which electrons are transferred from one
species to another.
Oxidation is Loss of electrons
Eg. Magnesium is oxidised to magnesium ions
Mg(s) -> Mg2+ + 2eReduction is Gain
Eg. Calcium ions are reduced to calcium
Ca2+ + 2e- -> Ca(s)
Note: Oxidation and reduction must occur at the same time. You must have an
electron donor and an electron acceptor.
Reductant an electron donor, also called reducing agent. It loses electron.
Oxidant an electron acceptor, also called an oxidising agent. It gains electron.

account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or
gain of electrons
There are limitations to this concept of oxidation-reduction because there are
cases where it is difficult to determine from the equation exactly how and where
electrons have been transferred. This difficulty is overcome by using oxidation
state. If there has been a change in the oxidation state of a species, then an
oxidation-reduction reaction has occurred.

12

Production of Materials

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Rules for assigning oxidation states

Substances in the elemental state have oxidation state 0
Monatomic ions, oxidation state is charge of the ion
Sum of oxidation state of all atoms in neutral molecule is 0
Sum of oxidation states of all atoms in polyatomic ion is charge of ion
Some elements have fixed oxidation states in all compounds
- Group 1 metals have oxidation state +1, Group 2 metals have
oxidation state +2
- Combined oxygen have oxidation state -2 except peroxides(-1) and
F2O (+2)
- Combined hydrogen have oxidation state +1 except metal hydrides

Changes in the oxidation state of species can be explained in terms of their loss
or gain of electrons.
describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction Reactions
outline the construction of galvanic cells and trace the direction of electron
flow
define the terms anode, cathode, electrode and electrolyte to describe
galvanic cells
Galvanic Cell a device constructed so that a reductant and oxidant are
physically separated, but connected by an external circuit made of a conductor
and a salt bridge. A galvanic cell is composed of two half-cells, a reductant halfcell and an oxidant half-cell. This arrangement ensures that electrons cannot go
directly from the reductant to the oxidant, but they will move through the
external circuit.
Half Cell is an electrode in a 1M solution of positive ions derived from the
electrode material. Eg. Cu in CuSO4 solution.
Electrode a conducting plate (usually metal) that connects the cell to the
external circuit.
Anode the electrode where oxidation takes place. This is the negative
electrode in a galvanic cell.
Cathode the electrode where reduction takes place. This is the positive
electrode in a galvanic cell.
Salt Bridge an electrolyte or electrolyte gel that joins two half cells in a
galvanic cell and allows movement of ions to maintain a balance of charges. The
salt used in the salt bridge must not react with the cation.
Electrolyte a substance that conducts electricity in solution or molten state
Galvanic Cell Notation

13

Production of Materials
Galvanic cells are often written like this:
Zn(s)|Zn(NO3)2(aq)||Cu(NO3)2(aq)|Cu(s)
The redox couples are Zn|Zn2+ and
Cu|Cu2+
It is conventional to write the
oxidation half-cell first (anode first)
|| is the salt bridge
The nitrate ions are spectator ions
and are involved in maintaining
charge balance in electrolytes
A galvanic cell does not necessarily have
reactive metal electrodes. Chlorine and
hydrogen are bubbled over platinum
electrodes which are inert.
Students:
perform a first-hand investigation to identify the conditions under which a
galvanic cell is produced
perform a first-hand investigation and gather first-hand information to
measure the difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an
electrolyte solution
A standard hydrogen half-cell is used to measure the standard reduction
potential.

gather and present information on the structure and chemistry of a dry cell or
lead-acid cell and evaluate it in comparison to one of the following:
- button cell
- fuel cell
- vanadium redox cell
- lithium cell
- liquid junction photovoltaic device (eg the Gratzel cell)
in terms of:
- chemistry
- cost and practicality
- impact on society
- environmental impact
See attached sheet

solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential

requirement of named electrochemical processes using tables of standard
potentials and half-equations
Standard Potentials
It is possible to measure the voltage of electrochemical cell. To obtain
reliable and reproducible results standard conditions are used. They are:

14

Production of Materials

Electrolyte concentration 1.0mol/L

Standard Temperature 25oC
Standard pressure 100kPa (if a gas)

A standard half-cell is chosen for a reference.

The standard half-cell potential, Eo is a quantitative
measure of the electron attracting ability of an ion
in its standard state in the half-cell compared to
the electron attracting ability of the hydrogen
atom in the standard hydrogen reference cell.
(How easily will it gain electrons) If Eo is negative then the substance has less
tendency to gain electrons (be reduced). If the E o is positive then the substance
has a greater tendency to be reduced than H+
Standard electrode potentials are sometimes called standard redox potentials or
standard reduction potentials. They are found on the back of your periodic table.
Calculating the standard electron potential of EMF of the Cell
1. The sign of the Eo changes if the half equation is reversed
2. Balance the electrons, the electrons must cancel when the equations are
added to give the overall equation
3. The numerical value of Eo does not vary irrespective of what is done to
balance the electrons
4. Add the equations and the Eo
5. If calculated Eo
- Positive, then the reaction will proceed spontaneously as written
- Negative, then the reaction does not occur but the reverse process
occurs spontaneously

15

Production of Materials
5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials
Isotopes atoms of same element that contain same no. of protons but different
no. of neutrons.
A
Z

- M is symbol of element, A is mass no., Z is atomic no.

Elements are named by their mass no, eg. Chlorine-35(

35
17

Cl )

A radioactive atom of an element behaves chemically exactly the same as a nonradioactive atom

distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the

conditions under which a nucleus is unstable
In stable isotope, protons and neutrons are low energy level and do not emit
radioactivity.
Radioactive Isotopes/radioisotopes spontaneously emit radiation from the
nucleus. This process is called radioactive decay. They are unstable.
Conditions of stability are related to the strength of force that hold the nuclear
particles together. This is determined by the mass of atom and the ratio of the
no. of protons:no. of neutrons.
If atomic no. is > 83, then element is radioactive
Stable light elements <20 have N:P = 1.0:1.0
In between 20 and 83, N:P = 1.5:1.0
The Half-life is the time for the radioactivity level of a given amount of
radioactive isotope to be halved, or time take for half of the radioactive material
to decay.
Radioactive isotopes can emit three types of radiation:
Alpha Radiation loss of alpha particle (helium nuclei) from the nucleus. New
element formed (ejected from heavy unstable nuclei. When alpha particles
are emitted often gamma rays are also emitted.
Beta Radiation fast moving electrons that come from the nucleus, not the
electron cloud. They are produced during nuclear decay. Neutrons breakdown
to protons plus electrons. This type of radiation occurs when the N:P is too
high.
Alpha and beta emissions are nuclear reactions because there has been a
change in the nucleus.
Gamma Radiation electromagnetic radiation, short wavelength, high in
energy. Very penetrating, caused by nucleus getting rid of excess energy as
the nucleus loses alpha or beta radiation. Does not need balancing in
equation as there is no mass, only energy.
Nam
e

Sym
bol

Identity

Relative
Charge
16

Relative
Mass

Penetrating
Power

Production of Materials
Alph
a

Positive

4 amu

5 cm air, stopped
by paper

2 proton, 2
neutron
(helium
nucleus)
Electron

Beta

Negative

waves

No charge

0.00055
amu
None

100 cm air, 5mm

Al
Can pass through
several cm of Pb
and a metre of
concrete.

Gam
ma

Types of Reactions
A chemical reaction is the rearrangement of ions or electrons.
A reaction in which a change occurs to the nucleus of an atom is called a nuclear
reaction. Eg. Radioactive decay &
Nuclear fission involves the bombarding of atoms that cause the atom to split
into 2 roughly equal pieces. This occurs in a controlled way in a nuclear reactor.
This is the reaction used in atomic bombs and nuclear power station. Extremely
large amounts of energy are released.
Uranium-235 is the most common nuclear fission
1
0

141
92
1
n + 235
92 U 56 Ba + 36 Kr +2 ( 0 n ) +energy

1
0

144
90
1
n + 235
92 U 54 Xe + 38 Sr +2 ( 0n ) + energy

The neutrons from the first reaction trigger other reactions resulting in a chain
reaction. This process can be used to make new isotopes as well as new
elements.
describe how transuranic elements are produced
Transuranic elements are artificial elements with atomic numbers greater than
92. Uranium is the largest naturally occurring elements.
They are produced in a nuclear reactor by bombarding heavy nuclei with
neutrons (93, 94, 95). They can also be produced in a linear accelerator or
cyclotron by bombarding heavy nuclei with high speed lightweight particles such
as helium or carbon. (96 onwards)
Neptunium and Plutonium
238
92

U + 0n

239
92

U 1e +

239
93

Np

Neptunium rapidly decays to plutonium Pu which is much more stable:

239
93

239

Np 1e + 94 Pu

describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced

In a reactor, radioisotopes are produced by bombarding atoms with neutrons. A
suitable target nuclei are placed in the core and bombarded with neutrons. Eg.
Cobalt 60 is used in cancer treatment and is made by bombarding cobalt-59 with
17

Production of Materials
neutrons. Technetium-99m is formed from molybdenum-99 which is a fission
product of Uranium-235
In cyclotrons, atoms are bombarded with small positive particles like helium or
carbon nucleus. Eg. Fluorine-18 and iodine-123
identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation
Photographic Film film darkens when exposed to radiation. Still used as
radiation badges to measure the amount of exposure of workers. The badge
monitor beta, gamma and X-ray exposure on different parts of the badge.
Cloud Chamber chamber containing a supersaturated vapour of water or
alcohol. The ionizing of the air leaves a visible trail of droplets as the radiation
passes through.
Geiger Counter Good for measuring beta radiation but can also measure alpha
and gamma radiation. Most radioactive emissions are ionizing radiation and are
usually detected by a Geiger-Muller tube connected to a counter. The GeigerMuller tube contains gas, usually argon that ionises and produces a small pulse
of electricity each time it is ionised by radiation. The counter counts the number
of pulses.
Scintillation Counter based on light emission when certain substances are
irradiated. These emissions are collected and amplified. It gives an electronic
reading. They are handheld and used to monitor contamination in nuclear power
stations.

identify one use of a named radioisotope:

- in industry
Strontium-90, caesium-137, cobalt-60 have low emissions and long half-lives.
They are used as thickness gauge, to monitor the thickness of paper, aluminium
foil and plastic films.
- in medicine
Technetium-99m is used in diagnosis

describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical
radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their properties
Medical
Technetium-99m (Tc-99m) is used in many diagnostic medical procedures, such
as pinpointing brain tumours, detecting blood clots and other circulatory
disorders, to ass damage after a heart attack and also to study the kidneys,
bones and liver. It emits gamma radiation. The Tc-99m is combined with other
molecules to study different areas of the body.
Tc-99m is used because:
- it has a very short half-life of 6 hours
- it emits low energy gamma radiation that minimises damage to
tissues but can still be detected in a persons body by a gamma ray
sensitive camera
- it is quickly eliminated from the body
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Production of Materials
Industrial
Strontium-90 is used for monitoring the thickness of sheets of paper, aluminium
foil, plastics and steel. Beta radiation is used to monitor the thickness of the
paper as it emerges from the roller. This is done by measuring the level of beta
rays that pass through the sheets. If it is too thin, more beta radiation is
detected. Beta sources are the best for thickness gauges as Alpha particles do
not penetrate enough and gamma rays is far too penetrating. Strontium-90 has a
half-life of 29.1 years so it lasts a long time before it needs replacing. It also has
a low emission.
Students:
process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of
elements
Atomic No.
Atom fired
Atom
Received
Formula
Way to
synthesise
Other

Roentgenium
111
Copper-65
Lead-208
208
82

Livermorium
116
Cromium-248
Calcium-48

272
Pb+ 65
29 Cu 111 Rg+n

48
20

Linear Accelerator

Cyclotron

Can be synthesized as decay

product:
293
117

4
Uus 289
115Uup+ 2 He

289
115

4
Uup 285
113Uut + 2 He

285
113

281

296
293
1
Ca+ 248
96 Cm 116 Lv 116 Lv +3 0n

Uut 111 Rg+ 2 He

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Production of Materials

use available evidence to analyse benefits and problems associated with the
use of radioactive isotopes in identified industries and medicine
Benefits
Problems
Targets specific cell, in medicine can
Change DNA, cause cancer
remove cancer
Medical testing, non-invasive
Waste products: disposal, long halflife,
transport and spillage
Leakage of gas pipe, cracks, crack
Exposure to general population
aeroplane
Movement of sediment in water
Can penetrate many materials, some
Carbon-14

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