ACADEMIA NAVAL MIRCEA CEL BATRN

INGINERIE SI MANAGEMENT NAVAL SI PORTUAR

ITALIA

Student : Soare Elena Loredana

Grupa : 471 FR

I. INTRODUCTION

Italy (Italian Italia), republic in southern Europe, bounded on the north by

Switzerland and Austria; on the east by Slovenia and the Adriatic Sea; on the south by the
Ionian Sea and the Mediterranean Sea; on the west by the Tyrrhenian Sea, the Ligurian
Sea, and the Mediterranean Sea; and on the northwest by France. It comprises, in addition
to the Italian mainland, the Mediterranean islands of Elba, Sardinia, and Sicily, and many
lesser islands. Enclaves within mainland Italy are the independent countries of San
Marino and Vatican City; the latter is a papal state mostly enclosed by Rome, the capital
and largest city of Italy. The area of Italy is 301,323 sq km (116,341 sq mi).

II LAND AND RESOURCES

More than half of Italy consists of the Italian Peninsula, a long projection of the
continental mainland. Shaped much like a boot, the Italian Peninsula extends generally
southeast into the Mediterranean Sea. From northwest to southeast, the country is about
1,145 km (about 710 mi) long; with the addition of the southern peninsular extremity,
which extends north to south, it is about 1,360 km (about 845 mi) long. The maximum
width of the mainland portion of Italy is about 610 km (about 380 mi) in the north; the
maximum width of the peninsula is about 240 km (about 150 mi). On the northern
frontiers are the Alps, which extend in a wide arc from Ventimiglia on the west to Gorizia
on the east, and include high peaks such as Monte Cervino (4,478 m/14,692 ft) and
Monte Rosa, which rises to its highest point (4,634 m/15,203 ft) in Switzerland just west
of the border. The highest point in Italy is near the summit of Mont Blanc (Monte
Bianco), on the border of Italy, France, and Switzerland; the peak, located in France, is
4,807 m (15,771 ft). Between the Alps and the Apennines, which form the backbone of
the Italian Peninsula, spreads the broad Plain of Lombardy, comprising the valley of the
Po River. The northern Apennines project from the Maritime Alps along the Gulf of
Genoa to the sources of the Tiber River. Monte Cimone (2,163 m/7,097 ft) is the highest
summit of the northern Apennines. The central Apennines, beginning at the source of the
Tiber, consist of several chains. In the eastern portion of this rugged mountain district is
Monte Corno (2,912 m/9,554 ft), the highest Apennine peak. The southern Apennines
stretch southeast from the valley of the Sangro River to the coast of the Gulf of Taranto,
where they assume a more southerly direction. High peaks of the Apennine ranges of the
Calabrian Peninsula, as the southern extremity of the Italian Peninsula is known, include
Botte Donato (1,929 m/6,329 ft) and Montalto (1,957 m/6,422 ft). The Apennines form
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the watershed of the Italian Peninsula. The main uplifts are bordered by less elevated
districts, known collectively as the sub-Apennine region.
Only about one-third of the total land surface of Italy is made of plains, of which the
greatest single tract is the Plain of Lombardy. The coast of Italy along the northern
Adriatic Sea is low and sandy, bordered by shallow waters and, except at Venice, not
readily accessible to oceangoing vessels. From a point near Rimini southward, the eastern
coast of the peninsula is fringed by spurs of the Apennines. Along the middle of the
western coast, however, are three stretches of low and marshy land, the Campagna di
Roma, the Pontine Marshes, and the Maremma.Shaped much like a boot, the Italian
Peninsula extends generally southeast into the Mediterranean Sea.
The western coast of Italy is broken up by bays, gulfs, and other indentations, which
provide a number of natural anchorages. In the northwest is the Gulf of Genoa, the harbor
of the important commercial city of Genoa. Naples, another leading western coast port, is
situated on the beautiful Bay of Naples, dominated by the volcano Mount Vesuvius. A
little farther south is the Gulf of Salerno, at the head of which stands the port of Salerno.
The southeastern end of the peninsula is deeply indented by the Gulf of Taranto, which
divides the so-called heel of Italy (ancient Calabria) from the toe (modern Calabria). The
Apennine range continues beneath the narrow Strait of Messina and traverses the island
of Sicily, where the volcano Mount Etna, 3,323 m (10,902 ft) high, is located. Another
active volcano rises on Stromboli, one of the Lipari Islands (Isole Eolie), northwest of the
Strait of Messina. In addition to volcanic activity, Italy is also plagued by frequent minor
earthquakes, especially in the southern regions.
II.1 RIVERS AND LAKES
Italy has many rivers, of which the Po and the Adige are the most important. The Po,
652 km (405 mi) long, is navigable for about 480 km (about 300 mi), and with its
tributaries affords about 970 km (about 600 mi) of inland waterways. The Adige, 410 km
(255 mi) long, enters Italy from the Austrian province of Tirol (Tyrol), flows east, and,
like the Po, empties into the Adriatic. The beds of these rivers are slowly being elevated
by alluvial deposits from the mountains.
II.2 CLIMATE
The climate of Italy is highly diversified, with extremes ranging from frigid in the
higher elevations of the Alps and Apennines, to semitropical along the coast of the
Ligurian Sea and the western coast of the lower peninsula. The average annual
temperature, however, ranges from about 11 to 19C (about 52 to 66F); it is about
13C (about 55F) in the Po Valley, about 18C (about 64F) in Sicily, and about 14.5C
(about 58F) in the coastal lowlands. Climatic conditions on the peninsula are
characterized by regional variations, resulting chiefly from the configurations of the
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Apennines, and are influenced by tempering winds from the adjacent seas. In the
lowlands regions and lower slopes of the Apennines bordering the western coast from
northern Tuscany (Toscana) to the vicinity of Rome, winters are mild and sunny, and
extreme temperatures are modified by cooling Mediterranean breezes. Temperatures in
the same latitudes on the east of the peninsula are much lower, chiefly because of the
prevailing northeastern winds. Along the upper eastern slopes of the Apennines, climatic
conditions are particularly bleak. The climate of the peninsular lowlands below the
latitude of Rome closely resembles that of southern Spain. In contrast to the semitropical
conditions prevalent in southern Italy and along the Gulf of Genoa, the climate of the
Plain of Lombardy is continental. Warm summers and severe winters, with temperatures
as low as -15C (5F), prevail in this region, which is shielded from sea breezes by the
Apennines. Heaviest precipitation occurs in Italy during the fall and winter months, when
westerly winds prevail. The lowest mean annual rainfall, about 460 mm (about 18 in),
occurs in the Apulian province of Foggia in the south and in southern Sicily; the highest,
about 1,520 mm (about 60 in), occurs in the province of Udine in the northeast.
II.3 NATURAL RESOURCES
Italy is rich in various types of building stone, notably marble. Italy is poor in natural
resources, much of the land being unsuitable for agriculture due to mountainous terrain or
unfavorable climate. Italy, moreover, is seriously deficient in basic natural resources such
as coal. The most important mineral resources are natural gas, petroleum, lignite, sulfur,
and pyrites. Other mineral deposits include lead, manganese, zinc, mercury, and bauxite.
Many of these deposits are on the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. However, they had been
heavily depleted by the early 1990s. Italy is rich in various types of building stone,
notably marble. The coastal waters of Italy teem with fishes, of which sardine, tuna, and
anchovy have the greatest commercial importance. Freshwater fishes include eels and
trout.
II.4 PLANTS AND ANIMALS
The flora of the central and southern lowlands of Italy is typically Mediterranean.
Among the characteristic vegetation of these regions are trees such as the olive, orange,
lemon, palm, and citron. Other common types, especially in the extreme south, are fig,
date, pomegranate, and almond trees, and sugarcane and cotton. The vegetation of the
Apennines closely resembles that of central Europe. Dense growths of chestnut, cypress,
and oak trees occupy the lower slopes, and at higher elevations, there are extensive stands
of pine and fir.Italy has fewer varieties of animals than are found generally in comparable
areas of Europe. Small numbers of marmot, chamois, and ibex live in the Alps. The bear,
numerous in ancient times, is now virtually extinct, but the wolf and wild boar still
flourish in the mountain regions. Another fairly common quadruped is the fox. Among
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the predatory species of bird are the eagle hawk, vulture, buzzard, falcon, and kite,
confined for the most part to the mountains. The quail, woodcock, partridge, and various
migratory species abound in many parts of Italy. Reptiles include several species of
lizards and snakes and three species of the poisonous viper family. Scorpions are also
found.
II.5 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Industrial and urban pollution is a major concern in Italy. Sulfur dioxide emissions
that have been linked with health problems and damage to buildings have decreased since
1970, but progress in cleaning the air has been slower than in other European countries.
Nitrogen oxide emissions are still on the rise, however, linked with continued growth of
the transportation sector. Electric cars are becoming a popular solution to air-quality
problems in urban areas. Up to 10 percent of Italys forests have been damaged by air
pollution. Levels of water pollution from farm chemicals and human waste are high in
some rivers and in the Adriatic Sea. Nature conservation has been practiced in Italy since
Roman times. There are currently five national parks, each independently administered.
In addition, there are many other types of smaller protected areas. The lack of a national
system of protected areas with centralized administration has impeded efforts to create
new preserves and to legally protect existing ones. A nationwide forest inventory was
completed in 1988. The government provides incentives for forest preservation and tree
planting. About 22.1 percent (1995) of the country is forested, of which 42 percent is
managed for tree harvest and only one-quarter is mature forest. A significant proportion
of forests is under private management. Forest biomass has increased in recent years due
to a decline in human encroachment on mountain habitats. Since the early 1980s Italy has
had fairly comprehensive laws and guidelines protecting the sea and coastlines, although
enforcement and implementation has been irregular.
Italy has ratified numerous international environmental agreements, including the
World Heritage Convention and agreements concerning air pollution, biodiversity,
climate change, endangered species, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, the nuclear test
ban, the ozone layer, ship pollution, tropical timber, wetlands, and whaling. Regionally,
Italy is party to the European Wild Birds Directive and the Council of Europe (CE), under
which dozens of biogenetic reserves have been designated. Ten specially protected
marine areas exist in Italy under the Mediterranean Action Plan. Several transborder
parks have been established with France and Switzerland.
III POPULATION
The Italian population consists almost entirely of native-born people, many of
whom identify themselves closely with a particular region of Italy. The country can be
generally divided into the more urban north (the area from the northern border and the
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port of Ancona to the southern part of Rome) and the mostly rural south (everything
below this line, which is called the Ancona Wall by Italians). The more prosperous
north contains most of Italys larger cities and about two-thirds of the countrys
population; the primarily agricultural south has a smaller population base and a more
limited economy. In recent decades the population has generally migrated from rural to
urban areas; the population was 67 percent urban in 2000. The overwhelming majority of
the people speak Italian (see Italian Language), one of the Romance group of languages
of the Indo-European family of languages (see Italic Languages). German is spoken
around Bolzano, in the north near the Austrian border. Other minority languages include
French (spoken in the Valle dAosta region), Ladin, Albanian, Slovenian, Catalan,
Friulian, Sardinian, Croatian, and Greek.
III.1 POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
According to the 1991 census, Italy had a population of 56,778,031. The 2002
estimated population is 57,715,625, giving the country an average population density of
192 persons per sq km (about 496 per sq mi).
III.2 POLITICAL DIVISIONS
Administratively, Italy is divided into 20 regions, each of which is subdivided into
provinces and communes.
III.3 PRINCIPAL CITIES
The capital and largest city of Italy is Rome (population, 2000 estimate, 2,644,000),
which is a famous cultural and tourist center. Other cities with large populations include
Milan (1,301,000), an important manufacturing, financial, and commercial city; Naples
(1,003,000), one of the busiest ports in Italy; Turin (904,000), a transportation junction
and major industrial city; Palermo (684,000), the capital and chief seaport of Sicily;
Genoa (636,000), the leading port in Italy and a major trade and commercial center;
Bologna (381,000), a major transportation center and agricultural market; Florence
(377,000), a cultural, commercial, transportation, and industrial center; Bari (332,000), a
major commercial center; Catania (338,000), a manufacturing and commercial city of
Sicily; and Venice (277,000), a leading seaport and a cultural and manufacturing center.

III.4 RELIGION
The dominant religion of Italy is Roman Catholicism, the faith of about 98 percent of
the people. However, the Catholic churchs role in Italy is declining; only about 25
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percent of Italians attend mass regularly, and a law ratified in 1985 abolished Roman
Catholicism as the official state religion and ended mandatory religious instruction in
public schools. The constitution guarantees freedom of worship to the religious
minorities, which are primarily Protestant, Muslim, and Jewish.
III.5 EDUCATION
The Italian impact on European education dates back to the ancient Roman
educators and scholars, outstanding among whom were Cicero, Quintilian, and Seneca.
Later, during the Middle Ages, Italian universities became the model for those of other
countries. During the Renaissance, Italy was the teacher of the liberal arts to virtually all
Europe, especially for Greek language and literature. The educational influence of Italy
continued through the 17th century, when its universities and academies were Continental
centers of teaching and research in the sciences. After a decline during the 18th and 19th
centuries, Italian education regained international notice in the 20th century, partly as a
result of the method for teaching young children developed by Maria Montessori.
The modern educational system of Italy dates from 1859, when a law was enacted
providing for a complete school system that extended from the elementary through the
university levels. Improvements were introduced later in the 19th century. In 1923 the
philosopher Giovanni Gentile, minister of public instruction under Benito Mussolini,
promoted complete governmental control of education, and the control was reinforced by
the School Charter of 1939. With the collapse of fascism in 1944, however, Italy
undertook to organize the school system along democratic lines. The constitution of 1947
and later laws raised the general educational level and encouraged experimentation, such
as televised adult education (telescuola).
Traditionally, the goal of the Italian educational system has been to establish a welltrained minority rather than a widely educated majority. Children aged 3 to 5 may attend
kindergarten. Education is free and compulsory for all children aged 6 through 14. The
compulsory term includes five years of elementary and three years of secondary
education. The required part of secondary education is taken in a lower secondary school.
This period may be followed by study in a higher secondary school to gain specialized
training or to prepare for university entrance. Higher secondary studies leading to
university entrance may be taken in classical, scientific, teacher-training, technical, or
business schools. A student may also enter an art institute or conservatory of music. Areas
of specialized training include industry and agriculture.
III.6 CULTURE
From antiquity to modern times, Italy has played a central role in world culture.
Italians have contributed some of the worlds most admired sculpture, architecture,
painting, literature, and music, particularly opera. Although the nation was politically
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unified less than 150 years ago, the Italians do not consider themselves to be a new
people, but see themselves instead as the descendants of the ancient Romans. Moreover,
regional differences persist because of natural geographical boundaries and the disparate
cultural heritage that has come down from the Greeks, Etruscans, Arabs, Normans, and
Lombards. Regional particularism is evident in persistent local dialects, holidays,
festivals, songs, and regional cuisine. Central to all Italian life is the tradition of the
family as a guiding force and focus of loyalty.
Many of the great Italian painters, such as Giotto, Fra Angelico, Michelangelo,
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Titian, and Amedeo Modigliani, are covered in separate
articles in the encyclopedia, as are famous Italian composers such as Antonio Vivaldi,
Gaetano Donizetti, Giacomo Puccini, Gioacchino Rossini, and Giuseppe Verdi. See also
Architecture; Italian Literature; Motion Pictures, History of; Music, Western; Opera;
Painting; Sculpture.
Although Michelangelo was reluctant to undertake the commission, his paintings on the
ceiling and upper walls of the Sistine Chapel remain masterpieces that have captured the
attention of art lovers ever since their completion in 1512. Modern-day restorers began
work in the 1980s and faced a number of challenges in trying to bring the paintings back
to their original state.
III.7 LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS
Italy is rich in important library collections. Among the largest and most valuable
libraries are the national libraries in Florence, Naples, and Rome. Several universities
also have large libraries. Smaller collections, rich in local manuscripts and incunabula
(books printed before 1501), are found in most Italian cities.
World-famous art collections are housed in numerous Italian cities. Among the most
important art museums are the Uffizi Gallery and Medici Chapel in Florence, the
National Museum in Naples, and, in Rome, the Villa Giulia Museum, the Galleria
Borghese, and the National Gallery of Modern Art. Vatican City has important art
collections in its museums and chapels, the most famous of which is the Sistine Chapel.
An international biennial exhibition of visual arts in Venice is world renowned.

IV ECONOMY
A largely agricultural country before World War II (1939-1945), Italy has developed a
diversified industrial base in the north, which contributes significantly to the economy. In
2000 the gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $1.07 trillion, or about $18,620
per capita; industry contributed 30 percent to the value of domestic output, services 68
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percent, and agriculture (including forestry and fishing) 3 percent. Italy essentially has a
private-enterprise economy, although the government formerly held a controlling interest
in a number of large commercial and manufacturing enterprises, such as the oil industry
(through the Italian state petroleum company) and the principal transportation and
telecommunication systems. In the mid-1990s Italy was transferring government interest
in many enterprises to private ownership. An ongoing problem of the Italian economy has
been the slow growth of industrialization in the south, which lags behind the north in
most aspects of economic development. Government efforts to foster industrialization in
the south have met with mixed results, as problems with the workforce and the overriding
influence of the criminal groups known collectively as the Mafia have discouraged many
large corporations from opening operations there. Many southerners have migrated to
northern Italy in search of employment. Unemployment remains a problem throughout
the country, however; the unemployment rate remains at about 11 percent of the workingage population. The large national debt has also plagued Italys economy: The national
budget of Italy in 1999 included revenue of $488 billion and expenditure of $495 billion.
In keeping with provisions of the Maastricht Treaty, which created the European Union
(EU), Italy is attempting to reduce its budget deficit. Progress was evident by 1996, with
the debt reduced to 7 percent of GDP, although still far from the goal of 3 percent.
IV.1 AGRICULTURE
Some 39 percent of the land area of Italy is cultivated or used for orchards; agriculture,
with fishing and forestry, engages 5 percent of the labor force. Variations of climate, soil,
and elevation allow the cultivation of many types of crops. Italy is one of the leading
nations in the production of grapes and ranks among the worlds foremost wine
producers. Italian wine production totaled about 6.4 million cubic meters (1.7 billion
gallons) in the early 1990s. Italy also is one of the worlds leading producers of olives
and olive oil. The output of olives was about 2.4 million metric tons annually in the early
1990s, and production of olive oil was about 435,000 metric tons. Chief field crops, with
2001 production in metric tons, included vegetables such as tomatoes (15.3 million),
maize (11.3 million), wheat (6.5 million), sugar beets (12 million), potatoes (2.1 million),
rice (1.3 million), and soybeans (1.1 million). Other field crops are barley, rye,
artichokes, chili peppers, and watermelons. Orchard crops, prominent in the Italian
economy, include apples, peaches, pears, oranges, figs, dates, and nuts. Dairy farming is a
major industry. About 50 kinds of cheese are produced, including Gorgonzola, pecorino,
and Parmesan. The livestock population in 2001 numbered 7.1 million cattle, 11 million
sheep, 8.4 million hogs, 1.3 million goats, 280,000 horses, and 123 million poultry.
B Forestry and Fishing

The forestry industry is limited in Italy, and much wood must be imported. Most of the
old-growth forests were harvested, first by the Romans in antiquity and then in the 19th
century. The resulting soil erosion has also hampered industry. However, some advances
have been made in recent years, and the timber harvest in 2000 was 9.3 million cubic
meters (329 million cubic feet). The catch of the countrys substantial fishing industry in
1997 was 562,196 metric tons. Among the species harvested are mussels, shrimp, prawns,
sardines, trout, striped venus, hake, anchovies, and octopus.
C Mining
Mining contributes only a small portion of the annual national product, but production of
some minerals is sizable. Lead production, for example, totalled 6,000 metric tons in
1999. Production of fossil fuels in 1999 included 53.7 million barrels of crude petroleum
and 17.6 billion cubic meters (620 billion cubic feet) of natural gas. Other mineral
resources include barites, lignite, pyrites, fluorspar, sulfur, and mercury.
D Manufacturing
Since World War II, Italian industry has expanded rapidly, and Italian products have
gained worldwide popularity. In the early 1990s the annual production of the textile
industry, one of the largest and most important, included 245,100 metric tons of cotton
yarn. Annual production of the chemical industry, which is also important to the national
economy, included sulfuric acid (2.8 million metric tons), ammonia (1.4 million), and
caustic soda (964,800). Among other major industries are the manufacture of motor
vehicles, iron and steel, rubber, heavy machinery, electrical ware (particularly household
electronic products), and foodstuffs, particularly pasta. Annual production of passenger
cars totaled 1.5 million in the early 1990s. Shipbuilding, the processing of hemp and
tobacco, and sugar refining are also important. Leading manufacturing centers include
Genoa, Milan, Rome, and Turin.

E Energy
Italy generates only about a quarter of the energy it consumes, relying mostly on
imported fossil fuels. Some 79.09 percent of Italys yearly output of electricity is
generated in thermal plants burning petroleum products, natural gas, coal, or lignite, and
most of the remainder is produced in hydroelectric facilities. The countrys nuclear
energy program was abandoned because of public opposition following the 1986 accident

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at Chernobyl in Ukraine. In 1999 Italys annual output of electricity was 248 billion
kilowatt-hours.
F Currency and Banking
The monetary unit of Italy is the single currency of the European Union (EU), the euro
(1.07 euros equal U.S. $1; 1999 average). Italy is among 12 EU member states to adopt
the euro. The euro was introduced on January 1, 1999, for electronic transfers and
accounting purposes only, and Italys national currency, the lire, was used for other
purposes. On January 1, 2002, euro-denominated coins and bills went into circulation,
and the lire ceased to be legal tender.
The Bank of Italy is the Italian national bank. A public institution, the Bank of Italy has
branches in each provincial capital. In addition, Italy has many private banks. The 1990
Banking Act introduced a number of changes in the countrys banking system, reducing
public ownership of banks and loosening regulations on external and foreign capital, as
part of the move by the European Community (now the EU) toward free capital
movement within Europe and currency union. Milan and Rome are major financial
centers.
As a participant in the single currency, Italy must follow economic policies established by
the European Central Bank (ECB). The ECB is located in Frankfurt, Germany, and is
responsible for all EU monetary policies, which include setting interest rates and
regulating the money supply. On January 1, 1999, control over Italian monetary policy
was transferred from the Bank of Italy to the ECB. The Bank of Italy joined the other EU
countries that adopted the euro as part of the European System of Central Banks (ESCB).
G Foreign Trade
Increased trade between Italy and the other member countries of the European Union
characterized the 1970s and 1980s. The dependence of Italy on imported coal, petroleum,
and other essential raw materials usually yields an unfavorable balance of trade. This
imbalance is partly offset by the tourism industry, remittances from Italian nationals in
foreign lands, and shipping revenues. In 2000 Italian exports earned $238.3 billion per
year and imports cost $236.6 billion. Exports include machinery, motor vehicles,
clothing, textile yarn and fabrics, footwear, iron and steel, fruit and vegetables, and wine.
Imports include machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, metals, chemicals,
textile yarn and fabrics, and meat.
Nearly three-fifths of Italian trade is with members of the European Union.

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Exports increased in the early 1990s when the lira was devalued against other European
currencies, making Italian manufactures less expensive to foreign buyers. Rising exports
helped pull Italy from a recession, which in the early 1990s produced the sharpest
economic fall in the postwar era. Nearly three-fifths of Italian trade is with members of
the European Union. Principal markets for Italys products are Germany, France, the
United States, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Switzerland. Chief sources for imports are
Germany, France, United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, and the United
States.
H Transportation
With 1,476 vessels in 2001, Italy has one of the worlds largest merchant fleets; its total
displacement was 6.6 million gross registered tons. The countrys chief seaports include
Genoa, Trieste, Taranto, and Venice. Italy is served by 16,108 km (10,009 mi) of operated
railroad track, much of which is electrified. The government operates most of the rail
lines. The country has about 479,688 km (about 298,064 mi) of roads, including some
7,000 km (some 4,300 mi) of limited-access highways (autostrada). One of the longest
automobile tunnels in the world, the Mont Blanc Tunnel linking Italy and France, was
opened in 1965. The two countries also are linked via the Mount Frejus vehicular tunnel,
opened in 1980. Alitalia, the state airline, provides both domestic and international
service. The countrys busiest airport is near Rome; the largest international airport is
Malpensa Airport near Milan.
I Communications
Since the abolition in 1976 of the Italian governments monopoly on broadcasting, the
number of stations in the country has increased to more than 160 radio and 80 television
broadcasters. While the number of daily newspapers remains small relative to Italys
population, total circulation was 6 million in 1996, or 104 copies for every 1,000
residents. Readership in the north and central portion of the country accounts for fourfifths of the sales. Local and regional publications, including those produced by political
parties and by the Roman Catholic church, are an important part of Italys
communications network. Influential dailies include Corriere della Sera and Il Giorno, in
Milan; La Repubblica, in Rome; and La Stampa, in Turin. In 1997 Italy had 880 radios
and 528 televisions for every 1,000 people.
J Labor
Italys labor force in 2000 was 26 million; some 39 percent were women. In the early
1990s, approximately 9.9 million workers belonged to three major trade union
federations: the Confederazione Generale Italiana del Lavoro, or CGIL (some 4.6 million
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members), associated with the Socialist Party and the Democratic Party of the Left; the
centrist Confederazione Italiana Sindacati Lavoratori, or CISL (about 3.8 million); and
the Unione Italiana del Lavoro, or UIL (1.5 million). Labor union contracts set wages and
salaries in every major field.
K The Mafia
The Mafia has historically been one of the most powerful economic and social forces in
Italy.
A loosely affiliated network of criminal groups that first developed in Sicily during the
late Middle Ages, the Mafia has historically been one of the most powerful economic and
social forces in Italy. By the late 19th century, the Mafia, known for its familial structure,
ruthless violence, and strong code of silence (omert), controlled the Sicilian countryside,
infiltrating or manipulating local authorities, extorting money, and terrorizing citizens.
During the 20th century, except for a period of repression by Benito Mussolini from the
1920s until the end of World War II in 1945, the Mafia continued to expand its influence
over both legal and illegal operations in Italy, especially in the south. The Mafias
influence was exported to other countries by emigrants, and by the 1970s the Mafia
controlled a large part of the worlds heroin trade. Renewed government prosecution of
Mafia figures and activities beginning in the mid-1980s, and a series of political scandals
linking many Italian politicians with the Mafia, gave rise to hopes that Mafia influence in
Italy would eventually decline.
V GOVERNMENT
.
Italy has been a democratic republic since June 2, 1946, when the monarchy was
abolished by popular referendum. By the terms of the constitution that became effective
on January 1, 1948, the reestablishment of the Fascist Party is prohibited; direct male
heirs of the house of Savoy (see Savoy, House of) are ineligible to vote or hold any public
office and are, in fact, banished from Italian soil; and recognition is no longer accorded to
titles of nobility, although titles in existence prior to October 28, 1922, may be used as
part of the bearers name. Although Italys tumultuous politics have produced more than
50 different governments since the advent of the democratic system, order is maintained
through a well-established bureaucracy that supports the elected offices.
A Executive

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The president of Italy is elected for a seven-year term by a joint session of parliament
augmented by three delegates from each of the 20 regional councils except that of Valle
dAosta, which sends only one. The president, who must be at least 50 years old, is
ordinarily elected by a two-thirds majority. The president has the right to dissolve the
Senate and Chamber of Deputies at any time except during the last six months of his
tenure. The president usually has little to do with the actual running of the government.
These duties are in the hands of the prime ministerwho is chosen by the president and
must have the confidence of parliamentand the Council of Ministers. The prime
minister (sometimes called the premier) generally is the leader of the party that has the
largest representation in the Chamber of Deputies.
B Legislature
The Italian parliament consists of a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies elected by popular
suffrage for five-year terms of office. For many years, Italian citizens voted for political
parties, and individual representatives were named by party leaders in a proportional
manner. But as a result of corruption scandals in the early 1990s, a number of public
referendums were passed in April 1993 that mandated a more direct electoral system.
Beginning with the elections of March 1994, three-fourths of the 630 seats in the lowerhouse Chamber of Deputies and an identical proportion of the 326 elected seats in the
upper-house Senate are now filled by direct candidate ballot, as in the United States. The
other 25 percent of Senate seats are filled by a system of proportional representation.
There are also life members in the Senate, a group made up of past presidents and their
honorary nominees (each president is entitled to make up to five such appointments).
Citizens must be 25 years of age or older to vote for senators; in all other elections, all
citizens over age 18 are eligible to vote.
C Judiciary
Italy has a Supreme Court of Cassation (Corte Supreme di Cassazione), which is the
highest court of appeal in all cases except those concerning the constitution. There is also
a constitutional court, which is analogous in function to the Supreme Court of the United
States, and is composed of 15 judges. Five of the judges are appointed by the president of
the republic, five by the Senate and Chamber of Deputies jointly, and five by the supreme
law courts. The criminal justice system includes district courts, tribunals, and courts of
appeal.
D Local Government
Every part of Italy forms a portion of a commune, the basic unit of local government.

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Italy is divided into 20 regions, which are subdivided into a total of 94 provinces. Each
region is governed by an executive responsible to a popularly elected council. The
regional governments have considerable authority. The chief executive of each of the
provinces, the prefect, is appointed by, and answerable to, the central government and in
fact has little power. An elected council and a provincial executive committee administer
each province. Every part of Italy forms a portion of a commune, the basic unit of local
government, which may range in size from a small village to a large city such as Naples;
there were more than 8,000 communes in the early 1990s. Each commune is governed by
a communal council elected for a four-year term by universal suffrage. Each council
elects a mayor.
E Political Parties
During the first half of the 1990s, in the face of widespread political scandal, Italy moved
from a coalition system of politics that had long been dominated by a single party to a
more splintered system of powerful new parties and alliances. The centrist Christian
Democratic Party, which had been part of 52 consecutive coalitions that had ruled Italy
since 1948, dissolved in January 1994. Its members formed two separate parties, the
Popular Party and the Christian Democratic Center Party. A new right-wing party, Forza
Italia (Go, Italy), led by media magnate Silvio Berlusconi, then emerged as a leading
political group. The far-right National Alliance, a successor of the neo-fascist Italian
Social Movement, also gained prominence during the 1990s.
The major left-wing party became the Democratic Party of the Left, the new name
adopted in 1991 by the Italian Communists, one of the largest Communist parties in
Western Europe. The party renounced its Communist past and adopted more moderate
policies, but a smaller splinter group, the Communist Refoundation, continued to espouse
Marxist principles. The Northern League-Federal Italy (known as the Northern League
until 1995), begun in the 1980s as a protest party, has advocated increased regional
autonomy, at times calling for Italy to be split into several federated republics. The
countrys minor parties include the Green Party, the Liberal Party of Italy, several
Socialist parties, the Republican Party of Italy, the Radical Party, and the anti-Mafia
Network Party.

F Health and Welfare

A government-run national health service, created by legislation enacted in 1978, has the
goal of providing free medical care for all citizens. In 1998 Italy had one hospital bed for
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every 182 people and one physician for every 169 people. Social-welfare insurance,
funded largely by employers, is extended to the infirm and the aged, as well as to people
pensioned by the state, farmers, unemployed agricultural workers, and apprentices. Life
expectancy at birth was estimated at 83 years for women and 76 years for men in 2002;
the infant mortality rate was 6 per 1,000 live births.
G Defense
The armed forces of Italy have been greatly expanded since the country joined the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in 1949. In 2001 the Italian permanent armed
forces totaled 230,350 people, with an army of 137,000, a navy of 38,000, an air force of
55,350, and a central staff. Compulsory military service for men extends for ten months.
Italy will phase out peacetime conscription by 2003, opening the way for the creation of a
voluntary military force.

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