Rock Mech. Rock Engng.

(2007) 40 (1), 8195

DOI 10.1007/s00603-006-0090-y
Printed in The Netherlands

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly

Permeable Ground
By

P. Fritz
Institute for Geotechnical Engineering IGT, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
ETH-Z, Zurich, Switzerland
Received April 14, 2005; accepted January 3, 2006
Published online May 22, 2006 # Springer-Verlag 2006

Summary
For tunneling projects in saturated soils tunnel boring machines (TBMs) with slurry shields are
widely used. However, in coarse, highly permeable soils the suspension penetrates the ground and
the required support pressure cannot be built up. For the Zimmerberg Base Tunnel near Zurich
permeabilities much greater than 10
3 m=s were expected. This value is usually considered as the
critical limit for the applicability of slurry shields. Therefore it was aimed to find additives for the
bentonite suspension which would allow it to attain a higher suspension pressure.
For these investigations an apparatus has been developed. It allows the maximum attainable
support pressure for a given suspension and a ground to be determined. It reflects the real situation,
produces reproducible results and is insensitive to the inevitable variation of individual parameters.
In the tests the additives polymer, sand and vermiculite were studied and their effects on the
attainable maximum suspension pressure investigated. For the best combination, i.e. with a well
defined proportion of the individual components, suspension pressures could be attained which
were about 10 to 20 times higher than those with an ordinary bentonite suspension. Successful
excavation of the Zimmerberg Base Tunnel proved the validity of the laboratory tests containing
200 kg bentonite per m3 water.
Keywords: Bentonite, gravel, shield, slurry, soil, suspension, TBM, tunnel.

1. Motivation
For tunneling projects in saturated, non cohesive soils tunnel boring machines (TBMs)
with slurry shields are widely used. However, in coarse, highly permeable soils the suspension penetrates the ground and the required support pressure cannot be built up. The
main criteria for this are the permeability of the ground, the grain size distribution curve
and the properties of the slurry. For pure bentonite slurries critical values, depending on
the author, are expected to lie between 10
4 to 5  10
3 m=s for the permeability (Fig. 1)
and outside a specific range of the grain size distribution curve as indicated in Fig. 2.

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P. Fritz

Fig. 1. Critical permeabilities expected by various authors (Kanayasu et al., 1995; Krause, 1987; Harsch,
1994), and values measured at two tunnel sites

Fig. 2. Ranges of grain size distribution where use of slurry shields is possible or difficult (Krause, 1987).
Two additional ranges characterize the conditions at the tunnel sites under discussion

Recently two tunnels had to be built in Zurich in highly permeable ground outside
these established limits. The Hermetschloo Sewage Gallery of 2.80 m diameter and
with an overburden (above the crown) of 4 to 5 m is situated in ground with permeabilities measured by pumping tests of up to 3  10
3 m=s. When advancing with a
pure bentonite slurry various surface failures occurred, because the slurry penetrated
the ground without allowing to build up the required support pressure.
Table 1. Composition of suspensions (kg=m3 water)
Suspension

Hermetschloo

Zimmerberg

Additives

Initial
2

Final
3

Bentonite (IBECO HT-X)

Polymer (Carbocel C190)
Sand (grain size <1 mm)
Vermiculite (0.7 to 4 mm)

40
0.5
100
20

50
0.5
100
40

50
0.5
100
30

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly Permeable Ground

83

Based on laboratory tests a set of additives has been determined, consisting of

polymer, sand and vermiculite (c.f. Table 1), which allowed excavation without any
further failures. This project and the tests have been described by Fritz et al. (2002).
The other tunnel, the Zimmerberg Base Tunnel, presented even more difficult
conditions due to its large diameter of 12.35 m and the higher overburden of up to
15 m. The ground properties were expected to be similar to those at Hermetschloo.
Pumping tests revealed permeabilities between 1 and 4  10
3 m=s, and flow meter
tests even 6  10
2 m=s. Whereas, based on calculations at Hermetschloo, for a factor
of safety of 1.75 a differential pressure between the suspension and the ground water
of 0.5 bar was found to be sufficient, at the Zimmerberg Tunnel about 2.4 bar was
required. A substantial part of this value may be attributed to the higher loads to carry
from buildings above the tunnel.
It was expected that this high pressure could not be attained even with the
enhanced suspension used in Hermetschloo. The present publication highlights the
investigations carried out to find additives for the suspension which allowed such a
high pressure to be exerted even in this highly permeable ground.
2. Additives: State of the Art
Much experience is available for bentonite slurries, not only for slurry shields, but
even more so for diaphragm walls and in the drilling industry. Bentonite is a type of
clay that is formed by weathering of volcanic ash. It consists mainly of the clay
mineral montmorillonite. Thanks to its capabilities of forming a yield point and inner
crystalline swelling, bentonite suspensions stagnate after penetrating the ground to a
certain depth and a filter cake will be built up at the surface. On the tunnel face sealed
in this way the required pressure for stability is built up.
For highly permeable soils pure bentonite suspensions cannot be used any more,
because they penetrate the ground and the required suspension pressure may not be
attained.
Krause (1987) was probably the first to investigate scientifically the influence of
the additives polymer, sand, cement and mica flakes.
Polymers allow the concentration of bentonite to be reduced by simultaneously improving the quality of the suspension (density, viscosity, stability, dispersing, clumping).
Sand increases the shear strength of the suspension and clogs the pores near the
surface, which reduces penetration depth and contributes to the rapid formation of a
filter cake.
By adding cement it was aimed to increase the shear strength and thereby reduce
penetration depth. However, cement is very sensitive to the correct concentration.
Furthermore, a potential hardening of the suspension cannot be excluded. Therefore
cement can hardly be applied under the conditions of a working site.
Mica flakes increase the shear strength and the run-out time of the Marsh Funnel.
However, the bonding of the filter cake at the wall is very weak, which would endanger safety unacceptably when accessing the working chamber under compressed
air conditions.
One of the first applications of additives in a slurry shield was in the Grauholz
Tunnel (Jancsez and Steiner, 1994), where sand, polymer and sawdust have been

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P. Fritz

added. Sawdust with its long fibers is bound to clog the soil pores directly at the
surface. This suspension was only used in one place to build up a filter cake before
accessing the working chamber under compressed air conditions. Normal advance
works may present different problems (see discussion of sawdust below).
Fritz and Tandler (1999) and Fritz et al. (2002) report on extensive laboratory
investigations for finding appropriate additives and a successful application to the
Hermetschloo Gallery mentioned above. They started with the same mixture described
by Jancsez and Steiner (1994), but sawdust proved to be inapplicable during tunnel
advance. Whereas on the positive side the long fibers clog the soil pores successfully
directly at the surface, their drawback is that they also clog the sieves in the separation
plant. In addition and even worse, soapy substances were set free from the sawdust
which caused a dense foam to develop in the tanks and in the pipes, until the required
pumping volume could not be achieved any more and the circulation collapsed.
Therefore the sawdust was replaced by exfoliated (expanded) vermiculite, an
aluminumironmagnesium silicate, belonging to the family of micaceous minerals.

3. Properties of Additives
Before discussing the laboratory tests for finding an improved suspension, the properties of the individual additives with respect to their contribution to obtaining a higher
support pressure will be highlighted.

3.1 Bentonite
Depending on the type of the adsorbed cations, bentonite is designated as Na- or
Ca-bentonite. When water is available, the cations can hydrate and the distance
between the layer packs will increase, a process called inner crystalline swelling, a
typical property of montmorillonite or bentonite. The absorption of water and thus the
swelling is higher for Na-bentonites than for Ca-bentonites, resulting in higher attainable support pressures for the former. Ca-bentonites may be converted (activated) to
Na-bentonites by replacing Ca-ions by Na-ions by means of soda (Na2CO3).
In fact support pressure tests for two different Na-bentonites yielded higher values
for the activated HT-X than for the natural MX-80.

3.2 Polymer
From pure bentonite suspensions it is known, that when adding 0.5 kg=m3 polymer
about 30% less bentonite may be used. However, for the suspension discussed here
with various additives this effect may be much less pronounced. As a matter of fact,
the quantity of polymer added is determined solely by aiming to get the best possible
results for the combined action of all additives.
When adding polymer to water in the laboratory it was noted that it was not
completely dissolved. However if before adding the polymer the water was heated
to 40  C, the solubility was much better, and the improved homogeneity remained

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly Permeable Ground

85

Fig. 3. Exfoliated vermiculite, an aluminumironmagnesium silicate

even after cooling down again. This procedure was also adopted at the construction
site Hermetschloo, but not at the Zimmerberg Tunnel due to logistic problems.
3.3 Sand
If sand penetrating the ground fulfills the filter criteria of Terzaghi and Peck (1956) it
may plug the pores and lead to a welcome progressive filtration process. However, for
the coarse gravel considered here the sand would also require a larger grain size than
just the 1 mm used, so that the positive influence of the sand seen in laboratory experiments may only be explained by the combined action together with other additives.
As a rule limestone sand has been used. In addition, on one occasion quartz sand
was also tried: the attainable support pressure was comparable, but it did not separate
as quickly when no longer stirred. However, for practical application quartz sand was
too expensive.
3.4 Vermiculite
The effect of vermiculite is based on its large grain size and its small density (Fig. 3).
The choice of an appropriate grain size distribution of the vermiculite is important:
with a grain size between 0.7 and 4 mm a suspension pressure of 1.5 bar could be
attained. When omitting the finer parts and just using grains between 2 and 4 mm, no
pressure at all could be built up (c.f. Fig. 9).
4. Test Method
For pure bentonite slurries various standardized tests are in use, which lead to characteristic index values: shear strength, viscosity, stability, density, and grain size distribution.
However, all these quantities are indirect quantities, as they only represent physical properties, but not directly the decisive parameters. Rules to deduce from these

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P. Fritz

Fig. 4. Apparatus for measuring the support pressure of the suspension. (1) Perspex tube (15 cm diameter),
(2) suspension, (3) gravel (4=8 mm), (4) vessel with water, (5) air pressure supply

properties the ability to support the face are, if not completely impossible, at least hard
to establish. This may be illustrated by means of the density. For pure bentonite
slurries it is often directly used as a measure of quality. However, for the suspensions
discussed here, it has a much smaller relevance, because the mode of support for such
suspensions is completely different.
Therefore a more direct test has been elaborated where the suspension pressure
and the corresponding penetration depth are measured with the apparatus sketched in
Fig. 4. First a plastic tube is filled with gravel (3) which is then saturated with water.
Then the suspension (2) is added, the tube is closed and subsequently subjected to a
pressure from a supply (5). The suspension penetrates the gravel and the amount of
water expelled into the vessel (4) is measured. With increasing pressure the penetration depth and water discharge increases. At a critical value, the so called maximum
support pressure, suddenly the whole suspension is expelled.

5. Calibration of Pressure Tests

During the laboratory tests for the Hermetschloo Gallery several problems have been
identified that could not be resolved due to time restrictions. Therefore we took
advantage of the opportunity that arose when we were involved in the construction
of the Zimmerberg Tunnel. The main topics investigated were:






reproducibility,
influence of loading path,
aging, and
homogeneity of model ground (gravel).

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly Permeable Ground

87

Fig. 5. Reproducibility test with continuous loading (suspension according to (1) of Table 1, one day old)

5.1 Reproducibility
Initial tests revealed very big variations in the results even for the same composition of
the suspension. It was suspected and later confirmed (see results below) that variations
in the test procedure led to the scatter. Therefore a comprehensive and rigid guideline
was established which specified the preparation and execution of the support pressure
tests in detail.
In Fig. 5 the results of 13 tests are summarized: on the ordinate the test time is
plotted, on the right abscissa the pressure. The stepped line indicates the continuous
increase of pressure with time. On the left abscissa the water discharge (which is
proportional to the penetration depth) is plotted. Various tests have been carried out
with different suspensions, and the now satisfactory reproducibility may be seen from
the narrow band the curves lie in.
Further, in the inline frame the maximum support pressure attained is shown. The
maximum support pressure is defined as the one, where the liquid part of the suspension penetrates the gravel quickly and far, or when a volume of 500 ml water has been
expelled out of the vessel (4) (Fig. 4). From Fig. 5 an average value of 1.9 bar may be
deduced with a standard deviation just under 0.4. I.e., when following these guidelines
a satisfactory reproducibility could be achieved.
5.2 Influence of Loading Path
Another parameter which could influence the results is the way the pressure is applied,
the so called loading path. To measure its influence a series of tests was carried out
where at the beginning the pressure was raised suddenly to 0.8 bar, and then continuously increased (Fig. 6). This distinguishes it from Fig. 5, where the pressure was
raised continuously from the beginning, i.e. the loading path was different. Also the
age of the suspension was different. It may be seen, that the curves for the water
discharge for sudden loading lie somewhere within the band of the curves for continuous loading, i.e. the loading path does not have a big influence.

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P. Fritz

Fig. 6. Reproducibility test with sudden loading (suspension 5 of Fig. 5, but 6 days old)

The attainable support pressure in Fig. 6 is lower than that of Fig. 5. However, this
is more likely to be the influence of aging (see below) than of the loading path.

5.3 Aging
When considering the influence of the age of the suspension on its quality two cases
may be distinguished:

 improvement of quality by allowing the bentonite enough time for swelling,

 deterioration of quality with increasing age of suspension.
DIN 4127 states in section 6.1.1, that tests should only be carried out with suspensions that have reached final swelling, and IBECO reports, that a bentonite reaches
nearly optimal properties after 1 to 6 hours. Our tests revealed similar results: if the age
of the suspension was 5 hours or less even with an improved suspension sometimes not
even a support pressure of 0.8 bar could be attained. But for an age of 20 hours pressures
of 1.4 bar and more could be attained. Therefore as a rule for laboratory tests only
bentonites older than 6 hours have been used. At the construction site, the average age of
bentonite was about one day, i.e. a minimum age of 6 hours was ensured.
To investigate the development of the quality of the suspension with increasing age
some suspensions have been mixed, which were then subjected to pressure tests at
increasing age. From Fig. 7 it may be seen, that the maximum attainable support pressure
exhibits a decreasing tendency with increasing age of the suspension. The physical and
chemical mechanisms responsible for this decrease have not been further investigated.

5.4 Homogeneity of Model Ground (Gravel)

For the initial tests it was found, that the procedure how the gravel was built-in into the
Perspex tube had a great influence on the test results (Fig. 8).

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly Permeable Ground

89

Fig. 7. Influence of long-term age of bentonite on attainable support pressure

Fig. 8. Influence of homogeneity of model ground for a gravel 0.5=16 mm and a pure bentonite suspension.
(1) First water, then gravel poured in, (2) first gravel, then water fed carefully from below, (3) first gravel,
then water poured from above

For simulating an extreme case, first the tube was partly filled with water, then the
gravel was poured in without taking care not to segregate it (curve (1)). Point (3)
shows the other extreme, where first the gravel has been placed, and then the water
was poured from above in such a way, that the fine grains of the gravel have been
transported to the bottom. The very big difference for both the water discharge and the
pressure attained is obvious. Curve (2) displays the results where first the gravel was
placed, and then the water introduced carefully from the bottom up.

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P. Fritz

It should be noted that the tests for Fig. 8 have been carried out with a gravel
0.5=16 mm. A gravel 4=8 mm was by far less sensitive to segregation (not shown
here). The smaller particles of the gravel 0.5=16 mm may clog the pores, but depending on the way the tube is filled they may also be washed out or air bubbles may
remain. Such sensitivity to the manipulation procedure may lead to unreproducible
results, so that for all other tests the gravel 4=8 mm was used.

6. Support Pressure Tests

As mentioned above, the required support pressure for the Zimmerberg Tunnel was
calculated to be 2.4 bar, compared to the 0.5 bar of the Hermetschloo Gallery. With
the original suspension used at Hermetschloo this high value could not be attained.
After testing various compositions one was found with the double amount of
vermiculite and 20% more bentonite which fulfilled the requirements (2 in Table 1).
The corresponding results are displayed in Fig. 9. The first 6 samples did not exhibit
any support pressure, because the grain size of the vermiculite between 2 to 4 mm was
too great. The last two tests with the same amount of vermiculite, but with grains
between 0.7 and 4 mm, attained a maximum support pressure greater than 3 bar, which
was more than sufficient.
However, the amount of vermiculite needed in practice with this concentration
would be considerable. When an amount of 2000 m3 suspension per day is estimated,
then 80 tons vermiculite would be necessary. Taking into account an apparent density
of 10% of its bulk density, about 1000 m3 vermiculite a day would be required.
To lower this amount in a further series of tests the content of vermiculite was
reduced to 30 kg=m3 (3 in Table 1). The first three samples in Fig. 10 have been tested
after giving the suspension one day to swell. Two of these tests attained such high
pressures that they had to be stopped after attaining 3 bar. Samples 5 to 7 have been

Fig. 9. Support pressure tests with suspension (2) of Table 1. Samples 1 to 6 with vermiculite of a grain size
between 2 and 4 mm; samples 7 and 8 with vermiculite of a grain size between 0.7 and 4 mm

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly Permeable Ground

91

Fig. 10. Support pressure tests with suspension (3) of Table 1. Samples 1 to 3 with a swelling time of one
day; sample 4: not shown; samples 5 to 7 with a swelling time of 2 to 4 hours

tested between 2 to 4 hours after preparation. As mentioned above this time is too
short, which resulted in a very low support pressure for sample 5.
A further reduction of the content of vermiculite did not lead to satisfactory results
for the support pressure any more.
Based on these findings it was decided to use suspension 3 for the excavation of a
750 m long stretch of the Zimmerberg Tunnel located in loose river gravel.
7. Application at Zimmerberg Base Tunnel
The Zimmerberg Railway Tunnel near Zurich has an overall length of 10.3 km, and may
be divided according to the excavation method into 3 sections: a cut-and-cover section, a
stretch with a hard-rock tunnel boring machine (TBM) and another with a mixed-shield
TBM. The current considerations are limited to a 780 m long highly permeable stretch
in coarse gravel which was excavated in the slurry shield mode of the TBM.
Because this stretch was situated in a built-up area within just a few metres of the
foundations of the buildings, it was very important to reduce the risk regarding undesired events to an acceptable value. This was achieved by two independent measures:
firstly by improving the ground conditions using injections from a pilot tunnel over a
length of 500 m, and secondly by using the improved suspension shown in Table 1.
At the beginning the safer mix of column 2 was used. However, in view of
logistical problems in getting the required amount of vermiculite a reduction of its
content from 40 to 30 kg=m3 water (column 3) was decided upon.
A comprehensive control system was employed to check the quality of the actual
suspension. Support pressure tests have been executed on a daily basis at both the
construction site and in the laboratory of the Division of Geotechnical Engineering.
Additionally, indirect tests with the Kugelharfe (yield limit) and the Filter Press

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P. Fritz

(stability) have been executed at the construction site to obtain quick indications of the
quality of the suspension and also for the sake of completeness. Because these tests were
carried out for both the fresh suspension and the one in circulation, it was seen that after
circulating for about four hours the coarser grains of the vermiculite were crushed to such
an extent that the attainable support pressure in laboratory decreased substantially. As a
consequence, on average about every half an hour 20 m3 of fresh suspension was added.
The biggest operational problems induced by the improved suspension stemmed
from the rapid thickening of the suspension due to the increase of sand content with
the subsequent need of replacement, and the separation of the vermiculite by chamber
filter presses.
For the initial advance with a pure bentonite slurry a cyclone with a limit of
200 mm was used. To allow the vermiculite remaining in the circulation circuit this
cyclone was then replaced by one of 1000 mm, unfortunately with the result that not
only the vermiculite but also a large part of the fine sand remained in circulation,
thereby increasing the density of the suspension quite quickly. Therefore, the 200 mm
limit was reintroduced with the drawback of eliminating also a large part of the
vermiculite, i.e. the content of vermiculite was on average much smaller than foreseen.
Nevertheless the required support pressure during excavation could always be built
up. Figure 11 shows the resulting filter cake at the face. The settlements 1.50 m above
the crown were between 2 and 4 mm and at the surface only 1 to 2 mm. No significant
stability problems occurred (Fig. 12).
Why were these good results possible considering the reduced amount of vermiculite used? The reasons may be assigned to two phenomena: firstly to the ground
improvement carried out, and secondly to the difficulty of relating the geological
prediction to the attainable support pressure in coarse gravel. The tunnels GyssenLyren and Hermetschloo may serve as an example: both have been characterized from
a geological point of view as nearly identical (even by the same geologist) and for
their excavation the same slurry shield has been used (Fritz, 2000), but whereas the
first did not present any excavation problems, for the second various surface failures
occurred before using an improved suspension (Fritz et al., 2002).

Fig. 11. Filter cake at the face (courtesy of Ingenieurgemeinschaft BBPS, Zurich)

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly Permeable Ground

93

Fig. 12. Breakthrough of the TBM (courtesy of D. Kohler, Prader AG Tunnelbau, Zurich)

The advantage of using the suspension with additives for the Zimmerberg tunnel
was the increase in safety. In case of necessity the amount of vermiculite could have
been increased quickly just by exchanging a cyclone, thereby reaching the required
support pressure even in very bad ground conditions.

8. Conclusions
Up to now the application of slurry shields was limited by a permeability of the ground
of about 10
3 m=s. By support pressure tests in the laboratory and successful application
in the field it was shown that the limit may be nearly two orders of magnitude higher
if the bentonite suspension is enriched with special additives. A mixture of






50 kg bentonite (IBECO HT-X),

0.5 kg polymer (Carbocel C190),
100 kg sand (grain size <1 mm), and
30 kg vermiculite (0.7 to 4 mm)

per m3 water fulfilled all expectations. The combined action of all additives together is
decisive, as if one component is missing the effectiveness may be greatly reduced.

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P. Fritz

The main problems during tunnel advance was firstly the rapid thickening of the
suspension due to the increase of sand, and secondly the separation of the vermiculite.
The requirements for a successful separation are to eliminate sand with a grain size
greater than 1 mm while retaining vermiculite of the same size. This was not possible
with the cyclones available at the Zimmerberg site, but a separation procedure based
on the substantial difference in density of the two components would possibly achieve
the desired results.
Furthermore, the final separation of vermiculite may be demanding. The polymer
binds water, which has to be extracted with filter presses and conducted to the sewage
system. In addition, the polymer hinders the vermiculite in settling in the sedimentation basins. For the Zimmerberg Tunnel the water in these basins has been conducted
to a nearby river. Because it was not completely free of small vermiculite particles,
and because vermiculite adsorbs hydrocarbons stemming from grease and oil, once in
the river an inadmissible foam was generated.
A further problem which had to be considered at the construction site was the
crushing of the vermiculite during the circulation of the suspension. After four hours
of circulation the coarser particles have been reduced by about one half, with an
equivalent increase of the finer parts. Therefore it was decided to run the laboratory
tests with a distribution between 0.7 and 4 mm, but in the field to add vermiculite in
the range 2 to 4 mm only.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to express his gratitude to Christian M
uller and Gianluca Ambrosini of
the Institute for Geotechnical Engineering for the big effort they made when carrying out all
the support pressure tests with a multitude of different suspensions. He would also like to
thank Ildiko Fonyo and Ingeborg Reichenbach for the careful determination of the composition of the suspensions.
And last but not least he acknowledges the collaboration with the owner, The Swiss Federal
Railways, Zurich, the engineer in charge Ingenieurgemeinschaft BBPS (Basler & Hofmann,
Balestra, Preisig and SNZ), Zurich, and the contractor ARGE Tunnel Z
urich-Thalwil.

References
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Erfahrungen beim Hydroschildvortrieb. STUVA-Tagung Unterirdisches Bauen.
DIN 4127: Earthworks and foundation engineering; diaphragm wall clays for supporting liquids;
requirements, testing, supply, inspection.
berlegungen und Vorkehrungen zum Vortrieb mit einer Suspension mit
Fritz, P. (2000): U
Zusatzmitteln. Report U-505 Institute for Geotechnical Engineering IGT, Z
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Construction in Soft Ground. Toulouse, France. [http:==www.igt.ethz.ch=?publ 586].

Additives for Slurry Shields in Highly Permeable Ground

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conditions. Tunnelling94, Chapman & Hall, London.
Kanayasu, S., Kubota, I., Shikibu, N. (1995): Stability of face during shield tunneling A survey on
Japanese shield tunneling. Underground Construction in Soft Ground. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Kovari, K. (2001): Safety system in urban tunnelling; the zimmerberg tunnel. Documentation D
0169 SIA, FGU. [http:==www.igt.ethz.ch=publ 540].
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utzter Ortsbrust. Dissertation TU
Braunschsweig.
Terzaghi, K., Peck, R. (1956): Soil mechanics in engineering practice. John Wiley & Sons,
New York.
Authors address: Dr. Peter Fritz, Institute for Geotechnical Engineering, Swiss Federal
Institute of Technology ETH-Z, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland; e-mail: fritz@igt.baug.ethz.ch