Department of Chemical and

Environmental Engineering

H83BCE Biochemical Engineering

Lecture 2

Life (Its Building Blocks & Processes)

Background

Four main classes of polymeric cell compounds:

1.

Polysaccharides

2.
3.
4.

Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic Acids

Starch, cellulose, etc.

polydeoxyribonucleic and polyribonucleic acids

The elements from which these polymers are

constructed are mainly: C, H, N, O, in addition to: S,
P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, Fe (and others) in much lesser
amounts.
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Fundamental structure of life

Carbohydrates: Mono- and Polysaccharides

Key roles:

Structural and storage compounds in cells.

Modulate some aspects of chemical signalling in animals and plants.

Most prevalent of the four groups of compounds

General formula (CH2O)n, where n 3

In photosynthesis, carbon dioxide is converted to simple sugars:

Light

CO2 + H2O

Sugars (C3 C9) + O2

Energy

These sugars are then polymerised into forms suitable for

storage (starches) and structure (cellulose)

The light energy stored is released by oxidation (respiration) to

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carbon dioxide

Monosaccharides (Simple Sugars)

Monomeric blocks for
biopolymers
Either aldehyde or ketone
by formula,

However, they do not

behave like them .

The most common

monosaccharide is Dglucose:

D-glucose, linear
structure

D-glucose, ring
(pyranose)
structure

Linear or ring structure.

In solution, D-glucose is in
the form of a ring
(pyranose) structure:

Glucose: D- vs. L- forms

D-glucose

L-glucose:

-D-glucose

Occurs naturally

Mirror image of D-glucose

Does not occur naturally in higher living
organisms
Not broken down to release energy
Synthesised in lab
Minor role in biological systems.

-D-glucose
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5-carbon ring structured sugar molecules

D-Ribose
A major component
of RNA (an important
nucleic acid)

De-oxyribose
A major component of
DNA (another
important nucleic
acid)

Disaccharides

The condensation product of two monosaccharides

is a disaccharide.

In D-glucose ring, OH group on the #1 carbon (e.g. a

position) can condense with an H group on the #4
carbon of another sugar to eliminate a water
molecule and form -1,4-glycosidic bond:

Disaccharides
Maltose:
-D-Glucose + -D-glucose

Sucrose:
-D-Glucose + -D-fructose

Lactose:
-D-glucose + -D-galactose
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Sucrose

Sucrose (table sugar)

is found in all
photosynthetic
plants.

Among disaccharides, it is
the easiest to hydrolyse.
Major component in
artificial growth media.

Sucrose

Lactose is found in
milk and whey

Although relatively
rare, it is very a
important disaccharide.

Lactose

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Polysaccharides: Amylose
Continuous polymerisation of glucose can occur by
formation of new 1,4-glycosidic bonds.
Amylose is a straight-chain polymer of glucose
subunits

Molecular weight vary from thousands to 1.5 million

daltons.

Constitutes about 15-20% of starch (reserve food

in plants).

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Amylopectin

Constitutes the bulk of starch (80-85%).

Also D-glucose polymer but larger than Amylose
Molecular weight up to 1-2 million daltons.
Soluble in water.
Distinguished by substantial amount of branching, that form when condensation
occurs between the glycosidic OH on one chain with the 6th carbon on another
glucose:

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Glycogen
Glucose reservoirs in animals.
Glycogen resembles amylopectin in that it is
highly branched

the degree of branching is greater

Glycogen molecular weight is above 5

million Da.
Glycogen serves as energy reserve in some
bacteria.

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Cellulose
Major structural component in all plant cells from trees to algae (most
abundant compound on earth)

1,000,000,000,000 tonnes produced every year.

Long, unbranched chain of D-glucose subunits, but the bond is a -1,4

glycosidic bond which few living creatures can hydrolyse.

MW: 50,000 and 1 million Da.

-1,4 glycosidic bond is resistant to enzymatic hydrolysis. (-1,4 glycosidic bonds
in starch/glycogen are relatively easy to break by enzymatic or acid hydrolysis).
Efficient cellulose hydrolysis remains one of the most challenging problems in
attempts to convert cellulosic wastes into fuels or chemicals.

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However, the resistance to degradation derives more from the

crystalline structure.

This tight structure of cellulose comes from intrachain hydrogen

bonding, which occurs between the C-3 hydroxyl and the oxygen
in the pyranose ring and inter-chain hydrogen bonding.

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Structure of Cellulose
Several models for the crystalline structure:

Highly ordered:

Amorphous:

Chains are tightly packed that even water molecules barely

penetrate.
Much more difficult to decompose.

Comprises typically about 15% of cellulose microstructure.

Easily hydrolysed by acids.

Hemicellulose:
Polysaccharides found in cellulosic materials
surrounding clusters of microfibrils.
The whole structure is enclosed in cross-linked coating
of lignin (polyphenolic material of irregular structure).
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