Dougherty - Hyp Testing

Christopher Dougherty
EC220 - Introduction to econometrics

(chapter 2)
Slideshow: t test of a hypothesis relating to a regression coefficient
Original citation:
Dougherty, C. (2012) EC220 - Introduction to econometrics (chapter 2). [Teaching Resource]
2012 The Author
This version available at: http://learningresources.lse.ac.uk/128/
Available in LSE Learning Resources Online: May 2012
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t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT
s.d. of b2 known
discrepancy between
hypothetical value and sample
estimate, in terms of s.d.:
b2 20
z
s.d.
5% significance test:
reject H0: 2 = 20 if
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
The diagram summarizes the procedure for performing a 5% significance test on the slope
coefficient of a regression under the assumption that we know its standard deviation.
1
s.d. of b2 known
s.d. of b2 not known
discrepancy between
discrepancy between
estimate, in terms of s.e.:
b2 20
z
s.d.
b2 20
t
s.e.
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
This is a very unrealistic assumption. We usually have to estimate it with the standard
error, and we use this in the test statistic instead of the standard deviation.
2
s.d. of b2 known
discrepancy between
discrepancy between
b2 20
z
s.d.
b2 20
t
s.e.
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
Because we have replaced the standard deviation in its denominator with the standard
error, the test statistic has a t distribution instead of a normal distribution.
3
s.d. of b2 known
discrepancy between
discrepancy between
b2 20
z
s.d.
b2 20
t
s.e.
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
t > tcrit or t < tcrit
Accordingly, we refer to the test statistic as a t statistic. In other respects the test
procedure is much the same.
4
s.d. of b2 known
discrepancy between
discrepancy between
b2 20
z
s.d.
b2 20
t
s.e.
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
We look up the critical value of t and if the t statistic is greater than it, positive or negative,
we reject the null hypothesis. If it is not, we do not.
5
0.4
normal
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Here is a graph of a normal distribution with zero mean and unit variance
0.4
normal
t, 10 d.f.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
A graph of a t distribution with 10 degrees of freedom (this term will be defined in a

moment) has been added.
7
0.4
normal
t, 10 d.f.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
When the number of degrees of freedom is large, the t distribution looks very much like a
normal distribution (and as the number increases, it converges on one).
8
0.4
normal
t, 10 d.f.
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Even when the number of degrees of freedom is small, as in this case, the distributions are
very similar.
9
0.4
normal
t, 10 d.f.
0.3
t, 5 d.f.
0.2
0.1
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
Here is another t distribution, this time with only 5 degrees of freedom. It is still very similar
to a normal distribution.
10
0.4
normal
t, 10 d.f.
0.3
t, 5 d.f.
0.2
0.1
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
So why do we make such a fuss about referring to the t distribution rather than the normal
distribution? Would it really matter if we always used 1.96 for the 5% test and 2.58 for the
1% test?
11
0.4
normal
t, 10 d.f.
0.3
t, 5 d.f.
0.2
0.1
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
The answer is that it does make a difference. Although the distributions are generally quite
similar, the t distribution has longer tails than the normal distribution, the difference being
the greater, the smaller the number of degrees of freedom.
12
0.1
normal
t, 10 d.f.
t, 5 d.f.
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
As a consequence, the probability of obtaining a high test statistic on a pure chance basis
is greater with a t distribution than with a normal distribution.
13
0.1
normal
t, 10 d.f.
t, 5 d.f.
0
-6
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
This means that the rejection regions have to start more standard deviations away from
zero for a t distribution than for a normal distribution.
14
0.1
normal
t, 10 d.f.
t, 5 d.f.
0
-6
-5
-4
-3 -1.96
-2
-1
The 2.5% tail of a normal distribution starts 1.96 standard deviations from its mean.
15
0.1
normal
t, 10 d.f.
t, 5 d.f.
0
-6
-5
-4
-3 -2.33
-2
-1
The 2.5% tail of a t distribution with 10 degrees of freedom starts 2.33 standard deviations
from its mean.
16
0.1
normal
t, 10 d.f.
t, 5 d.f.
0
-6
-5
-4
-2.57-2
-3
-1
That for a t distribution with 5 degrees of freedom starts 2.57 standard deviations from its
mean.
17

t Distribution: Critical values of t
Degrees of Two-sided test
freedom One-sided test
1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
For this reason we need to refer to a table of critical values of t when performing
significance tests on the coefficients of a regression equation.
18

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
At the top of the table are listed possible significance levels for a test. For the time being
we will be performing two-sided tests, so ignore the line for one-sided tests.
19

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
Hence if we are performing a (two-sided) 5% significance test, we should use the column
thus indicated in the table.
20

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
Number of degrees
of
freedom
in a regression
= number of observations
number
estimated.
1.734
2.101
2.552of parameters
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
The left hand vertical column lists degrees of freedom. The number of degrees of freedom
in a regression is defined to be the number of observations minus the number of
parameters estimated.
21

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
In a simple regression, we estimate just two parameters, the constant and the slope
coefficient, so the number of degrees of freedom is n - 2 if there are n observations.
22

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
If we were performing a regression with 20 observations, as in the price inflation/wage

inflation example, the number of degrees of freedom would be 18 and the critical value of t
for a 5% test would be 2.101.
23

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
Note that as the number of degrees of freedom becomes large, the critical value converges
on 1.96, the critical value for the normal distribution. This is because the t distribution
converges on the normal distribution.
24
s.d. of b2 known
discrepancy between
discrepancy between
b2 20
z
s.d.
b2 20
t
s.e.
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
Hence, referring back to the summary of the test procedure,
25
s.d. of b2 known
discrepancy between
discrepancy between
b2 20
z
s.d.
b2 20
t
s.e.
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
t > 2.101 or t < 2.101
we should reject the null hypothesis if the absolute value of t is greater than 2.101.
26

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
If instead we wished to perform a 1% significance test, we would use the column indicated
above. Note that as the number of degrees of freedom becomes large, the critical value
converges to 2.58, the critical value for the normal distribution.
27

1
2
3
4
5
18
19
20
600
10%
5%
5%
2.5%
2%
1%
1%
0.5%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.05%
6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

2.920
4.303
6.965
9.925 22.327 31.598
2.353
3.182
4.541
5.841 10.214 12.924
2.132
2.776
3.747
4.604
7.173
8.610
2.015
2.571
3.365
4.032
5.893
6.869
1.734
2.101
2.552
2.878
3.610
3.922
1.729
2.093
2.539
2.861
3.579
3.883
1.725
2.086
2.528
2.845
3.552
3.850
1.647
1.964
2.333
2.584
3.104
3.307
1.645
1.960
2.326
2.576
3.090
3.291
For a simple regression with 20 observations, the critical value of t at the 1% level is 2.878.
28
s.d. of b2 known
discrepancy between
discrepancy between
b2 20
z
s.d.
b2 20
t
s.e.
z > 1.96 or z < 1.96
t > 2.878 or t < 2.878
So we should use this figure in the test procedure for a 1% test.
29
Example:
p 1 2 w u
We will next consider an example of a t test. Suppose that you have data on p, the average
rate of price inflation for the last 5 years, and w, the average rate of wage inflation, for a
sample of 20 countries. It is reasonable to suppose that p is influenced by w.
30
Example:
p 1 2 w u
H 0 : 2 1; H1 : 2 1
You might take as your null hypothesis that the rate of price inflation increases uniformly
with wage inflation, in which case the true slope coefficient would be 1.
31
Example:
p 1 2 w u
H 0 : 2 1; H1 : 2 1
p 1.21 0.82w
(0.05) (0.10)
Suppose that the regression result is as shown (standard errors in parentheses). Our
actual estimate of the slope coefficient is only 0.82. We will check whether we should reject
the null hypothesis.
32
Example:
p 1 2 w u
H 0 : 2 1; H1 : 2 1
p 1.21 0.82w
(0.05) (0.10)
b2 20 0.82 1.00
t
1.80.
s.e.(b2 )
0.10
We compute the t statistic by subtracting the hypothetical true value from the sample
estimate and dividing by the standard error. It comes to 1.80.
33
Example:
p 1 2 w u
H 0 : 2 1; H1 : 2 1
p 1.21 0.82w
(0.05) (0.10)
b2 20 0.82 1.00
t
1.80.
s.e.(b2 )
0.10
n 20; degrees of freedom 18
There are 20 observations in the sample. We have estimated 2 parameters, so there are 18
degrees of freedom.
34
Example:
p 1 2 w u
H 0 : 2 1; H1 : 2 1
p 1.21 0.82w
(0.05) (0.10)
b2 20 0.82 1.00
t
1.80.
s.e.(b2 )
0.10
n 20; degrees of freedom 18

tcrit ,5% 2.101
The critical value of t with 18 degrees of freedom is 2.101 at the 5% level. The absolute
value of the t statistic is less than this, so we do not reject the null hypothesis.
35
Y 1 2 X u
In practice it is unusual to have a feeling for the actual value of the coefficients. Very often
the objective of the analysis is to demonstrate that Y is influenced by X, without having any
specific prior notion of the actual coefficients of the relationship.
36
Y 1 2 X u
H 0 : 2 0; H1 : 2 0
In this case it is usual to define 2 = 0 as the null hypothesis. In words, the null hypothesis
is that X does not influence Y. We then try to demonstrate that the null hypothesis is false.
37
Y 1 2 X u
H 0 : 2 0; H1 : 2 0
b2 20
b2
t
s.e.(b2 ) s.e.(b2 )
For the null hypothesis 2 = 0, the t statistic reduces to the estimate of the coefficient
divided by its standard error.
38
Y 1 2 X u
H 0 : 2 0; H1 : 2 0
b2 20
b2
t
s.e.(b2 ) s.e.(b2 )
This ratio is commonly called the t statistic for the coefficient and it is automatically printed
out as part of the regression results. To perform the test for a given significance level, we
compare the t statistic directly with the critical value of t for that significance level.
39
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
[95% Conf. Interval]
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Here is the output from the earnings function fitted in a previous slideshow, with the t
statistics highlighted.
40
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
You can see that the t statistic for the coefficient of S is enormous. We would reject the null
hypothesis that schooling does not affect earnings at the 0.1% significance level without
even looking at the table of critical values of t.
41
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The t statistic for the intercept is also enormous. However, since the intercept does not hve
any meaning, it does not make sense to perform a t test on it.
42
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The next column in the output gives what are known as the p values for each coefficient.
This is the probability of obtaining the corresponding t statistic as a matter of chance, if the
null hypothesis H0: = 0 is true.
43
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If you reject the null hypothesis H0: = 0, this is the probability that you are making a
mistake and making a Type I error. It therefore gives the significance level at which the null
hypothesis would just be rejected.
44
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
If p = 0.05, the null hypothesis could just be rejected at the 5% level. If it were 0.01, it could
just be rejected at the 1% level. If it were 0.001, it could just be rejected at the 0.1% level. This is
assuming that you are using two-sided tests.
45
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
In the present case p = 0 to three decimal places for the coefficient of S. This means that we
can reject the null hypothesis H0: 2 = 0 at the 0.1% level, without having to refer to the table
of critical values of t. (Testing the intercept does not make sense in this regression.)
46
. reg EARNINGS S
Source |
SS
df
MS
-------------+-----------------------------Model | 19321.5589
1 19321.5589
Residual | 92688.6722
538 172.283777
-------------+-----------------------------Total | 112010.231
539 207.811189
Number of obs
F( 1,
538)
Prob > F
R-squared
Adj R-squared
Root MSE
=
=
=
=
=
=
540
112.15
0.0000
0.1725
0.1710
13.126
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------EARNINGS |
Coef.
Std. Err.
t
P>|t|
-------------+---------------------------------------------------------------S |
2.455321
.2318512
10.59
0.000
1.999876
2.910765
_cons | -13.93347
3.219851
-4.33
0.000
-20.25849
-7.608444
------------------------------------------------------------------------------
It is a more informative approach to reporting the results of test and widely used in the
medical literature. However in economics standard practice is to report results referring to
5% and 1% significance levels, and sometimes to the 0.1% level.
47
Copyright Christopher Dougherty 2011.

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used as a resource for teaching an econometrics course. There is no need to
refer to the author.
The content of this slideshow comes from Section 2.6 of C. Dougherty,
Introduction to Econometrics, fourth edition 2011, Oxford University Press.
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11.07.25

Dougherty - Hyp Testing

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Christopher Dougherty

EC220 - Introduction to econometrics

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

s.d. of b2 not known

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

s.d. of b2 not known

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

s.d. of b2 not known

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

s.d. of b2 not known

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

A graph of a t distribution with 10 degrees of freedom (this term will be defined in a

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

If we were performing a regression with 20 observations, as in the price inflation/wage

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

s.d. of b2 not known

Hence, referring back to the summary of the test procedure,

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

s.d. of b2 not known

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

6.314 12.706 31.821 63.657 318.31 636.62

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

s.d. of b2 not known

So we should use this figure in the test procedure for a 1% test.

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

n 20; degrees of freedom 18

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

n 20; degrees of freedom 18

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT

t TEST OF A HYPOTHESIS RELATING TO A REGRESSION COEFFICIENT