Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
REPORT
NATIONAL
AERONAUTICS
AND
SPACE
ADMINISTRATION
WASHINGTON,
D. C.
JULY 1971
-___.
1. Report No.
-
2. Government AccessionNo.
3. Recipient'sCatalogNo.
NASA CR-1787
~~
RADIATIONEFFECTSDESIGN
HANDBOOK
SECTION 3 . ELECTRICAL
INSULATING
MATERIALS
CAPACITORS
~~
"
~~~~
5. Report Date
July 1971
AND
7. Author(s)
C. L. Hanksand
D. J . Hamman
10. Work Unit No.
RADIATION
EFFECTS
INFORMATION
CENTER
BattelleMemorialInstitute
C o l u m b u sL a b o r a t o r i e s
43201
Columbus,
Ohio
NASW-1568
13. Type of Report andPeriodCovered
12. SponsoringAgencyNameandAddress
ContractorReport
14. SponsoringAgencyCode
N a t i o n a lA e r o n a u t i c sa n dS p a c eA d m i n i s t r a t i o n
20546
Washington, D.C.
15. Supplementary Notes
T h i s d o c u m e n tc o n t a i n ss u m m a r i z e di n f o r m a t i o nr e l a t i n g
to steady-state
r a d i a t i o ne f f e c t s on e l e c t r i c a li n s u l a t i n gm a t e r i a l sa n dc a p a c i t o r s .
T h ei n f o r m a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e di nb o t ht a b u l a ra n dg r a p h i c a lf o r mw i t ht e x td i s c u s s i o n .
The r a d i a t i o nc o n s i d e r e di n c l u d e sn e u t r o n s ,
gamma r a y s ,a n dc h a r g e dp a r t i c l e s .
i s u s e f u lt od e s i g ne n g i n e e r sr e s p o n s i b l ef o rc h o o s i n gc a n d i d a t e
T h ei n f o r m a t i o n
a r a d i a t i o ne n v i r o n m e n t .
m a t e r i a l s o r d e v i c e sf o ru s ei n
..
~- .-
R a d i a t i o nE f f e c t s ,E l e c t r i c a lI n s u l a t o r s ,
C a p a c i t o r s ,R a d i a t i o n
Damage
-.- - ..
Unclassified
Unclassified-Unlimited
Unclassified
21.
NO.
of Pages
88
22. Rice'
$3.00
PREFACE
iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
H. Habing,SandiaCorp.
Mr.A.Reetz,
J r . , NASA Hq.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 3
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .
. . . .
10
. .
11
ELECTRICAL INSULATING
MATERIALS
INTRODUCTION .
P o l y t e t r a f l u o r o e t h y l e( P
n eT F E )
.
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene ( K e l - F )
Polyethylene . . . . . . . .
Polystyrene . . . . . . . .
Polyethylene
Terephthalate
. . .
Polyamide . . . . . . . . .
Diallyl
Phthalate
. . . . . .
Polypropylene
. . . . . . .
Polyurethane . . . . . . . .
Polyvinylidene
Fluoride
. . . .
Polyimide . . . . . . . . .
P o l y i m i d a z o p y r r o l o(nPey r r o n e )
.
Epoxy
Laminates
. . . . . .
. . . .
M i s c e l l a n e oO
u sr g a n i c s
Ceramic . . . . . . . . . .
Mica
. . . . . . . . . .
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12
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18
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20
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23
24
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25
26
26
29
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29
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31
32
33
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34
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vii
..
.-.
. "
_
I
"
.
"
-.-.
...................
.
-
TABLE O F CONTENTS
(Continued)
Page
C er amic . . . . .
Miscellaneous
Inorganics
. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
35
36
RADIATION E F F E C T S ON ENCAPSULATING
COMPOUNDS . . . . . . . . . .
36
RADIATION E F F E C T S ON CONNECTORS
AND TERMINALS . . . . . . . .
40
46
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
CAPACITORS
INTRODUCTION .
G l a s sa-nPdo r c e l a i n - D i e l e c t r iC
ca p a c i t o r s
.
Mica-Dielectric
Capacitors
. . . . . . .
C e r a m i c - D i e l e c t r iC
capacitors
. . . . . .
P a p e r -a n d Paper/Plastic-Dielectric C a p a c i t o r s
P l a s t i c - D i e l e c t rCi ca p a c i t o r s
. . . . . .
Electrolytic
Capacitors
. . . . . . . .
REFERENCES
INDEX
. . . .
. . . .
.
.
.
.
48
50
51
52
60
64
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
79
viii
.
.
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.
.
.
INTRODUCTION
Organic insulating and dielectric materials experience both temporary and permanent changes in characteristics when subjected to a radiation environment such as that found in space or the fields
of a nuclear
reactor or radioisotope source. Data indicate that the temporary effects
a r e g e n e r a l l y r a t e s e n s i t i v e w i t h a saturation of the effect at the higher
radiation levels. The enhancement
of the electrical conductivity is the
m o s t i m p o r t a n t of t h e t e m p o r a r y e f f e c t s ; i n c r e a s e s of s e v e r a l o r d e r s of
magnitude are observed. The magnitude
of t h e i n c r e a s e i s dependent
upon s e v e r a l f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g t h e m a t e r i a l b e i n g i r r a d i a t e d , a m b i e n t
temperature, and the radiation rate.
Absorption of energy, excitation of c h a r g e c a r r i e r s f r o n nonconduc:
ting to conducting states, and the return
of t h e s e c a r r i e r s f r o n c o n d u c t i n g
to nonconducting states are considered responsible for the induced conductivity. S . E . H a r r i s o n , et al, ( l ) have demonstrated that, with steadys t a t e g a m m a irradiationbetweenand
l o 4 r a d s ( H Z O ) / s , t h ee x c e s s
2
conductivity has d i s t i n c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t h r e e t i m e i n t e r v a l s w h i c h a r e
denoted as A, B, and C i n F i g u r e 1. The conductivity increases exponent i a l l y i n r e s p o n s e t o a s t e p i n c r e a s e i n g a m m a d o s e r a t e , y, during Interval A and is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
where
uo = initial conductivity
u
= conductivity at t i m e t
= e m p i r i c a lc o n s t a n t
(u-u,)
= A j'
(2)
where
A,
and 6 = e m p i r i c a l c o n s t a n t s ( s e e T a b l e 1 ) a n d
i, =
T h e e q u i l i b r i u m o r s a t u r a t i o n of the radiation induced conductivity is attributed to two conditions: (1) equal rates
of f r e e - c a r r i e r g e n e r a t i o n a n d c a r rier annihilation through recombination, and ( 2 ) t h e r a t e of f r e e - c a r r i e r
capture in trapping states equals that of t r a p p e d - c a r r i e r d e c a y .
The induced conductivity gradually decreases following the termination of t h e i r r a d i a t i o n . T h e m e a s u r e d c o n d u c t i v i t y
of Interval C has been
c h a r a c t e r i z e d f o r s e v e r a l o r g a n i c materials by
"
"
I
I
I
I
00
I
I
I
a
I
I
I
b
Time, t, s
FIGURE 1.
TYPICALBEHAVIOR OF CONDUCTIVITY I N
RESPONSE TO A RECTANGULAR PULSE OF
GAMMA-RAY DOSE RATE(^)
4
EPOXY1478 - I
No photoconductivityismeasured
5
4
cn
c
c
-
2
I
4
3
2
I
-3
-2
-I
in
FIGURE 2.
p,
LOGARITHM O F TIMECONSTANTVERSUSLOGARITHM
O F GAMMA-RAY DOSE RATE FOR POLYETHYLENE,
POLYSTYRENE, AND EPOXY 1478-1 AT 38
C('1
5
!I
2
3
4
rads (H,O)/s
TABLE 1. MEASUEDVALUES OF
Material@)
Polystyrene
Polyethylene
Epoxy 1478 -1
4, AND
Temperature(c),
C
38
0.97
49
0.97
4.
60
0.97
4.0
38
0.74
10-16
5.2
x 10-2
8.3
x1.7
to
4.
1.7
ox
10-l7
X 10-17
1.7
10-2 to 5.0
x 6.3
0.74
60
0.74
38
1.6 x
3.8 ,0.88
Polypropylene
38
38 Teflon
3.3
10-17
9.
10-17
3.8
x 7.5
6.0
to
1.8 1.1 x
1.0
38
1.74.2
to
103
= 9.0
X
103
= 7.5 x 101
101 to 4.2
lo3
5.8
1 . 21.8
x 10-16
6.0
10-18
x2.8
8.0
10-3 to 6.
ox
103
103
to X 10-3
= 8.0
to 6.0 x l o 3
3.0
1. E( xto 10-3
10-16xDiallylphthalate
2.10.3038
10-20
1.7
8.0
x
103
1.8
x 10-17
No measurablephotoconductivitybelow
1.3
o 4.2
to
x
38
8.3 x 10'2 t o 1 . 7 x l o 3
3.3 x 10-17
1.0
lo3
60
103
o X 103
10-2 to 5.
x lo3
1. 0
Nylon
o X 10-17
49
49
da)
1.0
H-film
pt;
3.0102
to
x
x 102
6.0 x
lo3
(a) Data taken under steady state conditions after 1.8 x 103 seconds of electrification.
(b) Temperature is f 1C.
(c) Fifteen samples of polyethylene, polystyrene, and Epoxy 1478-1 and three samples of the other materials
were measured.
where
Oeq
= Do t A y 6 = equilibrium conductivity
o(t,y) =
[ V ( t ) - U(t-b)o(t-b)]
oo
[ U ( t - a ) t U(t-b)o(t-b)]
.. ..
Phenolic,
laminate
glass
Phendic asbestos filled
Phendi4unfilled
Epoxy, aromatic-type
curing
agent
Polyurethane
Polyester, glass filled
Polyester,mlneralfilled
Diallyl Phthalate, mineral filled
Polyester, unfilled
Mylar
SI Ilcone, glass fllled
Sillcone, minerol filled
Sillcone,unfilled
Melamine- formeldehyde
Urea-formaldehyde
Aniline-formaldehyde
Polystyrene
Utility
Damage
of Organic
Incipienttomild
Nearly always usable
Mild to moderate
Often
satisfactory
Moderate
to
severe
Limited use
I
I
r,l/lll-
Acrylonltrile/butodiene/styrene (ABS)
Polyimide
Polyvmyl chloride
Polyethylene
Polyvinyl formal
Polyvlnylldene chloride
Polycarbonate
Kel-F Poly trlfluorochloroethylene
Pol vlnyl butyral
CelLose ocetote
Polymeth I methacrylate
PolyomlJe
Vinyl chlorlde-ocetote
Teflon (TFE)
Teflon (FEP)
Noturalrubber
Styrene- butodiene (SBR)
Neoprene rubber
Silicone rubber
Polyprop lene
Polyvinyridene fluoride (Kynor 400)
to5
lo4
10'
106
lo9
108
1010
loi3
1014
1015
1016
1017
IO^'
1019
FIGURE 3.
( I rod(C)
4 x IO' n/cm2)
10
DZZZZZl
Magnesium oxide
Aluminumoxide
Quartz
Glass
(hard)(<l0I6n
Glass(boronfree)
Sapphire
Forsterite
Spinel
Beryllium oxide
of Inorganic
Utility
Damage
Incipient tomild
Mild to moderate
Moderate to severe
FIGURE 4.
I rad (C))
"
11
Polvtetrafluoroethvlene (PTFE)
10.
FIGURE 5.
i
FIGURE 6.
COMPARISONOFULTIMATEELONGATIONVALUESOF
VARIOUS THICKNESSES OF TEFLON TFE-7 IRRADIATED
FIGURE 7.
practical applications as long as the materials m e c h a n i c a l i n t e g r i t y is m a i n tained. Therefore, even though changes in electrical properties
do occur,
the degradation of p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s i s t h e c r i t e r i a o f t e n u s e d i n d e t e r mining the acceptability of t h i s m a t e r i a l f o r u s e i n a specific application.
The volume resistivity of polytetrafluoroethylene decreases two or
t h r e e o r d e r s of magnitude from initial values between 5 x 1017 and
1 x 1018 o h m - c m o r g r e a t e r when irradiated under vacuum conditions to
total doses of 106 r a d s ( C ) and higher. The degradation may continue after
the radiation exposure is terminated with an additional decrease
of o n e o r
two o r d e r s of magnitude over a period of s e v e r a l d a y s . R e c o v e r y m a y
also occur with the volume resistivity approaching its p r e i r r a d i a t i o n v a l u e
s e v e r a l w e e k s after t h e i r r a d i a t i o n .
D i e l e c t r i c - c o n s t a n t m e a s u r e m e n t s of polytetrafluoroethylene during
and following exposure to a radiation environment have shown increases
of
l e s s t h a n 15 percent when irradiation in air or vacuum to respective doses
of 8 x l o 6 and lo8 r a d s ( C ) . Recovery i s essentially complete within a day
o r two a f t e r t h e i r r a d i a t i o n . S i m i l a r r e s u l t s h a v e a l s o b e e n o b t a i n e d u n d e r
vacuum conditions at c r y o g e n i c t e m p e r a t u r e s t o a dose of 7 x l o 6
r a d s ( C ) . ( 3 ) H o w e v e r , w h e n t h i s t e s t w a s t e r m i n a t e d at 9 . 5 x l o 7 r a d s ( C ) ,
the greatest value for the dielectric constant during exposure was approxim a t e l y 22 p e r c e n t h i g h e r t h a n t h e i n i t i a l c r y o t e m p e r a t u r e v a l u e . R e c o v e r y
to within 0. 4 p e r c e n t of the initial value occurred after the irradiation
was terminated.
Significant increases of between two and t h r e e o r d e r s of magnitude
occur in the low-frequency dissipation factor (60-100
Hz) or loss tangent
of T e f l o n T F E w h e n i r r a d i a t e d . T h i s
is t r u e f o r i r r a d i a t i o n s at n o r m a l
atmospheric conditions ( a i r ) and in vacuum at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e as
i l l u s t r a t e d by the example shown in Figure 8. Exposure to radiation in
a n air e n v i r o n m e n t r e s u l t s i n a n i n c r e a s e t o a maximum value which is
then maintained during the irradiation. Irradiation in
a vacuum environment produces a s i m i l a r i n c r e a s e i n d i s s i p a t i o n f a c t o r ; h o w e v e r , u p o n
reaching a m a x i m u m v a l u e , t h i s d i s s i p a t i o n f a c t o r g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s e s .
The absorbed dose at which the maximum occurs appears to be a function of
t h e e x p o s u r e r a t e i n t h a t t h e b e a k o c c u r s at a higher total dose with an inc r e a s e i n t h e r a t e of exposure.
T h e r e c o v e r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the dissipation factor of Teflon
i r r a d i a t e d i n air a n d v a c u u m a r e q u i t e d i f f e r e n t . T h a t
of v a c u u m i r r a d i a t e d
Teflon recovers rapidly and is essentially complete a s long a s it r e m a i n s
14
I .O
Air
0.I
0.0I
I
I
0.001
I-
FIGURE 8.
3
4
5
6
Absorbed Dose, IO6 rads (Ag)
E F F E C T O F X - R A Y IRRADIATION ON T F E - 6 ( 5 )
15
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (Kel-F)
I .o
0.I
0
+
c
.-0
t
0.01
.-a
v,
.-v,
c)
0.001
4"4
vacuum
0.0001
FIGURE 9.
I
5
~~
I
I
IO
15
20
25
Recovery Time, days
I
I
30
35
RECOVERYCHARACTERISTICSOFTFE-6SPECIMENS
A F T E R X-RAY IRRADIATION AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 8 ( 5 )
17
Polvethvlene
18
5 . 8 x 1 0 l 6 e / c m 2 ( E = 1. 0 MeV) at 60 C i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e s t h e s e
f a c t o r s m a k e . ( l ) T h e h a r d n e s s a n d s t i f f n e s s i n f l e x u r e of the high-density
m a t e r i a l d e c r e a s e d as a r e s u l t of the irradiation, and the low-density and
carbon-filled materials experienced increases in these properties. The
high-density polyethylene also increased in tensile strength and the others
decreased.
T h e e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of polyethylene also degrade when it is
exposed t o a radiation environment. Measurements
of the insulating qualities such as v o l u m e r e s i s t i v i t y , s u r f a c e r e s i s t i v i t y , a n d i n s u l a t i o n - r e sistance indicate that a d e c r e a s e of up to t h r e e o r d e r s of magnitude occurs
i n t h e s e p a r a m e t e r s d u r i n g i r r a d i a t i o n w i t h p e r m a n e n t d e c r e a s e s of one
o r d e r of magnitude when subject to a total dose of 5. 8 x 1 0 l 6 e / c m 2
( E = 1. 0 MeV). The dissipation factor
at 1 KHz i n c r e a s e s o n e t o two
o r d e r s of magnitude as a r e s u l t of irradiation, and the dielectric constant changes less than *5 p e r c e n t .
Electron-radiation-induced dielectric breakdown in polyethylene
is sensitive to the f l u x to which the polyethylene i s exposed; the number
of o b s e r v e d b r e a k d o w n s i n c r e a s e s w i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n e l e c t r o n f l u x . ( 7 )
E x p o s u r e t o a flux of 1 x 1 0 l 1 e / ( c m 2 .s ) r e s u l t e d i n 20 breakdowns for
a fluence of 2 x 1013 e / c m 2 ( E k = 30 keV) while only
12 breakdowns were
o b s e r v e d f o r a similar fluence at 5 x l o l o e / ( c m 2 . s ) a n d n o n e at 1 x l o l o
e / ( c m 2 *s ) .
P r o t o n i r r a d i a t i o n of polyethylene over a flux range of lO9to 10 10
p / ( c m 2 . s ) f o r a fluence of 1013 p/crn2 at each rate with energies of 1. 1 5
and 1. 6 5 MeV produced no breakdowns in the material. ( 8 )
Polvstvrene
Polvethvlene TereDhthalate
Polyamide
20
Diallvl Phthalate
Polypropylene
Polvur
ethane
Polyurethane has shown good stability in both physical and electrical properties when exposed to a radiation environment. Irradiation to
d o s e s up to 7 x 108 r a d s ( C ) has caused very little change in flexure
strength or modulus. ( 13) A weight loss of 1 p e r c e n t ( a physical change)
22
Polyvinylidene fluoride (Kynar 400) has shown higher radiation tolerance than other fluorocarbons such as Teflon and Kel-F. It has demonstrated an ability to withstand irradiation to
a dose of l o 7 r a d s ( C ) i n air
or vacuum with no indication of degradation in physical properties except
color change.
An o r d e r - o f - m a g n i t u d e i n c r e a s e i n the radiation dose to 108
r a d s ( C ) a n d a b o v e c a u s e s e m b r i t t l e m e n t a n d l o s s of flexibility and tensile
strength. Low temperature, however, increases the radiation tolerance
of
polyvinylidene fluoride in that doses of this magnitude, lo8 r a d s ( C ) , at
cryogenic temperatures do not reach damage threshold.
Changes in the electrical properties of polyvinylidene fluoride inc l u d e d e c r e a s e s of between two and three orders of magnitude in volume
resistivity during and after irradiation to doses up to 2.
1 x l o 7 and 6. 6 x
107 r a d s ( C ) i n a n air and a v a c u u m - c r y o t e m p e r a t u r e e n v i r o n m e n t , r e spectively. ( 3 ) A d e c r e a s e of a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i v e o r d e r s of magnitude
occurred with a dose of 2. 1 x 108 r a d s ( C ) i n t h e air a t m o s p h e r e . D i s s i p a tion factor increased less than one decade, and the dielectric constant was
essentially unaffected by the i r r a d i a t i o n .
23
Polvimide
Polvimidazopvrrolone (Pvrrone)
EDOXV
Laminates
Miscellaneous Organics
TABLE 2.
..
~~~
"
"
- .
" -_
.~
- ..
-
.~
Identification
Material
"
1.22
..
-.
"
~~
x(3.8
resin Acetal
x 108 rads)
e/cm2
Acrylic
plastic,
molding
grade
(rubber
modified)
5.80
x 1016 e/cm2
(1.8
carbonate
Allyl
4.10
plastic,
cast
x e/cm2
1016
4.10
Cellulose
butyrate
rads)
x l o 9 rads)
x l o 9 rads)
( 1 .e3/ cx m120 l 6
4.10 x (1.3 e/cm2
propionate
Cellulose
lo9
( 1 . 3 x l o 9 rads)
x 1016
(1.8e/cm2
5.80
Cellulose
acetate
x 109 rads)
l o 8 rads)
1016 e/cm2 (1.8 x lo9 rads)
1OI6 e/cm2 (1.1 x l o 9 rads)
Chlorinated polyether
Polycarbonate
5.80 x
3.67 x
1.22 x
"~
"
-~
- _ _-_
"
~-
"~
27
e/cm2(3.8
x 108
rads)
TABLE 3.
FL4DJATION.EFFECTS ON MISCELLANEOUSORGANICBULK,SHEET,AND/ORFILM
MATERIALS WHERE ONLY LIMITED INFORMATION IS AVAILABLE
~~
Integrated
Identification
Total
Material
Styrene-butadiene
(high-impact styrene)
~-"-. . -.
-
"
~~
"
"
"
Remarks
Exposure
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-5.8x1016e/cm2
styrene
at 60 C
Styrene-acrylonitrile
copolymer
creased
C
60
(E = 1.0 MeV)Hardnessincreased
13percent;flexibility,tensile strength, and ultimate elongation decreased
49, 58, and93percent,respectively.Dielectric constant increased <1.5 percent and DF
decreased slightly.
IR increased. (11)
(E = 1.0 MeV)
at
Styrene-divinylbenzene
significance.
practical
(11)
C
60
Polyvinyl chloride
acetate
Polyvinylfluoride
Polyester/glass
laminate
2.5 x
Silicone/glass
laminate
5.0 x 1013 n/cm2 (E > 2.9 MeV) 49 percent loss in flexure strength, slight change
at 200 C
thickness,
color,
in
and weight.
(19)
1.0 x 108 rads (C)
(E = 1 . 0 MeV)
Mica
Both organic and inorganic wire insulations have been tested and
evaluated as to their radiation resistance.
A s e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n of
p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a s a r e s u l t of irradiation has occurred with some
o r g a n i c s , a n d o t h e r s , d e m o n s t r a t i n g a high level of r a d i a t i o n t o l e r a n c e ,
have survived doses of up to 1 x l o 8 r a d s ( C ) . Special cables and wires
insulated with inorganic materials have shown
similar r a d i a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e
29
..
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
Polytetrafluorethylene (Teflon) wire insulation has shown severe
d e g r a d a t i o n i n p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s a s a r e s u l t of exposure to a radiation
environment. The extent
of the damage that occurs is sensitive to total
d o s e a n d v a r i e s f r o m a noticeable decrease in wire flexibility to the complete disintegration of t h e m a t e r i a l .
The lowest total dose at which information on changes in physical
3
c h a r s c t e r i s t i c s is available is 10 r a d s ( C ) with a 5 psia oxygen atmosphere
and ambient temperature of 9 0 C as other enivronmental conditions.(22, 2 3 )
A decrease in flexibility was noted for a wire specimen having TFE Teflon
insulation with an M L (polyimide resin) coating after exposure to these
conditions. Wire insulated with the copolymer Teflon FEP and having this
same outer coating, however, showed
no loss in flexibility, nor did
a
Type-E TFE-insulated wire per MIL-W-1687D. Similar results also
o c c u r r e d f o r a dose of 6 x 104 r a d s ( C ) with a vacuum of l o e 6 t o r r and
a t e m p e r a t u r e of 150 C . T h e s e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e two p o s s i b i l i t i e s : t h e T F E
Teflon (polytetrafluoroethylene) insulated wire with the M L coating has a
lower radiation tolerance and/or the
lo3 to 6 x l o 4 r a d s ( C ) total dose is
t h e t h r e s h o l d a r e a f o r d a m a g e t o polytetrafluoroethylene-insulated wire and
damage to the other wire insulations was not yet apparent.
The change in the physical properties of polytetrafluoroethyleneinsulated wire and cable continues with increasing dose, and complete deterioration has been reported after total exposures
of l o 7 and l o 8 r a d s ( C ) .
The damage is such that the inner core of a Teflon-insulated coaxial cable
w i l l appear sound, but will powder and crumble when stressed mechanically
through handling or testing. Failure
of this type in a coaxial cable could be
expected to include shorting between conductors and/or between conductors
30
and the outer sheath or shield when radiation environments reach these dose
levels. This should be
of special concern in applications that include vibrat i o n o r o t h e r m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s e s as a p a r t of the intended environment.
T h e i r r a d i a t i o n of polytetrafluoroethylene-insulated w i r e a l s o res u l t s i n the degradation of electrical properties. Insulation resistance
measurements performed before and after irradiation have shown little or
no significant change in this parameter. Breakdown voltage has decreased
a s m u c h as 50 percent .between twisted pairs of wire having initial breakdown at voltages a s high as 15.8 to 28. 2 kV.(22, 23) T h e p o s t t e s t r a n g e
was 9 . 1 to 14. 2 K v . S e v e r a l e l e c t r i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
of coaxial cables
have shown the effects
of degradation. The attenuation
of a 10-foot length
of RG-225/U at 400 MHz i n c r e a s e d 0 . 20 db while the change for a similar
s a m p l e of RG 142/U was s o g r e a t it could not be measured after a total exp o s u r e of 3 x 1 0 l 6 n / c m 2 ( E> 0 . 1 MeV) and 2 . 3 x lo8 r a d s ( C ) . (24) T h e
RG 142/U cable also experienced larger increases in other measured param e t e r s including VS W R ( 1 . 19: 1 to 2 . 4:l ) , apparent change in electrical
length ( 0 . 224 wavelength), and phase shift (between 0 and t 15 d e g r e e s ) .
Polyethylene
T h e p h y s i c a l a n d e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of wire and cable that inlittle o r no degcorporate polyethylene as the insulating media have shown
radation for total doses up to 107 and l o 8 r a d s ( C ) a t t e m p e r a t u r e s of f r o m
15 C to 100 C . T h i s i s a comparatively high radiation tolerance for plastic
insulated wire. Some degradation is apparent in the physical properties
after a dose of 9 . 6 x l o 7 r a d s ( C ) with the darkening of the polyethylene,
but it still r e m a i n s r e s i l i e n t w i t h no indication of s t i f f n e s s . I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h r e s h o l d d a m a g e o c c u r s at a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 . 4 x l o 8 r a d s ( C ) .
Loss of flexibility has been observed, however, after cable insulated
with polyethylene and having outer jackets of e i t h e r E s t a n e o r A l a t h o n
received a total dose of 8. 8 x lo8 r a d s ( C ) . ( 2 5 ) The polyethylene of both
cables was brown and brittle and broken on the wire. The Estane jacket
on the one cable was very pliable while the Alathon jacket on the other
was very brittle. This embrittlement
of the outer jacket material of a
cable can offer a problem, particularly with a c o a x i a l o r s h i e l d e d t y p e , i n
t h a t s o m e m a t e r i a l s u s e d f o r this purpose become brittle at lower doses
than the polyethylene. Therefore, the outer jacket can be the limiting
factor in the application of a cable rather than the insulating material
used on the wire the jacket encloses.
31
Silicone Rubber
Silicone rubber wire insulation does not experience noticeable degradiation of its physical properties at d o s e s u p t o 8 . 8 x l o 5 r a d s ( C ) . A
slight change or lightening in color with a barely perceptible loss in
resilience or flexibility has been observed in flat-ribbon multiconductor
wire insulated with this material after an exposure of 8. 8 x 106
r a d s ( C ) . ( 2 7 ) S e r i o u s d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e w i r e ' s m e c h a n i c a l q u a l i t i e s
occurs with a total dose of 8 . 8 x l o 7 r a d s ( C ) a n d a b o v e . T h e r e i s
a
definite loss in flexibility, and the silicone rubber insulation will crack
and/or crumble when the wire is s t r e s s e d m e c h a n i c a l l y .
T h e i n s u l a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e of wire insulated with silicon rubber
d e c r e a s e s o n e o r two o r d e r s of magnitude during irradiation with recovery
to within one order of magnitude when the exposure is t e r m i n a t e d . If the
environmental conditions also include moisture and/or elevated temperature the combined effect can decrease the insulation resistance even
further. The breakdown voltage
of silicon wire insulation has shown some
variation between
- a n d p o s t i r r a d i a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s a f t e r d o s e s of
1 x lo3 and 4 x 10r rea d s ( C ) . ( 2 2 , 2 3 ) These changes in breakdown voltage,
however, include both increases and decreases and are
of little significance.
32
Polyimide
Irradiation-Modified Polvolefin
33
u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y w e r e ( 1 ) a n X - r a y d o s e of 6 x l o 4 r a d s ( C ) with a vacuum
of
t o r r a n d t e m p e r a t u r e of 150 C and ( 2 ) a nX - r a yd o s e
of 1 x 103
r a d s ( C ) w i t h a 5-psi oxygen atmosphere and a t e m p e r a t u r e of 9 0 C. The
stability of the insulating qualities of t h i s m a t e r i a l w h e n i r r a d i a t e d w a s a l s o
demonstrated in another study when wire insulated with this material completed a w e t d i e l e c t r i c - s t r e n g t h t e s t of 2 . 5 kV a f t e r a radiation dose of 5 x
l o 8 r a d s ( C ) .( 2 8 )
Coaxial cable insulated with irradiation-modified polyolefin (polyethylene) experienced an increase in attenuation of 0 . 30 and 0 . 40 db in a
cable length of 10 f e e t when exposed to a total dose of 2 . 9 x l o 8 r a d s ( C )
and 3 . 0 x 1 0 l 6 n / c m - 2 ( E > 0 . 1 M e V ) . ( 2 4 ) At t h e s a m e t i m e t h e r e w a s
little change in VSWR and the apparent change in electrical length was
0 . 08 and 0 . 106 wavelength.
Irradiation-modified polyolefin-insulated wire and cable has demonof o t h e r
s t r a t e d a high tolerance for radiation when compared to that
organic insulations and should be suitable for many applications that in-.
clude radiation as an environmental condition.
Miscellaneous Organics
the power density along the discharge path is adequate to produce the
physical damage observed. The actual pulse height
of t h e d i s c h a r g e s w e r e
possibly as high as 11,000 volts, and power densities
of 3 x 101o w a t t s /
c m 2 w e r e i n d i c a t e d i f a d i s c h a r g e t i m e of 0 . 0 1 m i c r o s e c o n d is acceptable.
The data support a postulate that a portion of the incident electrons a r e
stopped and stored within the dielectric. This charge increases with
i r r a d i a t i o n , a n d at some point in time it is r e l e a s e d a n d t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e
conductor and is o b s e r v e d a s a voltage pulse.
A surface irregularity or
pin p r i c k i n i t i a t e s the release mechanism. Such pulses could be damaging
to sensitive electronic circuits.
TABLE 4. RADIATIONEFFECTSONMISCELLANEOUS
-
~~
___
Identification
Material
"
.
_,
"
Total Integrated
Exposure(a)
~~
lo7
Remarks
Alkanex
4.6 x
Silicon-alkyd
Polypropylene
7.1 x lo7
rads
(C),
XE-9003A
Co-60
(E > 0 . 5 MeV)
Gamma dose unknown
I
-~
~
_
C,
Ambienttemperature.Unsatisfactory,insulation
too brittle and cracked for postirradiation
testing. (32)
n/cm2
4.08 x
(E > 0.5 MeV)
Gamma dose unknown
SE-975
~ _ _
Ambienttemperature.Unsatisfactory,insulation
cracked and too brittle for postirradiation
testing.
" (32)
"-
(a) These exposures are not to be interpreted as indicating superiority in radiation tolerance
of any material.
They are the limits to which the wires or cables have been subjected and are not damage thresholds.
Ceramic
Magnet wire, insulated with ceramic enamel (Ceramicite and Ceramlt e m p ) , h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d a high tolerance for radiation for total doses up
to 1. 5 x 108 r a d s ( C ) a n d 4.4x 1017 n / c m 2 ( E > 0 . 1 MeV) at r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . A tendency to powder during stripping tests is the only indication
of
d e t e r i o r a t i o n of physical properties. The stability
of e l e c t r i c a l p r o p e r t i e s
has also been satisfactory with some loss in dielectric strength and insulation resistance being observed.
A d e c r e a s e of approximately 16 p e r c e n t
occurred in breakdown voltage or dielectric strength between pre- and
p o s t i r r a d i a t i o n m e a s u r e m e n t s i n o n e s t u d y . ( 2 7 ) R e s u l t s of other studies
35
Miscellaneous Inorganics
Encapsulating compounds that have been evaluated a s to their radiation resistance include epoxy resins, silicone resins, polyurethane, and
aninorganic,calciumaluminate.Thesematerials,generallyexperienced
insignificant changes in their physical and electrical characteristics from
the radiation exposures to which they were subjected.
An exceptions are
discussed in the following paragraphs along with details concerning the
effects experienced by all m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d a n d t h e r a d i a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t
to which they were exposed.
Silicone resin encapsulating materials, such as RTV-501 and Sylgard
19 2 and 183, have not been seriously degraded at radiation exposure doses
of 2 x 1013 to 1. 5 x 1015 n / c m 2 ( E > 0 . 1 MeV) and 1 . 8 x l o 6 to 8 . 8 x 108
r a d s ( C ) . D e g r a d a t i o n of the physical properties has been limited to a
slight but insignificant weight loss of less than 1 per cent. I n s u l a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e dat.a show permanent decreases of 40 to 50 percent with the
m i n i m u m r e s i s t a n c e of approximately 1 x 1 0 l 2 o h m s a f t e r a total exposure
36
TABLE5.
RADIATION EFFECTSONMISCELLANEOUSINORGANIC
Material Identification
~.
WIRE INSULATION
Total Integrated
Exposure(a)
Remarks
~~~
No
Quartz (39Q02-3-26)
multiconductor coax
No
200
No breaking, cracking, or spalling was evident
when subjected to a bend test. Weightloss <0.2 percent. No electrical tests. Slightlydarkerincolor.(lg)
Mica paper-fiberglass
(Mica-Temp, RSS5 -304)
S-994 Fiberglass
8.8 x lo9-8. 8 x 1010 Cable met 1200 volt rms dielectric breakdown requirerads(C)(Estimated)ment.
Also, withstood2000 voltrmsbetweencon(35)
3x1019n/cm2ductor
and ground for 5 minutes.
(Energy unknown)
Magnesium oxide
(Rhodium conductor
and platinum sheating)
5x107rads(C)
1.0x1015n/cm2for30
(fission)
much
as
C.
Met dielectricstrengthrequirementof1200volts
seconds. Insulationresistancedecreasedas
four orders of magnitude
between
prepostirradiation measurements. (36)
rms
and
"
(a) These exposures are not to be interpreted as indicating superiority in radiation tolerance
of any material.
They are the limits to which the wires or cables have been subjected and are not damage thresholds.
37
of 1. 5 X
n / c m 2 ( E > 0 . 1 MeV)and1.8 x l o 6 r a d s ( C ) gamma.In
the only study where measurements were performed during irradiation, the
i n s u l a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e d e c r e a s e d by something in excess of o n e o r d e r of
magnitude (> 2 x 1 0 l 2 o h m s to 1 x 1 0 l 1 o h m s ) when the reactor was at its
maximurn power level of 30 k W . (37) An e s t i m a t e of the neutron and gamma
r a t e at this level is 1. 5 x 1 0 l 1 n / c m 2 . s ) ( E > 0 . 1 MeV) and 6 x lo4 r a d s
( C ) / h o u r ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Limited information on a polyurethane foam encapsulant indicates
that this material may be more sensitive to radiation exposure than other
encapsulating materials. Decreases in insulation resistance have
a p p r o a c h e d t h r e e o r d e r s of magnitude during exposure to approximately
1. 5 x 1 0 l 1 n / c m 2 . s ) ( E> 0 . 1 MeV) and 6 x 104 r a d s ( C ) h o u r . F u l l
recovery occurred, however, within
3 days after the irradiation was terminated with a total dose of 1. 5 x 1 0 1 5 n / c m 2 ( E > 0 . 1 MeV) and 1.8 x l o 6
r a d s ( C ) g a m m a . (38)
S e v e r a l , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y all epoxy resin encapsulants have shown
a r a d i a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e that is above average for plastics. Polyfunctional
epoxy resin and polyfunctional epoxy novolac resin with,anhydride or
aromatic amine hardeners appear to be the most resistant. Epoxies have
withstood neutron and gamma doses up to 1.
1 x 1 0 l 6 n / c m 2 ( E > 0. 5 MeV)
and 1 x l o 9 r a d s ( C ) f r o m a reactor source without serious deterioration.
S i m i l a r l y , e l e c t r o n i r r a d i a t i o n t o a total exposure of 5. 8 x 1 0 l 6 e / c m 2
( E = 1.0 MeV) at 60 C and cobalt-60 irradiation to 1 x 108 r a d s ( C ) p r o duced only limited degradation of an epoxy's physical and electrical properties. Epoxies that have shown
a satisfactory radiation tolerance within
the limits to which they were tested are listed in Table 6 .
Information concerning the degradation of an epoxy encapsulant's
physical properties indicate that a noticeable darkening in color and a
slight loss in weight occurs when these materials are irradiated. Other
changes that have also been reported for the radiation doses mentioned
above include increases in hardness
( 2 percent), stiffness in flexure
(4 percent), and tensile strength (8 percent), and decreases in ultimate
elongation ( 6 percent). These changes in physical properties should not be
of serious concern in the use of epoxies as encapsulants for electronic
components and equipment. However, gamma doses from
a cobalt-60
s o u r c e i n e x c e s s of 108 r a d s ( C ) m a y r e s u l t i n f a i l u r e i n s o m e a p p l i c a t i o n s
where the epoxy is under stress. The ultimate tensile strength
of epoxies
has decreased to between 43 and 24 percent of the initial value at 109
rads (C).(15) Compressive strength was essentially unaffected to
1O1O
rads (C).
38
TABLE 6.
Epoxy
Exposure(a)
Integrated
_Identification
_ _Total
~ _ ~- .
.~ . .
~.
Bisphenol A
Eccobond 182
Epocast 17B
Epon 828
Maraset 622-E
Novalak
Scotchcast 5
Scotchcast 212
Stycast 1095
Stycast 2651 MM
12-007
412"
lo9
420 -A
1126A/B
CF-8793
CF-8794
Unidentified
(Mineral
filled)
5.8
x 1016
e/cm2
(E = 1.0 MeV)
39
100 I
40watt
-0
a,
LT
C
.o
4-
1.0
0
3
10 rads(C) gamma
0.I
IO"
10'2
lot3
1014
loi5
I 11
0'6
IO''
IO'
cn
.-cn
cn
Q)
LT
1o9
I oa
0
1.0
FIGURE 11.
2.0
x IOl5
It i s r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e r e a d e r c o n s u l t t h e s e c t i o n o n s h e e t a n d
bulk insulating materials for additional information on the connector insulations discussed above and others
that may be of interest. In addition, the
activation of m e t a l p a r t s p r o v i d e s a continuing source of radiation to the
connector and surrounding electronic parts even after irradiation from the
primary source has terminated. In glass to metal seals, with materials
like Kovar or similar alloys, the interface between the metal and glass,
a
m o s t s e n s i t i v e a r e a , is i n a n a r e a of high radiation concentration and high
p h y s i c a ls t r e s sa n d ,t h u s ,i sm o r es u b j e c t
to damage.Therefore,the
selection of a connector for use in a radiation environment must include
consideration of both the insulating material and the metal parts.
45
CAPACITORS
INTRODUCTION
46
1015
loi4
IO l3
~~~~
~~
lo5
IO6
1017
IOi6
Fast NeutronFluence,
I
lo7
n/cm2
1
IO8
lo9
47
Glass - and
P o r c e l a i n - D i e l e c t rC
i ca p a~citors
"
~~~
Capacitance measurements on glass -dielectric capacitors during irradiation have shown maximum temporary changes or variations between
+4.0
percent and -2,'5 percent. Permanent changes between
t3. 1 and -2. 5 p e r cent have also been recorded. The radiation environment for these changes
included neutron fluences of 3.4 x 1018 and 5.7 x 1016 n / c m 2 (E > 2.9 MeV)
and total gamma exposures of 7 . 7 x 108 to 3 . 0 x 109 r a d s ( C ) . A m a x i m u m
48
49
to a nuclear-radiation environment. This effect is temporary and the insulation resistance recovers when the irradiation is terminated.
Mica-Dielectric Capacitors
T h e i n t e r n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n of m i c a - d i e l e c t r i c c a p a c i t o r s i n c l u d e s a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s of m i c a - d i e l e c t r i c a n d m e t a l l i c e l e c t r o d e s . T h e e l e c t r o d e s o r
c a p a c i t o r p l a t e s m a y b e of m e t a l f o i l o r d e p o s i t e d s i l v e r . T h e d e p o s i t e d
s i l v e r u n i t s , b e c a u s e of the intimate contact between the electrode and dielectric, are used where high-stability capacitors are required, such as in
timing and frequency-determining circuits and other applications where
s t a b i l i t y i s of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e . T h e y a r e n o t , h o w e v e r , r e c o m m e n d e d
for applications that may include high-humidity, high-temperature, and constant d-c potentials. This is due to silver-ion migration, which is accentuated by these conditions. The foil types are less stable than the deposited
s i l v e r ( s i l v e r m i c a s ) , a n d l a r g e r d r i f t s a r e t o be expected with these units,
particularly at elevated temperature.
The capacitance and dissipation factor of m i c a c a p a c i t o r s a r e s u s c e p t ible to permanent damage from irradiation, while changes in insulation
resistance are generally temporary. The permanent changes in capacitance
a n d d i s s i p a t i o n f a c t o r a r e p o s s i b l y due t o c h a n g e s i n t h e p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e
of t h e c a p a c i t o r s , s u c h a s s e p a r a t i o n of t h e m e t a l e l e c t r o d e a n d d i e l e c t r i c
layers. Visual examination following exposure has shown severe damage in
t h e f o r m of c a s i n g f r a c t u r e s a s a r e s u l t of the irradiation.
C a p a c i t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s on mica-dielectric capacitors have shown
permanent changes of approximately 6 . 0 percent when capacitors of this type
have been exposed to neutron fluences as high as 6 x 1015 n / c m 2 (E > 2 . 9
MeV) and 1016 n / c m 2 (E > 0 . 3 MeV) and total gamma exposures of l o 8 r a d s
(C ).
Changes in the dissipation factor of m i c a - d i e l e c t r i c c a p a c i t o r s v a r y
f r o m n o n e , o r no significant effect, to increases where the dissipation
factor was as much as
0. 1 0 a f t e r a neutron fluence of 1 x 1016 n / c m 2
(E > 0. 3 MeV). The total gamma ex osure is not known; however, the rate
varies between 8 . 7 x lo2 to 4.4 x 10
r a d s ( C ) / h r . (41) A s i m i l a r d i s s i p a tion factor (0. 1 0 ) was the result of a t e m p o r a r y i n c r e a s e d u r i n g a d o s e - r a t e
t e s t , a n d d e c r e a s e d t o 0. 04 during a fluence o r i n t e g r a t e d e x p o s u r e t e s t t h a t
was a p a r t of the same study. (42) N o predominant or significant changes
50
Ceramic-Dielectric CaDacitors
51
T h e b a s i c p h y s i c a l s t r u c t u r e of p a p e r - d i e l e c t r i c c a p a c i t o r s c o n s i s t s
of two m e t a l - f o i l s t r i p s o r d e p o s i t e d m e t a l f i l m s ' s e p a r a t e d b y t w o o r m o r e
l a y e r s of p a p e r d i e l e c t r i c . T h e p a p e r i s g e n e r a l l y i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h w a x ,
oil, or synthetic compounds to increase its voltage breakdown and to provide the desired characteristics. The
paper/plastic-dielectric c a p a c i t o r s
are similar in Construction, with the addition of l a y e r s of plastic film i n
the paper layers. Paper and paper/plastic capacitors are used in general
applications involving high voltages and currents at low frequencies, in
52
53
1 0 1 1 n / ( c m 2 - s ) ( e p i c a d m i u m ) f oar fluence of 4 x 1 0 l 7 n / c m 2 a n d a g a m a r a t e
and total dose of 8. 7 x l o 5 r a d s ( C ) / h r a n d 3 x l o 8 r a d s (C), respectively.
T h e i n s u l a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e of p a p e r - a n d paper/plastic-dielectric capact o r s d e c r e a s e s a s a r e s u l t of i r r a d i a t i o n . T h e t e m p o r a r y d e c r e a s e t h a t
occurs is generally attributed to the ionization that is produced by the radiation environment. A permanent decrease in the insulation resistance may
be the result of ( 1 ) a d e c r e a s e i n t h e v o l u m e r e s i s t i v i t y of the substance
used to impregnate the device and ( 2 ) t h e p r o c e s s t h a t r e s u l t s i n t h e e m b r i t t l e m e n t of t h e k r a f t - p a p e r d i e l e c t r i c . I n c r e a s e s d u e t o i n t e r e l e c t r o d e d i s t o r t i o n f r o m p r e s s u r e b u i l d u p i s a l s o a strong possibility.
S e v e r a l p r o g r a m s h a v e i n c l u d e d s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s of p a p e r - a n d / o r
paper/plastic-dielectric capacitors to provide statistical confidence in the
results. The following discussions
of i n d i v i d u a l t e s t p r o g r a m s a r e p r e sented for this reason.
One hundred CP08AlKE 105M p a p e r - d i e l e c t r i c c a p a c i t o r s w e r e s u b jected to combined environments of h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e a n d n u c l e a r r a d i a tion. (45) The ambient temperature was controlled at 85
C with the reactor
power level limited to 1 m e g a w a t t d u r i n g t h e f i r s t 2 4 h o u r s . T h e r e a c t o r
p o w e r l e v e l w a s t h e n r a i s e d t o 10 megawatts for the duration of t h e e x p e r i ment while the temperature was still controlled
at 85 C. The radiation
environmental conditions for this study included a neutron fluence of 1.4 x
1 0 l 6 n / c m 2 (E > 2. 9 MeV) and a total g a m a e x p o s u r e of 9. 0 x 108 r a d s ( C ) .
Observations of capacitance during the combined environmental conditions indicated that the capacitors decreased in capacitance with increase
in radiation intensity. Most
of the capacitors exceeded their lower tolerance
limit of -20 percent at approximately 8.4 x 1014 n / c m 2 (E > 2 . 9 MeV) and
3.41 x107 r a d s ( C ) . As t h e e x p o s u r e i n c r e a s e d f u r t h e r , t h e r e w a s
a general trend for the capacitances to increase slightly, sometimes returning to
within their specified tolerance. This behavior was followed by an almost
exponential increase above the upper 20 p e r c e n t t o l e r a n c e l e v e l f o r s e v e r a l
measurements when the capacitors failed catastrophically. Figure
13 i s a
g r a p h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n of the reliability indices for these units based on the
specified tolerance and the resulting catastrophic-failure occurrences. The
reliability indices are the percent surviving the specified failure criteria at
the indicated neutron fluence or gamma dose. Postirradiation examination
of the capacitors revealed that 22 units were ruptured, 59 w e r e s h o r t - c i r c u i t type failures, 9, although not shorted, could
notbe charged, and only
10 c a pacitors were chargeable. The threshold
of failure for the out-of-tolerance
54
I-
90
5
4
80
70
x 6 0
Q)
5 50
t
'=
.-
40
IO
0
I013
loi4
1015
IOi6
I 017
Io6
I o7
I o8
-----
I o9
x 1014
2000 vdc
0 . 5%
160 hr
2000 vdc
Irradiated
6.0 to lO.O%
100 hr
Pulsed 2000 vdc
Irradiated
6.0 to 10.0%
155 hr
275 hr
l?Tm-y-4%
I
7 failed-
2-
636 hr
1086 hr
a . Constant 135 C
2000 vdc
15 failed
2000 vdc
Irradiated
Pulsed 2000 vdc
Irradiated
2 O/O
566 hr
9 O/O
312 hr
6 Oo/
131 hr
Prior-to-failure
decrease in capacitance
~~~
2 O/O
650 hr
9 failed
b. Temperature -Cycled Units
1.
2.
FIGURE14.
56
TABLE 7.
Test
Group
Temperature,
C
100
10-5 I1
100
10-5 I11(a )
100
-1013 n / c m 2
(E > 0. 1 MeV)
-lo7
10-5 IV (b)
100
-1013 n / c m 2
(E > 0.1 MeV)
- l o 7 rads ( C )
50
-1013 n / c m 2
(E > 0. 1 MeV)
- l o 7 rads ( C )
V(4
Pressure,
torr
None
76 0
Neutron
Fluence
Gamma
Dose
None
rads ( C )
TABLE 8.
T e s t Group
I
I1
I11
IV
V
VI
All test groups
l o m 5torr
FAILURERATEFORP323ZN105KCAPACITOR,AT50,
60, AND90 PERCENT CONFIDENCE LEVELS(39)
2. 09
4.86
5.46
4.26
0. 30
4. 56
3 . 19
2.35
5.25
5.88
4.67
0.39
4.97
3.87
3.32
58
3.58
7.03
7. 77
6.41
0.98
6.72
20
50
55
40
0
45
35
ps test
TABLE 9.
50,
~-- .-
T eG
s tr o u p
"
I
I1
III
IV
V
All
0.30
0.30
0.30
0.29
0.30
0.06
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.08
59
0.98
0.98
0. 98
0.97
0.98
0.20
0
0
0
0
0
0
Plastic-Dielectric Capacitors
60
E x p e r i m e n t s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t of nuclear radiation on plasticdielectric capacitors have shown that these organic dielectrics experience
m o d e r a t e - t o - s e v e r e p e r m a n e n t d a m a g e at a radiation fluence an order of
magnitude less than the inorganics,
i. e . , g l a s s , c e r a m i c , a n d m i c a .
As in
t h e c a s e f o r p a p e r - a n d paper/plastic-dielectric capacitors, plain plastic is
a more suitable dielectric for nuclear-radiation environments than the same
or similar dielectric impregnated with oil or wax. Impregnated hermetically
sealed units may even experience a rupture of the exterior case or enclosure.
T h i s r u p t u r e m a y b e t h e p u s h i n g o u t o f t h e g l a s s - t o - m e t a l e n d s e a l s s o that
the material used to impregnate the capacitor leaks out, or, if there is a
sufficient buildup of pressure, the end seal may even be blown completely
f r e e of the capacitor, with the capacitor element extending beyond the limits
of i t s e n c l o s u r e . S u c h a violent rupture occurring in an actual application,
o f f e r s , i n a d d i t i o n t o e l e c t r i c a l f a i l u r e , a p h y s i c a l h a z a r d to other component
parts in the vicinity of the capacitor.
The capacitance of p l a s t i c - d i e l e c t r i c ( M y l a r ) c a p a c i t o r s s u b j e c t e d t o a
r a d i a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t h a s both i n c r e a s e d a n d d e c r e a s e d when pre- and postirradiation measurements are compared.
In g e n e r a l , t h e s e c h a n g e s a r e
within *4 p e r c e n t of the preirradiation value at neutron fluences of l O 1 5 n / c m 2
( E 2 . 9 MeV) and 10l6 n/cm2
(E > 0.3 MeV). However, decreases
of a s
m u c h a s 10 p e r c e n t a n d a s s m a l l a s <1 p e r c e n t h a v e a l s o b e e n r e c o r d e d f o r
similar capacitors and fluences. The differences
i n the sensitivity to a r a d i ation environment may possibly be the result of differences i n the Mylar and
i t s t r e a t m e n t b e f o r e o r d u r i n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r e of the capacitors, or differe n c e s i n t h e m a t e r i a l u s e d t o impregnate them. The evolving
of gas by the
breakdown of the oil o r wax used to impregnate the capacitors could be
responsible for capacitance change. Bubbles forming between the layers
of
the capacitor could increase the spacing.
The dissipation factor of plastic-dielectric (Mylar) capacitors remains
stable with a negligible amount of change. The change,
i f i t o c c u r s , i s not
detectable because of t h e m e a s u r e m e n t a c c u r a c y a n d / o r t h e d i s s i p a t i o n f a c t o r
of the long leads required between the test capacitors in the radiation environment and the instrumentation used to measure their electrical characteristics. The maximum observed increase in dissipation factor is
6 0 percent
of t h e i n i t i a l v a l u e m e a s u r e d b e f o r e t h e c a p a c i t o r s w e r e i n s e r t e d i n t h e r e actor. This increase occurred at
a neutron fluence of 6 x 1017 n / c m 2
(epicadmium) and a total gamma dose of 4.4 x 108 r a d s ( C ) .
T h e i n s u l a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e of p l a s t i c - d i e l e c t r i c c a p a c i t o r s d e c r e a s e s
when they are exposed to nuclear radiation. Permanent changes in the insulation resistance may be due to the chemical breakdown process that occurs
61
1
Io5
Io6
10
IO*
----
J
Io9
ps test
fluence and total gamma exposures to which these Mylar capacitors were
subjected were 1.32 x 1 0 l 6 n / c m 2 (E 7 2.9 MeV.) and 8.5 x lo8 r a d s ( C ) ,
respectively. The capacitance values
of the Mylar capacitors exhibited very
little change for an extended period of radiation; a g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e w a s
o b s e r v e d t o w a r d t h e e n d of t h e t e s t . At the end of t h e t e s t s e v e r a l u n i t s e x ceeded the 10 p e r c e n t t o l e r a n c e l e v e l s p e c i f i e d f o r t h e c a p a c i t o r . P r i o r t o
these failures, the mode of failure had been essentially limited to
catastrophic-type damage. The reliability indices, shown in Figure 15,
indicate this phenomenon by comparison of catastrophic failures with outof-tolerance occurrence. Postirradiation examination
of the Mylar capacit o r s r e v e a l e d t h a t 94 units had failed catastrophically and 81 had ruptured
a s a r e s u l t of the test conditions. One capacitor that exhibited
a nonshorted
condition could not be charged, and
18 units of t h e e n t i r e t e s t g r o u p w e r e
chargeable,
The second study that included a l a r g e s a m p l e s i z e of Mylar capacitors
consisted of subjecting them t o the five environmental conditions listed in
Table 7 with a d-c voltage applied. Nonenergized units were included in
two
of the environments (Test Groups VI and VII). (39) These additional test
groups were subjected to the same environmental conditions as Groups
I and
111. The basic sample size at each test condition consisted
of 20 units for a
t o t a l s a m p l e s i z e of 140 Mylar capacitors manufactured about 1965.
Failure-rate computations, Table
10, show that the combination
of
radiation exposure and 100 C t e m p e r a t u r e , T e s t G r o u p s 111 and IV, r e s u l t e d
TABLE 10.
FAILURERATE
""
'
T eG
s tr o u p
-.
~-
I
I1
1.23
0.30
36.70
18.76
0.30
0.30
0.30
III
IV
V
VI
VI1
. .
All
.. __
."
. .
"
".
"
"
..
~-
. ..
- .~
63
. .
2.44
0.98
48.38
25.53
0.98
0.98
0.98
1.43
0.39
38.85
20.02
0.39
0.39
0.39
10
0
95
75
0
0
0
25.7
in exceptionally high failure rates. The results for the capacitors in Test
Group V, radiation and 5 0 C, indicate that temperature was
a definite factor
in these failures, while results for Test Group
11, 100 C without radiation,
show a similar indication for the radiation environment. The results shown
f o r T e s t G r o u p VI, with environmental conditions identical to those for Test
Group I11 but with no load applied, indicate that electrical load was also
a
factor in the failures. This concentration
of failure in the radiation environments indicates that these capacitors are quite susceptible to radiation
damage, even at the low levels used in this study, when in combination with
a 100 C ambient temperature. Therefore,
it was recommended that their
application be limited to lower ambient temperatures, such as
5 0 C , when
nuclear radiation is an environmental consideration.
Electrolytic Capacitors
64
66
I 013
I
105
I 014
loi5
I06
lo7
I Ol6
I 017
to9
(C)-----
F a i l u r e - r a t e c o m p u t a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 11 f o r t h e s e c a p a c itors. The minor difference between the failure rates for Test Group
IV and
TABLE 11.
T eG
s tr o u p
I
II
I11
IV
V
VI
groups
test All
FAILURERATEFOR
5K106AA6 CAPACITOR AT 50,
6 0 , AND 90 PERCENT CONFIDENCE LEVELS(39)
Failure Rate at Indicated Confidence Level,
percent/ 1000 h r
Percent Recorded
50 P e r c e n t 6 0 P e r c e n t 90 P e r c e aF
nsta i l e d
0.30
0.30
0.39
0.29
0.30
0.30
0. 05
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0. 06
68
0.98
0 . 98
0. 98
0.97
0.98
0.98
0. 16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
p-
t h o s e f o r t h e o t h e r test groups is due to the additional operating time associated with the 100 h o u r s of high-flux radiation that these components received
p r i o r t o t h e b e g i n n i n g of the 10, 000-hour life test.
The range of capacitance remained well within the specified
lirnit. A
g e n e r a l i n c r e a s e w a s o b s e r v e d i n t h e d i s s i p a t i o n f a c t o r f o r all t e s t g r o u p s ,
with the exception of T e s t G r o u p V (50 C, vacuum, low-flux radiation environment). This would indicate that the
100 C ambient of the other test groups was
responsible for the increase.
N o dissipation-factor degradation was apparent
in the results from the radiation environments.
The results indicate that the various environmental conditions and combinations thereof that were included in this study offer
no p a r t i c u l a r p r o b l e m
in the application of t h e s e c a p a c i t o r s .
Twenty-five failures were observed in a total sample of 1 0 0 of the wetslug tantalum capacitors that were subjected to the five operating conditions
of this study. Three
of these failures were not confirmed by final measurem e n t s . Two of the remaining 22 indicated a high leakage-current condition
(approaching short circuit), and 2 0 were open circuits during final measurements. The visual examination when the test was terminated revealed
that
the plastic covering on the capacitors in Test Group
I ( 1 0 0 C, a t m o s p h e r i c
p r e s s u r e , no radiation exposure) had discolored to a dark brown and become
hard, and the capacitors showed evidence
of electrolyte leakage. In addition,
all specimens in Test Group I1 (100 C, vacuum, no radiation exposure) also
showed evidence of leakage, and the solder at one end of t h e c a s e h a d m e l t e d
on four capacitors.
Failure-rate computations for these units, Table
12, indicated a m u c h
higher failure rate for the capacitors in Test Groups
I and I1 (nonradiation
environments). The higher values for Test Group
I were attributed, at l e a s t
in part, to the fact that the plastic cover was left
on the capacitors in this
t e s t g r o u p b u t w a s r e m o v e d f r o m all others as offering a possible outgassing
problem in the vacuum-environments. The plastic covers were considered
a s possibly having prevented or reduced the rate at which the heat due to
internal losses could be dissipated. However, this did not explain the high
f a i l u r e r a t e f o r t h e c a p a c i t o r s i n T e s t G r o u p I1 (compared to that of T e s t
Groups III and I V ) , which had their plastic covers removed.
A beneficial effect from the radiation was considered an unlikely possibility, but was given
as one possible explanation of the catastrophic-failure
distribution for these capacitors , i. e. , high failure rates for the nonirradiated groups.
69
5groups test
TABLE 12.FAILURERATE
FOR HP56C50D1CAPACITORAT50,
60, AND 90 PERCENT CONFIDENCE LEVELS(39)
-
-~
~~
.~
T eG
s tr o u5Pp0e r c e6P
n0te r c e n t
~~
__
~~~
I
I1
I11
IV
V
~~
11.82
7.31
0.30
0.75
0.75
12. 56
85
307.81
0.39
0.89
0.90
15.80
10.05
0.98
1.74
1.72
0
5
5
All
70
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77
INDEX
C a s i n gF r a c t u r e
50
CellulosAcetate 9 , 27
CelluloseBytyrate
27
C e l l u l o s eP r o p i o n a t e 27
Cements/Bonding/ 26
C e r a m i cC a p a c i t o r 46, 47, 51, 52
C e r a m i cG l a z e 48
C e r a m i c i t e 35
C e r a m i t e m p3 5
C h a i nS c i s s i o n 7,12,
22
C h a r g eE q u i l i b r a t i o n4 8
Chemical Breakdown 6 1
ChemicalChange 66
ChlorinatedPolyethers27
C h r o m e - P l a t i n g 26
Circuits48-51,53,65
CompressiveStrength26,
29, 33,
38
Conductance - See Also Conductivity 7
Conductivity2-7,10,24,25
Conductors 26, 4 1
ConfidenceLevel59,62,68,
70
Constant D-C P o t e n t i a l 50
Copper26,
28
CoronaVoltages41,45,
60
C o r r o s i o n8 ,
33
Cracking8,31,32,41
Crosslinking 7
C r y o g e n i cT e m p e r a t u r e s1 4 ,1 6 ,
23-25
D a m a g eT h r e s h o l d s
1, 2, 9, 11, 12,
16,18,
19, 21-23,31
D a r k C u r r e n t 25
Density 7, 29
Diallylphthalate 6 , 9 , 21,42,43
DielectricBreakdowns16,19,
20
22,24,25,37,
46
DielectricConstant12,14,19-26,
28,29,40,46,52,60
91-LDResin 28
A c e t a l R e s i n 27
A-C LOSS 16,22
A c r y l i cR e s i n s
27
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Rubber
41,42
Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene
Rubber 9 , 28
Activation 40, 6 5
Aging
51,
52
Air Environment 12- 17,
23
Alkanex35
A l l y lC a r b o n a t eP l a s t i c
27
Alox 26
Alsimag 26
Aluminum33,48,
64, 65
Aluminum Capacitor 64-66
AluminumIsotope 6 5
Aluminum Oxide 11, 26, 43
AnilineFormaldehyde
9
Annealing 59
Anodized64
AppliedVoltage 66
A s b e s t o3
s7
AtomicDisplacements
10
Audio F r e q u e n c y 53
BerylliumOxide11
BiologicalHazard40,65
Blocking
48
B o r a t eE l e c t r o l y t e 46
BreakdownVoltage7,24,25,29,
31-33,35,36,41-43,45,52,64
Buna-N - UseAcrylonitrileButadiene Rubber
CalciumAluminate36,40
Capacitance33,34,40,43,46,
48-54,57,60,
61, 63-69
C a p a c i t o r Plate 46, 50, 51, 53,
64
C a r r i e rC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
2, 3,10,25
79
D i e l e c t r i c Film 64
D i e l e c t r i c L o s s - - See a l s o D i s s i p a tionFactor8,60
D i e l e c t r i cS t r e n g t h 12, 30,34-37,
40, 60
DimensionalChanges
29, 46
Disintegration12,30,32,41,
60
DissipationFactor8,12,14-23,25,
28,30,33,40,43,46-53,57,60,
61,65-69
66,
DoseRateEffect3-5,60,
Electrode46,50,51,53,54,
57
Electrolyte46,64-66
Electrolyte Leakage 69
ElectrolyticCapacitor46,47,64-70
Elongation
12,
13,
18,
19,
21-24
28,38
Embrittlement8,12,20,22,23,26,
31, 35, 54,60
Encapsulation36,38-40,48,
69
EpoxyResins5,
6 , 9 , 25, 26, 35,
36,38-40
FailureRate59,63,68,
69
F i b e r g l a s3s 7
F i l l e dP o l y m e r s 9 , 18,21,39,42
43) 53
60
Flaking - See Also Disintegration
FlashoverVoltage7,
60
FlexureProperties19-23,28-33,38
F o r s t e r i t e 11
F u s e d Q u a r t z 10
GammaHeating46,65
GasEvolution 8 , 33,46,53,
6 1, 69
Gl.assCapacitor46-48
G l a s s e s 10,
11,
29,
33,
37,
42,
43,48
G l a s sL a m i n a t e s
9 , 25,26,
28
G l a s s - t o - M e t a lS e a l s4 1 ,4 5
H a r d n e s s7 ,
19,21-23,28,38,
60, 69
Heat Dissipation 69
HermeticSeal41-43,45
H - F i l m - U s e Polyimides
80
ImpactStrength
18, 21, 22
Induced Conductivity - Use Photoconductivity
InsulationResistance7,8,19-23,
26,28,30-33,35-38,40-46,4854,57,60-62
IonizationEffect46,48,
51, 53,
54
Kaowool37
Kapton - Use Polyimides
K e l - F - U s e Polytrifluorochloroethylene
Kovar
45
LeakageCurrent7,60,64-66,68,
69
L e a k a g eR e s i s t a n c e4 7
L i q u i dF i l l e r
60
LowFrequencyCurrent
52
Lucalox
26
MagnesiumOxide11,37
M e l a m i n eF o r m a l d e h y d e 9 , 42
Melting 69
Melting Point 7
Mica29,37
MicaCapacitor46,47,50,51
M i r r o r s3 3
M y l a r 9 , 20, 34,60,62
MylarCapacitor60-64
NaturalRubber
9
Neoprene Rubber 9 , 41, 42
Network 53
Nylon 6 , 9 , 20
O i lI m p r e g n a t e d 52,53,61,62
Open Circuit Failure
69
O r l o n 21
Oscillators
48
Oxidation
18,
19
PaperCapacitor46,52-60
P a p e r / M y l a rC a p a c i t o r5 5 - 6 0
P a p e r / P l a s t i cC a p a c i t o r4 7 ,5 2 - 6 0
PhenolFormaldehyde42
P h e n o l i cR e s i n s 9
Phosphate-BondedCements
26
P h o s r o c I11 ,37
Photoconductivity 2-6, 10,25,32
PlasticCapacitors47,52.-64
P o l y c a r b o n a t e s 9 , 27,60
P o l y e s t e rR e s i n s 9 , 28
Polyethylene5,
6,9,
18, 19, 31,
32,34,60
P o l y e t h y l e n e T e r e p h t h a l a t e - Use
Mylar
Polyimidazopyrrolone - U s e P y r r o n e
Polyimides6,
9 , 24,30,33
PolymethylMethacrylate 9 , 27
Polyolefins,Radiation-Modified33,34
Polypropylene 6 , 9 , 22,35
P o l y s t y r e n e 5, 6 , 9 , 19,20,60
Polytetrafluoroethylene - Use
Teflon
P o l y t r i f l u o r o c h l o r o e t h y l e n e 8, 9 ,
16, 18
P o l y u r e t h a n e s 9 , 2 2 , 23,36,38
PolyvinylButyral 9
PolyvinylChloride9,
27
Polyvinylfluoride 28
P o l y v i n y lF o r m a l 9
Polyvinylidene Chloride 9
PolyvinylideneFluoride 9 , 23
P o r c e l a i nD i e l e c t r i cC a p a c i t o r4 8 ,
49
Potting - Use Encapsulation
P r e s s u r eB u i l d u p4 6 ,
53,54,
61
P y r o c e r a m 26
P y r r o n e 24, 25
Quartz10,11,37
R e c o v e r y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 1 4 , 16- 18,
30,32,38,40,41,43,45,48,49,
51, 52
R e f r a s i l 37
ReliabilityIndices54,55,58,62,
63,67
Resistivity - U s e Conductivity
R - F A p p l i c a t i o n 48
Rupture 54, - 61, 63
81
S a p p h i r e 11
S e a l i n gP r o p e r t i e s4 1
Seals41-43,45,
53, 65, 66, 69
Shielding 49
Short Circuit Failure
54
Silica 26, 37
Silicone-Alkyd 35
SiliconeResins
9 , 28, 36
SiliconeRubbers 9 , 32,35,36,38,
41,43
Silver48,50,51
S i l v e r -Ion Migration 50
SodiumIsotope65
S o f t e n i n gP o i n tT e m p e r a t u r e
18
Solder 69
Solubility 7
Spinel
11
Steatite 26
S t r e s s 60
StyreneAcrylicCopolymer
27
StyreneAcrylonitrileCopolymer
28
StyreneButadieneRubber9,
28
StyreneDivinylbenzene
28
SurfaceResistivity18-20,
26, 28
Swelling 46
Tantalum64,65
TantalumCapacitor64-70
TantalumIsotope65
Teflon 6 , 8,9,12-17,
2 7 , 30,31,
41,65,
66
T e m p e r a t u r e C y c l i n g 55-57
T e m p e r a t u r e E f f e c t s 12,24,25,
32,34,46,50-52,54,59,
62,
64-67
TensileStrength7,12,18,19,
21-24,26,
28, 29,38
U r e aF o r m a l d e h y d e 9
Vacuum12-17,
23, 3 0 ,3 4
VinylChloride-Acetate
9 , 28
V i t r e o u s Enamel Capacitor48
VolumeResistivity12,14,18-20,
23, 26, 28, 40
VolumetricEfficiency64
W a x Impregnated48,
52,61,62
82
NASA-Langley, 1971
- 9 CR-1787