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Abstract
The paper describes the upscaling and reservoir simulation of
a giant Middle East oilfield, whose geological modeling is
described in a companion paper (1). The main objective of the
study was the simulation of the irregular water advance
observed in some parts of the field, as a consequence of
peripheral water injection.
Three scales of heterogeneity were identified in the
characterization phase, namely the matrix, the stratiform
Super-K intervals and the fractures. To accommodate the
different hydraulic properties of each heterogeneity system, a
dual-media approach (dual porosity and dual permeability)
was used.
The assignment of the effective properties to the
simulation grids (matrix and fracture grids) was performed
independently for the three heterogeneity systems. In
particular, the geostatistical facies model was upscaled using
algebraic methods, while the stratiform Super-K layers and
fractures properties were explicitly reproduced at the
simulation gridblock scale, through an original upscaling
procedure.
The history match was achieved in a short time, by a small
variation of the fractal dimension of the fracture distribution
and without resorting to any local modification.
Simulation results showed that the fracture system was the
controlling factor in terms of water advance and breakthrough,
while the impact of the stratiform Super-K layers proved to be
of second order.
In a later stage, the model was utilized to run production
forecasts under different exploitation scenarios.
L.COSENTINO et al.
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wells located much closer to the original water contact are still
dry.
The above observations suggest that this reservoir behaves
as a Dual Media reservoir. Actually, 2 flow systems can be
identified, with completely different hydraulic properties, one
medium with high storage capacity and relatively low
conductivity and one medium with low storage capacity and
high conductivity.
The former medium corresponds to the matrix, i.e. the
porous and permeable limestone and dolomite facies. Here, in
the absence of significant reservoir heterogeneity, the
sweeping process is rather stable and will eventually lead to
good conformance factors.
The latter medium includes those reservoir heterogeneities
that are deemed responsible for the high water velocity
observed in some areas of the field. This medium therefore
includes the faults and fractures described in the structural
study and the stratiform Super-K layers.
For such complex reservoirs, the dual-media approach
(dual porosity dual permeability) represents a convenient
simulation approach, since it explicitly accounts for the
different hydraulic properties of each heterogeneity system. It
also provides the necessary flexibility for testing the impact of
each reservoir feature independently. Furthermore, the model
used in this study allows for the explicit modeling of the
different displacement mechanisms acting in a Dual Media
reservoir (expansion, capillarity, gravity, viscosity), thus
providing additional flexibility to the simulation study (4). For
these reasons, since the beginning of the project, the Dual
Media approach was considered the reference framework for
simulation purposes.
Alternative simulation strategies were also investigated,
based on a single-medium approach and original pseudoisation
procedures (5). In some cases, these options provide a viable
alternative to the more general Dual Media formulation.
Upscaling procedures
Upscaling aims at defining the effective reservoir properties at
the simulation grid scale. A sound upscaling procedure should
reproduce, at the coarser scale of the simulation grid, the flow
performances expected if the corresponding fine scale model
would be used. In a Dual Media context, the problem is
decoupled, since the simulation grids are actually two: the
matrix and the fracture grids. This decoupling can be seen as a
further advantage of the Dual Media formulation, since
distinct and specific procedure can be established for the two
systems, thus reducing the risk of excessive homogeneisation.
In the context of this study, the 3 heterogeneity systems
identified in the geological phase, has been assigned to the
simulation model as a function of the expected flow
performances. Therefore, the matrix properties have been
upscaled to the matrix grid, while fractures and stratiform
Super-K properties have been upscaled to the fracture grid
(even though in the geological modeling stratiform Super-K
intervals were modeled within the geostatistical matrix grid).
Note that in the remaining of the text, whenever a reference is
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Fig. 8 and Fig. 9 show the results of the simulation for two
typical wells of the West flank, in terms of water cut. The first
well (Fig. 8) experienced early water breakthrough few
months after the injection start, despite being 4 Km far from
the injectors line and high in the structure. On the other hand,
the second well is located downstructure from the previous
one, much closer to the injector wells (Fig. 9). As it can be
appreciated, the model restitutes very well the behavior of
both wells.
Total field results are shown in Fig. 10. The agreement
between the measured data and the simulated profile is
remarkable, both in terms of water breakthrough and water cut
trend. The total quantity of water is also well matched. These
results prove that the reservoir behavior has been correctly
reproduced in the simulator and give confidence in the results
of the prediction phase.
Fig. 11 shows the results of the simulation in terms of
vertical distribution of oil and water rates for one key well.
This is compared with the actual flowmeter results measured
at the same date. As it can be appreciated, the match is
excellent, which implies that the fluid withdrawal along the
vertical direction (i.e., the vertical displacement) is also
correctly reproduced in the model. Note in this figure the
presence of a stratiform Super-K intervals (depth 5580 ft),
which accounts for almost 70% of the total well production.
This behaviour is well restituted in the simulation.
It should also be noted that these results were obtained
without resorting to any local modification of the input
parameters, neither in terms of static parameters (permeability
distribution), nor in terms of saturation functions. The only
tuning that was realized was related to global parameters (i.e.,
fracture fractal dimension and matrix capillary pressure). This
gives good confidence about the use of this model in the
forecast phase.
Fig. 12 shows two images of the displacement process in
the fracture grid (water is in light grey). These images refer to
the present saturation conditions in different reservoir layers
(left image the bottom layer, right image the top layer). The
comparison of the 2 images highlights the segregation process
taking place in the fracture network. The analysis of several
images of this type as a function of time (Fig. 13) revealed
that the water movement in the field is controlled by the
complex intersecting network of stratiform (horizontal) SuperK and tectonic (vertical) fractures and faults, while the
background limestone-dolomite matrix only plays a minor
role.
Finally, it should be remarked that simulation runs are
performed in a reasonable time frame (about 2 hours in a NEC
vector machine), despite the complexity of the reservoir
description (total amount of cells), the duration of the
historical production (28 years) and the Dual Media
formulation.
Presently, this model is being used in a series of
production forecasts under different exploitation scenarios,
both on a medium and a long term basis.
Conclusions
The main results and conclusions of the present work can be
summarized as follows:
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank Marie Christine Cacas, Sylvain
Sarda, Bernard Bourbiaux, Julien Seguin, Daniel Mas and
Jean Claude Sabathier for their essential contributions to the
development of the ideas here presented. We also would like
to thank Beicip-Franlab, IFP and Saudi Aramco managements
for the permission to publish this paper.
References
1. Ravenne, C., Daniel J.M., Lecomte J.C., Camus D., Chautru J.M.,
Cosentino L., Coury Y., Cole J., Sengul M.: Integrated Study of
a Fractured Middle East Reservoir with Stratiform Super-K
Intervals Part 1 : Geological Model. SPE paper 68183,
presented at the 2001 Middle East Oil Show, Bahrein.
L.COSENTINO et al.
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Uncertainty
Impact
*
***
**
**
**
***
**
*
*
**
**
***
**
***
***
**
*
***
**
*
Static parameters
Phi/K matrix
Phi Super-K
K Super-K
Super-K distribution
Structural lineaments
Stochastic Fractures
Hydraulic conductivity
Dynamic parameters
PC matrix
Kr matrix
Viscosity
Table 1 Uncertainty attached to various simulation parameters and their impact on final results
64
67
113
116
90
117
101
9
317
315
303
316
15
10 2
103
318
18
91
42
139
319
118
19
105
132106
92
320
304
321
70
69
107 140
78
12 0
322
141
80
71
72
68
147
323
85
121
305
8
122 87
133
149
310
98
306
94
23
112
307
130 95
16
300
329
123
134
88
308
2 2 11 1124
330
96
309
17
110125
301
135
99
136 126
311
21
89
100 127
137
20
312
302
150 97
109 129
313
93
24
314
138 12 8
142
79
55
143
146
65
29
14 4
152
148
331
324
Fig. 1 Structural top map of the field. The inner window shows the area retained for numerical simulation
L.COSENTINO et al.
316
318
103
134
18
88
91
22
139
42
17
319
320
304
321
322
18
105
132 106
92
19
107 140
78
120
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20
300
308
111124
330
96
309
110 125
301
135
99
36 126
11
21
89
100
127
137
312
97
302
150
109
129
313
93
24
314
Fig. 2 Present water contact position. Circles indicate wet wells, squares dry wells. The grey bands towards
the flanks show the original position of the oil-water contact.
Fig. 3 Dual Media simulation grids: matrix grid (left) and fracture (fracture+stratiform Super-K) grid (right)
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Discretization of a fracture
d22
d13
Actual fissure
d23
Discretized fissure
Fig. 5 Procedure for determining the effective fracture porosity and transmissibility for the simulation (fracture) grid
10
L.COSENTINO et al.
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0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Fracture conductivity
20Dm
0
1981
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
2011
Time
Fig. 6 Results of the phenomenological model: water cut behaviour for the matrix system, the matrix plus one stratiform
Super-K interval (both in Equivalent Single Medium and Dual Media formulation) and the matrix plus one fracture.
1
319
118
118
19
19
105
320
132 106
106
92
92
20
304
321
322
107
120
140
140
78
Fig. 7 Interpreted fracture pattern for the West flank and production results. Note that the wet wells(circles)
lie in fractured areas, while dry wells are located in unfractured areas. The first row of wells to the left represents the injectors.
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1
simulated
0.8
measured
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
98
19
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
19
Fig. 8 History match of a key well of the West flank which experienced early water breakthrough: water cut evolution.
Above:position of the well (larger circle) with respect to the fault pattern and the injectors (small circles)
1
simulated
0.8
measured
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
98
19
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
19
Fig. 9 History match of a key well of the West flank which did not experienced early water breakthrough: water cut evolution.
This well is located approximately 2 kilometers downdip with respect to the previous well
11
12
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10
Measured water cut
0.8
0.6
0.6
Simulated water
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
98
19
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
19
300
250
Cumulative oil
150000
200
100000
150
100
5000
50
0
0
98
19
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
19
100
Fig. 11 Match of the flowmeter results for one key well (total liquid rate and water cut)
water (field)
5900
5800
5700
5600
5500
50
total (field)
water (sim)
total (sim)
200000
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Fig. 12 Present water position in the fracture grid: bottom layer (left) and top layer (right)
Fig. 13 Cross sections showing water advance and segregation in the fracture grid (light grey).
Note how fracture planes are connected through Stratiform Super-K intervals (horizontal links)
13