The Art of Counterpont GIOSEFFO ZARLINO PART THREE OF LE ISTITUTIONE HARMONICHE, 1558 translated by GUY A. MARCO and CLAUDE V. PALISCA GIOSEFFO ZARLINO YALE UNIVERSITY PRESS, NEW HAVEN AND LONDON 1968LE ISTITVTIONI HARMONICHE DI M. GIOSEFFO ZARLINO DA CHIOGGIA; [ele quai; ola le materi ppartenentt ALLA MYSICA; Si eouano dichisai mol luoghi Sameadlgge f pniciomet doe, £08 ina retin ‘Con Priilegio delat Signerisdi Venetia, peranni X. IN VENETIA MD LVIII. CHAPTER + Wat Counterpoint Is and Why It Is So Called L147] have given sufciene atenton inthe two preceding books co he firs par of maic—the theoretical or speculative—and have covered ‘hing tha are pertinent and necesury tothe musician. Thece remains for sme to dicusin the two books tha follow the second oe practical par of :music, Ths consists of che composition of songs ot melodies for two of more voices Practiioners cal ithe at of counterpoint Since couteepoint isthe principal subject of this part, we shall Bes see what i sand why isso named. I consider counterpoint tobe that concordance o agreement which s bora ofa body with verse parts, ts various melodie lines accommodated to the total composition, arranged so that voices ate separated by eomnensurile, harmonious interval “This is whac in Chaprer 12 of Bae IIL called “proper harmony." fe anght so be sid tha counterpoin is kind of harmony tha contains diverse varaons of sounds or steps, using rational intervallic proportions sav temporal mesurements; or that isan aeful union of diverse sounds reduced to concordance From these definitions we may gather that the sat of counterpoint isa dicpline which teaches one to recogaize the 1: “Proper harmony (hermomi propria «isa composton or mitre of high and low Sounds, mediated of not [by other sounds), that sles the hearing Sooty, Tir kind! of harmony ace fom the pars Of «voce eompsicon they proceed in concardince frm the beginning tothe en, sd cha he owe {o induce dhe mind to vasiows pasions Te arses noe only from consonances but to from dizanances for good misc in hie harmonies eer every efor fo ‘take disonances second and be contoninc with marvelous eect. Ths we may ‘onider prope hatmeony fom ro apes pefec and imperfect. ‘The perfec that in which many pare sng together ins compostion in sich + way tht the futer pars ae mediated by other and the ingerfece that in which only «wo ft sing together withouteing mele by anyother pare “Improper larmony (Berman non propia) tay beter be called harmonious consonance than harmony, beast dacs ot conan any part movement (mad Tein), despite de fac hati ns the ater sounds mined. This hind of har mony humo power to move dhe mind to various pusions as dos proper harmony, ‘which consis of many inoper harmonies” (Poe I, Chap. 1)2 The Art of Counterpoint various elements in a composition and to arrange che sounds with pro- portional ratios and remporal measure ‘Masicians once composed with only 2 few dots or points. Hence they called this counterpoint, They placed one aguinst another 48 we now place one note against another. A doc represented stone: just 25a point is the beginning of a line as well as its end, a sound or tone marks the beginning and end of a melody and forms the consonance out of which ‘counterpoint is made. Perhaps it would have been more reasonable to name this countersound rather than counterpoint, since ane sound was placed agains che other. Not to depart from popular usage, I have con- tinued to all it counterpoint, by which we understand point agaist point or note against note. ‘There are cwvo kinds of counterpoint: simple and diminished, The simple is composed solely of consonances and equal note-values—what- ver these may be—placed against one another. Diminished counterpoint has dssonances as well as consonances, and may employ every kind of note-value, asthe composer wishes. Ie proceeds by intervals or singable spaces, and its values are reckoned according to the measure of is tempus. Iti in the nacure of counterpoint that its various sounds oF steps ascend and descend simultaneously in contrary motion, using inter vals whose proportions are suited to consonance; for harmony has is origin in the joining together of a diversiy of opposed elements. Coun- terpoint is considered best and most pleasing when the bese manners, ‘ornaments, and procedures are gracefully employed, and when this is done according to the rules that the art of good composition require. [gH] Ie should be observed thae by melodic interval is meane the silent passage made from one sound or sep to the next; iis ineligible though inaudible. 2. Tempus ie the scheme of tine measurement that defines the number of se- reves in reve. CHAPTER + The Invention of Clefs and Written Notes [Every mathematical science relies upon demonstration rather than argu> ‘ment and opinion. Certain principles, called premise, are granted, and a demonstration is made which resolves everything easly and clearly. To arrive at such a demonstration the means must be found for making it accesible to our judgment. Mathematicians, understanding this, devised signs, not separate from matter except in esenee, yet distant from it “These were points, lines, planes, solids, numbers, and countless other characters, which are depicted on paper with certain colors, and they used these in place of the things symbolized. In the same manner musi- cians, to make thei specalations and demonstrations evident and suseep- tible to judgment, realizing that sounds could in no way be writen or otherwise depicted on paper or other material, devised certain signs or characters which they called fgares oF notes, and named them as we shall sce later “They named the strings of their instrument and steps of vocal melo- ics with these six syllables inthis order: ut, re, mi so, la, a8 T have shown in Pare Il, Chaper so. They called this series a “deduction” or “reduction,” that is, a leading of the voice from one place to another. “They considered it a natural progression ofthe six syllables. Because this eduction may begin in any of three places—on the degrees C, F, or G— Guido divided his Introduction "into three parts. He applied these sl 1 What is meant by the “Inrodacion" (Inrodutori) of Guido may be dened evoogh a cotespoadence Zino lad with Giovanni Vincenzo Pali in Padua Pinel soughe trough his correspondent to obtain a fll and correc upy of Guido of Aren'ta on music. With a leuer dated Venie, 30 ‘Okober sy, Zaling sere Pal is copy ofthe “Tncodutorio ct Gulden” pnting out tate wa incorret and incomplete, purcalay dhe wong Gliscune onde ms amino melita came, whic, he Sas." very longa contains Seber of nase of his se (Man, Biioree Ambrosana, MS. #19 sup {ot na) Bn asked Girolamo Mei eo compare Zt’ copy to Mell. fepored thar hs copy of "Lnzedutorio di Guidoae” begs: “Temporar Taber "and ended "ed ae plsophise peropimus est” alter whch fl50 ‘The Art of Counterpoint Example 36 = example, when the substitution ofthe § forthe b reduces che interval by small semitone. The same effect may be guined with the, Inthe fist ‘example of the next illustration [Ex. 37] there is a whole tone; in the second there large semitone. Example 57 ——s All this has related to the diminution of the interval of a whole tone through the subtraction ofa small semitone by means of the signs illas- trated. The same signs may be used to augment the large semitone by adding a small semitone o it, as shown in Bx. 38 Example 38 A. word of advice: to make 2 melody easy to sing, the note marked with ab should be preceded by a lower nore and chat marked with & or # should be preceded by a higher one. This is to make the parts as I suid, ceases to sing, for these intervals are simpler to produce, a experience has shown. It would not be 2 great error, however, to use these signs otherwise, CHAPTER 36 What ls Required in Every Composition: First, the Subject We now come to counterpoint. Before beginning i i mecessry to esuablsh whae ate the essentials of every good counterpoing, indeed of very good composition, those features whos omision would resule in an imperfeton. The fst the subject, without which nothing ean be ‘made. Just as the agent in any operation has regard for the end tat moves, ‘im to aeton and bass his work on certain mater called the subject, 0 ‘the mosician in his operations, considering che end which impels him «0 ‘work finds che mater or sbjec upon which he bases his compost, He then proceds to perfect his workin accordance with its proper end. His nd isthe ame ar chat of the poc: to serve and to please, as Horace early pots it in his Are of Poetry: [178] ‘Aut prodesse volunt, aut delectare porte: ‘Aut simul et iucunda,etidoneadicere vitae! “The poee’s subject is [an incident of] history oF a tle. Whether the sory is of his own invention or borrowed from others, he adorns and polishes i¢ with vations embelishment sit pleases him, He omits noth- ing fi and suitable to delight the minds of his listeners, achieving thus something that is magnificent and marvelous. The musician has the same ‘end, namely to serve and to please the minds of his listeners with har- monic accents, and he also has a subject upon which to construct his ‘composition, which he adorns with various movements and harmonies to ‘bring maximam pleasure tothe audience, ‘The second requirement of a composition is that it be composed prin- pally of consonances, and thac it contain incidentally (per accidents) 1. Art poetics, 33-345 "Post si ster eo benef orto ames, oF ter won ac ce oth plang snd elu o fe Tram. by H. Raseon Ficlogh in Horse, Siren, Epinler and rs Poctie, Loch Canis! Library (London, 1939).5 The Art of Counterpoint also many dissonances so arranged and placed as to conform with the rules which wil be given later. ‘The third requirement is that the voices of a composition proceed properly, tha is, through true and legitimate intervals born of the sono- ous numbers, 0 that by their use good harmonics result. ‘The fourth condition to be me i that of variety in the movement of ‘the parts and inthe harmony; for hatmony is nothing other than diver- sity of moving parts and consonances, bought together with variey. ‘The fifth is that a composition be ordered under a prescribed and de- termined mode, or tone” as we like to call te must not be haphazard. ‘The sixth and last requirement, chough others could be added, is that 4 musical composiion shall complement the text, that isthe words, Wich say texts it should not be plaintive, and vice vers; with sad subject should not be gay. ‘So that everything will be understood flly, I shall speak of each re- quicemene individually, in order of convenience and need, Beginning then with the fist requirement, I say that the subject of every composition is cha pate of a composition upon which the com- poser exercises his inventiveness to produce the other parts, however ‘many voices these may be. The subject may be one of several kinds Ie may be a creation of the composer himself, a product of his genius. Ie may be taken from a composition of another, fitted to his ow and sudorned by varius parts, as he pleases to the best of his talent. Such a subject may be of several kins: it may be a tenor or other plain-chant part, ora par from 2 polyphonic composition [canto fgurato]. It may also consis of two of more voices, one of which may follow another in 1 fugue? or consequence, or be organized in some other manner. Indeed, the types of such subjects are potentially infinite in number. After 2 composer has found his subject, he proceeds to Write the other ‘parts in the manner we shall investigate. This proces is called by musi- 2. Ton, easing oe ofthe eight Gregorian tons o modes, 5, Fuge bere elated as “gu shoo in Zari does aot have the snadern messing bat nthe eof our “canon See the dein of fog (age) tnd conssqaence (comequeas) below, Cap. Consonances snd Dissonances in Composition 8 cians “making counterpoint.” Bue should he not have subject to begin with, the pare that sounds first, or which he writes as a begining, what ever it may be and however ie may begin—whether a high, middle, or low part—ths shall be the subject. Upon ithe will adapt the other parts in fugue, consequence, of however he pleases, suiting the muse to the words and to the meaning they contain. Bue when a composer derives his subjece as he composts the parts of a composition, cha is, when he . Pare Il Chap. 4 Zalino means tha che 6th wil be cempered in ceria ‘mings bur ever in st intonation, which he sues for ocd ssi.7° The Art of Counterpoint placed differently within the fifth, I do not mean tha such thirds difer in proportion but in location. For, as I have suid elsewhere when the major third is below, the harmony is gay, and when itis above, che har mony i i, So from these diverse positions of the thirds placed in coun terpoint between the extremes of the ffth—or above the octaye—comes harmonie varie. If we want to vary the harmoay and sil observe as far as posible the rule given in Chapter 29, we must write the thds in the following ‘manner, Having first placed a major third, which forms the harmonic ‘mean we then plice a minor third, which forms the arithmetical division. [182] However this is not so binding in writing for many voices as for two. We could not observe this alternation so easily if we were preoceu- pied withthe (Fae) relations mentioned, for while erying to avoid them ‘we would be continuing for sometime one of the 6W0 divisions without relief. The result would be a composition in which at times sad music ‘would be set to happy words, oF vice versa, without justification. L do rot mean that a composer may not write two consecutive arithmetical divisions, bu that he should nor write many one after the othe, at che risk of ending the ensemble » melancholy air. But writing many con- secutive harmonic divisions does not give offense as long as they are formed on the natural steps of from justifiable accidentals, because then the harmony has is parts arranged in order and achieves its ultimate end and the best posible effect. ‘Yee when two parts ascend oF descend either by one or two step the snean should vary, parculaly whea the (False] relation ofthe trtone or semiiapente might occar between the two parts involved. This would happen in the ese of a single step with two consecutive major thirds, and inthe case of two steps with two minor thirds, But when the rela- ‘ioaship is tha of the semidiatesaron and berween accidentals such as band f, or when only one of these signs is present, we need not avoid it a all. Since they are both harmonic means, they will obviously give a ‘good effect, despite their lack of variation. 'No one ought to be surprised at cis. Diligent examination of the 4 Cap. a, Permisible Consecutive Contonancet ” consonances arranged according to the one and the other methods will reveal that the arithmetical order—that resembling the arithmetical pro- portion-is somewhat removed from perfection of harmony, because its clement are not arranged in their natural locations. Oa the other hand a harmony resuking from harmonic division or resembling itis perfeely consonant, because the parts of this division are collocated and ordered sccording to the proper gradation of this proportion, and according to the natural sequence ofthe sonorous numbers. This may be sen ia Chap ter 15 of Part L? Of this enough for now; I may return to the subject later co laity i. 5, ose above, Chap. 10, CHAPTER 32 How Two Perfect or Imperfect Consonances of The Seme Ratio May Be Written Consecutively Although forthe reasons given above two consonances of similar propor- tion should nor be written ascending or descending together, it is posible ‘o write consecutive perfect or imperfect consonances of the same ratio, namely two octaves, two fifths, wo ditones, wo semidixons, ete. This can be done when the two voices involved exchange pitches, moving in contrary motion (Ex. 50]. In such an exchange of steps berween the voices, the consonance isnot ried from a high pitch toa lower one, oF vice vets, but remains in its fist location, changing nether postion nor sound. Therefore no varity of pitch is heard. Since no variety is audible, Example 50, Allowed progresions2 ‘The Art of Counterpoint ie eannoe be suid that there are ewo consonances of the same ratio used consecutively in the manner described previously. Rather ic is but one consonance which is duplicated on the same steps, a i clea tothe ea. ‘Whenever parts exchange pitches, ascending or descending, and vary their melody by this contrary motion, thei sounds are unchanged. Of course there may be a diference audible when slow voice sings a higher pare and vice versa, but nota diference in the sense that concerns us row. As may be seen in Ex. 1, were the pars to retain eheir original positions, the melody of each sould consist of a monotone, [183) Example 51 lustration of al eat i stated above CHAPTER 55 Two or More Perfect or Imperfect Consonances of Different Ratios May Be Written Consecutively Ie was esenil to observe the rules jst given so that sweet and deight= fal harmony might result from variety and order in arranging conso- ‘ances in a composition. Having observed these rules, musicians were then free wo write in theie counterpoints whatever consonances best suited che situations at hand. They did nor hesitate to write succesions of perfect or imperfect consonances, unmediated by other consonance, provided they were of differen ratios. We shall follow this practice, because its both convenient and reasonable. We shall when convenient ‘write an octave immediately after a fifth, or vice versa; and a major or minoe third after each ofthese. Similarly we may write hexachord after a third, and vice versa, as seems suitable, always varying the consonances asin Ex. 52. The parts should always proceed by singable intervals and with besuiful line If this is done the harmony willbe good and pleasing. Perfect and Imperfect Consonences Altrnsted 2 Example 52 CHAPTER 36 After a Perfect Consomance It Is Well t0 Write on Imperfect Consonance, and Vice Versa In the naturl series of harmonic numbers the ratios ofthe perfect con- sonances appear in succession, uninterrupted by any imperfect conso- nance, as may be seen in Chapter 1 of Pare I. The imperfect consonances then follow in sequence, uninterrupted by any perfect consonance. We ‘must not imagine thatthe ancients ordered the Consonances in this man ner in their compositions, although we ought always to be guided by these numbers. They knew well tat such sequences of perfect oF im- perfect consonances would have broughe them not only a certain annoy- ance but also difculy. In fact, ic would have been neatly impossible for parcawriting to reach the perfection desired and to give the voice-lnes that beauty esential to 2 composition. To avoid this dfficulky, let us do in our counterpoint as they did: (184) place an imperfect consonance after a perfect one and vice vers, a third or sixth or their compounds after an octave or fife, and vice versa, in the manner shown in Ex. 53 Only good, graceful delightfl, and perfect harmony can result from Example 53. SSS ‘Sit eros” The Art of Counterpoint this kind of variety. OF course we muse always watch, as I have sid, that we make the parts singable. Only from a well-planned combination ‘of so many things shall we get the most good out of perfect harmonies ‘CHAPTER 35 ‘The Parts of a Composition Should Progress in Contrary Motion Te was sid above that harmony is made of opposites or contraries. This applies also to the simultaneous movement of seversl partz. Whenever possble—and this conforms to ancient practice—when the part on which the counterpoint is written, chat is the subjeet, ascends, the Example 54. counterpoint should descend, and vice versa. It isnot faulty, however, to lec them move in the same direction on occasion for the sake of smoother voice movement. If my suggestions ae followed, there is no doube that the simultaneous motion of the parts will have a good effect. This may be seen in Ex. 54. CHAPTER 36 ‘The Parts of a Composition May Ascend or Descend Together ‘I mast not be thought, though musicians are convinced about the ob- servation of this rule, that i is fata to deviate from it, Ifthe rale were albvays binding ic would be a needless restrietion on a musician, prevent Peralel Motion 6 ing him from achicving grace and elegance of line and a full harmony. He could not if compelled to observe the rule invariably, write when he ‘chase in fugue or consequence—admiable procedures for a composer in ‘which one past imitates another, as we salle later. ‘While we should observe che rule whenever possible, when the voices do ascend or descend together we mus seek co organize the woice move= ‘ments in such a way a8 to avoid unplessantnes co the ea. [185] ‘Thus when writing wo consecutive perfect consonances, we are careful t0 have the parts proceed one by leap and one by step. In ths way we can alternate large and small intervals such asthe octave and fifth without “offense tothe senses, as may be seen in Ex. 55. Example 55. Tolerable progressions Descending parallel movement of the parts is best in the Jow register for the movements of these low notes are necessarily slow; and the lower the register the better. The slowness makes it easier to gasp che diversity of the species than is possible in higher sounds, which aise from quick movement. Among the high sounds there is 2 tendency for species ro sound alike, especially when che parts ascend together from a smaller perfect interval co larger one. But musicians today do not bother about ‘these things, and they ‘write such parallel pasages without hesitation, “Therefore, I shall only recommend that they be used sparingly in two voice writing, where the ear notices them more readily than it would among many voices, in which sch effets are obscured by the number ‘of voices and their movements. Ieis also nor laudable in ewo-voiee counterpoint co hear an ascending progeesion from an imperfect consonance t0 a smaller peefecr conso- nance with the voices leaping. Nor should two parts ascend or descend together in this way from a perfect or imperfect consonance of large ratio to perfect consonance of smaller ratio, sch as third ro unison ot tenth to octave. The sensitive ear wil always be bothered by such pro-6 The Art of Counterpoint sgressions. Another undesirable effect is that of the sith preceding the ‘ith with the voices moving up or down together, even with one voice ‘moving conjuneely and the other leaping, as can be seen in Ex. 56. Ex- perience has aught us the effect of these movements upon the ear. For nature abhors anything without proportion oF measure and delights in those things which posess chem, Example 56. Probibited progressions = (n he comer permis owe a ge imperfect consonance fawed by a smaller perfec one when the pars acento, pro vied hac th per pareve yap andthe owe y lap. eo permed ve fom s smal inpeccononmce ta ger fet easanane whe he lowe ve noes up by sp ad the pet voi sup, ie ve (6) isa aan fer an imperect ononatce of salle than the ner that flows go's the cctv in sina msn, if oer moves conjunc by «he se ‘tone, as in Ex. 57, ee Example 57. Tolerable progressions A perfeer consonance may go to an imperfect consonance with parts ascending or descending together, if one part moves by sep and the im- perfect consonance is of larger ratio than the perfec. It is also permitted to write two consecutive consonances with leaps in both voices if one voice moves by a semitone (Ex. 58]. Both voices may move in the same direction when the upper leaps a thd and the lower a fifth to go Leaps n Example 58. Good progresions feom a third down eo 2 fifth or from a ith up vo a thd. Te sere, though, thatthe lap of a diton, epecilly descending, sounds some- what bine and is beter avoided, a experience shows. But to ascend fom the fifth tothe dtone is allowed (Ex. 59], bese the voice pro- Example 59. Tolerable progresions _gresions involved are not only supportable bue actully very pleasing. ‘This produces s most sonorous effect because the pars proceed toward the higher notes, where the quik movements are generated. These quick ‘movements obscure that harshness made manifest by the slow movements of lower notes Tc would be overlengthy co give an example for every posible contra- ppntal movement and progeession and to asign reasons for exch of them. ‘What has been suid will ave to sufice and serve as a guide for distin. guithing good progressions from poor ones. [+87] The ability to make such distinctions will not be difficult to acquire if the rules given here axe diligently observed CHAPTER 57 Leaps and Widely Separated Voices Should Be Avoided as Much as Possible Above all let us see thatthe parts of a composition—in contrary a8 wel 4 siilar motion-—move by sep at much as possible, and chat they do ‘not become roo widely separated fom one another. This eccurs when fone leaps an octave and the other a fifth or fourth, or the lke, as ils-8 The Art of Counterpoine trated in Ex, 60, Such distances are no only dificult co sing, for i is not so easy to intone the pitches and judge the intervals and consonances in leaps of this kind as in those involving a conjunet coupled with leaping ‘movement. Moreover, they produce certain effects noe pleasing to the car, Te-should be noted tha che mote confined the movements are, ain stepuvse movement, the more singable they ae. They ae also more con Example 60. Probibited progrestions dducive to & delightful harmony than ate leaping movement, for the conjunct movements are more natural, asthe natural way t_pass from ‘one extreme to another is through the proper steps. Thus we admit this closeness as most nearly resembling the natural state. Augustine observes in Book Il, Chapter 10 of his De mausica that the neater ovo pats ap- proach equality the worthier they are of approbation, though he was speaking of other matters (chan music}. Wide distances are not actually dissonant. They do produce, as I have sid, a kind of distress inthe er. Lotus therefore avoid these distances to make our counterpoint pleasing, sweet, sonorous, harmonious, and full of good melody. CHAPTER 38 Horw to Progress from One Consonance to Another ‘Many belive tae merely to avoid the disorder that results from violating the above rule certain musicians decided that in moving from one conso- ‘nance ¢o another they should alvays goto the nearest one. So from the ‘unison one goes othe tied, from thitd to ith, from fifth to seth, feom Progress from One Consonance to Anotber ” sixth to octave, and likewise in the opposite direction. Dist movements are thus avoided, On the surface an obvious rule it does require explana tion in that it contains axpects that are not only useful but also necesary to those who would write good harmony and bring their works ro per- fection. [188] These are not purely calculations of seience or art; they are observed naturally by many. “They say, then, that one should proceed from one consonance to an- other by means of the nearest. By this should be understood that the ‘composer moving from an imperfect to a perfect consonance must be certain the imperfect one ie actually the nearest, Otherwise he would fail to observe thi very necesary rule, So, to go from a sinth to an coetave, the sixth must be major, because the major sixth i closet to the fctave, and we must aot write the minor, whichis more distant from it, ts we shall se, This rule mus be observed noc only when the pats move in contrary motion, but also when one voice remains stationary and the ‘other ascends or descends two steps Similarly when the sixth isco move to fifth, it must be minor; for the minor is closer than che major. This is particularly important when one voice i stationary. When we wish to progress from the third to the octave, we must use the major third, be- tause itis closer to the octave than the minor, and the parts mast move in contrary motion, one conjuncely and the other by leap. Moving from the tied tothe th when one voice stands stil the third mast be major. But the third will be minor especially in ewo-voice writing, when the voices move in conjunct contrary motion, or when both descend, one by leap and the other by step. In the frst case, the minor third, although more distant, is used to avoid the relation of the srtone between the pars. ‘When from the third we wish co arrive at the unison (which is the basis ofall the consonances, if not actually numbered among them), the thitd should always be minor—this being closer—and the parts should more in conjunct contrary motion, Ifthe parts are to ascend together, one by step and the other leaping, the third should be major. ‘When one part stands sil, and the other laps, the third will always be minor. Tsay these things, always keeping in mind the different tonesfo The Art of Counterpoint ‘upon which we should we a peefect consonance a termination, a may be seen in Bx 6 : When moving fom a pefect to an imperfect consonance, this rule [concerning the nearest consonance) necd nt be observed, provided thatthe movements ofthe parts are governed by the rules given eae. say this sbout che movement from perfect to imperfect for a reason. Each thing natrally seks its own perfection and the quickest and best route tit, Perfection in this dzcussion i aributed tothe perfect conso- ances. As everyone knows anything ea easly pas rom perfection ro imperfection, bur the oppose isnot so easy. For i s more difial so make something than to destroy of ruin i! Therefore when we do ‘otherwise than have describe, ici contay to the natural order of things, inasmuch asthe imperfect consonances participate mos in pet- Tena hy dw etc the neighboring perenne snd thus become sweeter ad softer to thee. Example 61. Good progressiont a2 25 = Someone might object: since the major sixth is closer o the fifth than to the octve—which is plin—why do we usually put it before the ‘octave rather than before the fifth, if we should go from an imperfect ‘consonance to he nearest perfect? [18g] My answer would be that al- though the major sixth i nearer to he filth than tothe octave, iti aot closer tothe fifth than the minor sixth. Also we must note that just 25 among the perfect consonances the octave i larger than the fifth, so among the imperfect che major sath is lgger than che minor. Thus the larger of the perfect should be accompanied by the larger of the imper- 1, Zang lip here snd sys its “asi" whic hasbeen emended above Progress from One Consonance to Another " fect. For they have, I might sy, 2 kinship or consensus and i easy to ps from one thing to anoher without much efort when there is ach a Consensus Therefore we go to the Beh from he minor sixth, for it Shares 2 consensus with it and is nearest to it. Similarly we go to the cctave from the major sith, fr they share a consensus and are nearest to one snother. Given fat anda certain coniton, [do not se how two diverse and almost apposite conclsions canbe dawn from them. To use these cone Sonancesin ay other way, therefore, woud be acting like that physician, falled an Empircist by Galen? who weats various ents wich the ume Inediin, fang to consider whether the ilies comes from a warm of cold hor. “Truly, then, che major seth sits the octave, wheres the minor does ot th minor sh best accompanies the fifth. This may be proved by reason, authority, and example. Ts proved fst by reason inthe fshion T have shown and through the harmonic numbers, which giv the ratios toll te consonanes in msc, The major sath has is rato inthe pro- portion superbipatene tect, contained (as Ihave sid eewhere) inthe terme 23, whih are the root werms ofthis proportion. If we procesd farther inthe nataral order ofthe numbers mentioned, we ind that after {comes immediately the number 6, which forms with 5 the minor hid Jd he minor cir, combined with the major sith, produces an octave [Now if we place the 3, which ha wo flaonships, with 5 and with 6 ina nacral series inthis manner, 6:53, we represent the manner in tthich ewo pats proceed when one descends and the other remains s- tionary. Orif we order in the same way 10:65, We represen che manner jp wlich wo veies move when one ascends to the octave by the leap df semitone andthe other remains stationary. Again we se the need for observing the rule gien, We fnd ic obverved abo in the onder be- tween 1g and 9, which ithe aio of the major sixth, bak notin its root tre Jus aso parts when one ssends bya lange whole one and the Gner desends by 1 lage semitone, reach the octave amily, 0, 1 De nates ea, nd ets, Aur Brock in Loeb Csi Libary (Lando, 1918)a The Art of Counterpoint placing the 8 above the 9, with the addivion of 16 under 15, results in the ratio of the diapason (ao in its root terms) between 16 and 8 in this, natural series, 16:45:98 No such natural series permits the major sixth to approach the fifth without the aid of a whole tone Similarly ie is impossible to proceed from the minor sath tothe ith without the sd of the semitone. This may be comprehended with the aid of the series s0:45:30:27 wherein ‘he fifth is found berween 45:30 and the small whole tone on either side ‘of it Inthe series 24:46:15: 10 the ratio of the lange semitone is in the center and thar of the fifth on ether side, between 24:16 and 15:40. ‘This represents apart chat proceeds from low to high ot vice wees, wile another pat in upper or lower range does not move, These ratios cannot ‘otherwise be found i the natural series of harmonic numbers excepe with great difcalry, and then they will be accidentals outside che natural ‘gamut. The reasons [have just given regarding the major seth and the ‘octave may be applied as well o the minor sath andthe fifth, and tothe other consonances, which I shall not discus for the sake of brevity. ‘Yet another reason helps to demonstrate that given any two imperfect consonances composed of the same number of steps, the major tends :more to expand than the minor in any register, andthe minor tends more {o contract and become even smaller. Ie is asi the major had more im petus than the minor. Since a thing desires and is inclined toward like things, the major sixth, more perfec than the minor, strives mos to be near the octave, which is more perfect than the ith and chan any other perfect interval as Ihave said. The minor snth, less perfec, seeks that ‘which most conforms to iss own nature, the less perfect fifth, be it in lower or upper register. This observation is confirmed by Franchino Gaffurio, who avers that i sin the nature of the major sixth to go to the ‘octave and of the minor to go to the fifth? [190] This isthe nature of these consonanees, and ie must be noted that this nature and tendency is invariable, Therefore, when they are writen in compositions in a man- ner contrary to their inclinations the writing is unnatural. Moreover, anything wsed in a manner contrary to its nature is bound to have an un. pleasant effect, for i i prevented from achieving its proper end. We 4 Practica mice (Mie, 1495, Book I, Chap, rule Progress from One Consonence to Another % may conclude that whenever these consonances are wed in countenpoint ina manner contrary to their natures, they will always displease the ea. ‘We may now check the eruth of these statements against experience and come to the promised example. It will be seen that the best effects result from using the procedures recommended abore. Nature, which has jurisdiction over everything, has so designed chat not only those with ‘musical taining but the unschooled and even farmers—who sing after their own fashion, without reasoning about it—are sesustomed to pro- {6s from major sixth to octave, a5 if nature had taught them. This is ‘most obvious in the cadences throughout their music, a8 all musicians can hea. Pethaps itis what persuded Franchino (Gaffuri] venture t0 say that the cadence isthe only place where the major sixth must progress to the octave, because here che composition comes to a close. But to me i appears to contradict the remark T quoted from him just above, IF we ae to obey the natures of these two intervals, I can only conclude that hae said ie shoughtlesly. Therefore i shall noe be lawl ro pass from the major sixth to the fifth, nor from the minor sixth to the octave. For either progression is natural to the consonanees involved. “To make the rule cay to follow, every progression from imperfect to perfect consonance should include in at least one part the step of a large semitone, expressed or implied. To this purpose the chromatic and en- harmonic steps will be found very useful, provided they are writen in the manner tobe deseribed elsewhere, Te is nor always convenient for the composer to progress from the major sixth tothe octave, from the minor stth to he fifth, or from the minor tied to che unison in the way I have described, So chat all may know how to proceed in such cases, Iam adding some examples (Ex. 63]. Example 6. Perfect progressions% The Ant of Counterpoint In cham may be en ow many way here a of ping fom bth sas, both hr and elted consonance ther commas Final itsmst ented th wht has ben i shot esl con senances pls abo tothe compounds One more sggeion, when ‘wo pus a + compotion deen pete frm 4 major sth tot thr iis ewe fo th thd ober than minor, gh bak ae vod. Foren the upper pur fal re cay, an oth wil al we Aube it a contnanc tht mare ely apace prem may be heard adenine theo cramps penn Be 5 Example 6. CHAPTER 3» How to Terminate a Composition Lage] Msc wanted companion endo 4 pret consnanee bec hey corey tht he perecton a aytng depede spo sods judged by 1 en Since chy fond that ong enna reer efecon could be found than inthe etre ey nade sd "le ht each conpson shoul mat onthe otro ad to ote tera There waignred onl by sf of por lpn 1 ye wish wo follw de who tied and eid gud ene wil emit ou compton upon oe of thas cong eae thy are mae pre hn the ors. The rae wel pune na rch compos ening otherwise lee the suse a ste of supers, avating nl preston, They woul fe! eth ering to serch who lok forward egy tothe eplog snd cncaans hac sing ios perc, ‘Another dic ties when compan ea teri, mely Simple Counterpoin for Two Voices a5 doubt concerning its mode, as we shall seein Part IV." This is judged by the lst note, of, better, the chord based on it. IF the last chord isnot an ‘octave or unison, it would be easy co mistake che mode by assuming the top or bottom note ofthe chord tobe the final. This would happen when the counterpoint ends witha fifth, third, or compound of thes, inasmuch asi would not be easy to decide which tone—the highest ot the lowest —is the key to the mode of the composition. To be sure, such judgment should be possible upon careful listening to and inspection of the form and diteetion of the harmony. Wisely, therefore, did the ancient musicians propound this and the ‘other rules given above ll very useful and extremely necessary to those who wish always to compose correctly. Everyone ought to strive t0 utilize them, for in so doing he will gain credc and honor. Buc enough now of rues pertaining co simple two-voie counterpoint called note-agains-note, These rules are not only essential to this type of ‘writin, bu serve also in other kinds of counterpoing, whether simple or iminshed, as we shal se. 1. Chap. 50, The claper is tasted in Oliver Strunk Source Readings in -Masie Hiwory (New York, 1930). pp. 253-55 CHAPTER go Horw to Write Simple Counterpoint, Called Note-against-Note, for Tro Voices “To come tothe application of che rues Ihave given, I shall demonstrate row how to write counterpoint, beginning with chat composed simply of two voices, note-againse-note. Then we shall past on to diminished ‘counterpoint and sill other kinds. For the convenience ofthe reader and ‘tw avoid confusion, I shall begin, like all good writers and compilers on any subject, with che simples mater, Fst of ll lec us ake note of what ‘was sid in Chapter 26: itis necesary to choose a tenor from any pia chant to be the subject of the composition or counterpoint. This tenorLd The Art of Counterpoint sms then be seized to determine is me an ro i ee Aocion of he ede, wich vl ine hese of th se poston Fox ithe enznces pen tote incomety ped aa more than one mode, the end of compotion wil nt tres with she Begining sd he ie Lec as ase tht te or gen mE. 6 isthe pin can chosen tthe aber Tine od Tis le ag ey rae Corin wih what wis din Caer ige Hence he a ae of the counepinshoald make» pret comenance aus he Bt tot ofthe abject This don we al ccmpeny the cond te of the ajc wth efor consonant he soul ot be the sane inl hat whith separate the tnt, ene woal vite hp a, We mst to ayy kei mad what we Si in Chapter 8 epg te vost eget publ ed avoiding ae aps in oth part, fr we donne wan hep got {oo far rom one aoe we sin Chapet 972 We map the po ceed othe tnd note ofthe comterpoin, combing it wih the rd Of the bjt, vying the cononanc swell the spss perce and imperfect isons or wring eet per Impecetconsnances of diferent specie, scoring to erie of Chops 3 and 34. We sal do the sun withthe rh not ofthe counterpoint andthe furth ofthe sae and 0 on tothe thst and he oes wt ve rach the end There, scodaoe wiht Il ofthe peeing caper, we sl onde he comet on perfec comorre. ‘Above all we mat sc to vary the conrapntal par, hough di ese movenen by touching deen tons the lowes ad per tnd mill egies, nh consonance sounds gion he be Most importa we mux we hat he eum sage ll ont re ress conjney much pil In ths oud of th ea tes f eoumerpin which, dd the many ete ded fetta srl se, tis pred 2. Inthe eins numbering. 2 Tatlin has eroncusly 3 Simple Counterpoin for Teva Voices % Anyone who applies himself diligently to this simple manner of writ ing wil soon be able to undertake bigger things. By practicing writing various counterpoints upon a subject, above and below ig, he will become ‘well versed in the steps and disances of each consonance. He may then proceed to the division of note values, or diminished counterpoine, fol- lowing the precepes [shall give. He will write the prt at times in fugue withthe subject, and at times in imitation of it, and in other ways we stall discuss, After that he may come to composition for more voices, and through a combination of our suggestions and his own gift he will ‘become in time a good and learned compose. I give here general rather than particular rules for writing « counte point upon a subject. The composer must arive at the contrapuntal part bby means of the previously given rules by exercising his own intellect and judgment. Unless nature has given him these, rules and precepts will avail him lle. Bur chere is nothing surprising in my method. It holds in ‘every arcand branch of learning, forall who have atempted to teach an art or scence has begun with univers. Te isin these rather than in in- rnumerable particulars that science consist. The rules of poetry and oratory at given by Plato, Aristotle, Hermogenes, Cicero, Quinlan, Horace, and others concern universils and not particulars. For example, Horace, speaking generally of the order poets should follow in sesting forth a subject from history or myth in their narratives, declares: Ordinis hace vires erie et venus at ego flor, Ut iam none dicat iam une debentia dei, Pleraque differat ex praesns in tempus omitat* Ie is obvious that this rule was well known to the very learned. Virgil Having chosen as his subjec the fall and burning of Troy and the voyages of Aeneas, he begin with the voyage, upsetting the chronology, asthe voyage came afterward. He realized that his worle would gain in artfulness and majesty if Aeneas were to tll the story to Dido when 4 Are poeice, 3-44: “This wl be the ve and chasm of ode, i am not rake: what shouldbe sid ow fs now, many pine ae postponed and ‘led for he moment”% The Art of Counterpoint fortune brougit him co her in Carthage. Such isthe way of poets, and of painters as well—for painting i nothing but mute poetry. ‘They adape history or myth to suit their own purposes. Once they have chosen to Aepict a certain incident they accommodate the figures to their design and accompany them as they deem mes suieabe so s to produce the best, effec. Nor do they hestace to strange the figures in one way rather chan another, standing or siting, provided the best elect is achieved and the history or legend is respected. [193] In fact, innumerable painters have Aepicted the same subject in different ways: for example the stories of Lucretia, wife of Brutus; of Horatio, who foughe the Tuscans on the bridge; and many others. Bu all he versions had the same gol: to repre- sent the sory chosen. This may be observed not only in the epresenta= ‘ions ofthe same subject by various painters, bur by one and the same painter, who may depict the same subject in diferent ways, ‘A musician should do likewise, He should perennially seek to vary his ‘counterpoint on a subject, and from all che possible lines select the bes and most appropriate one, the one that will make his composition most sonorous and best ordered, leaving the others aside. If a passage, such as a cadence, occurs to him that isnot suitable at the moment, he should reserve it for another more appropriate place. This he will do whenever the phrase or period of che text isnot ended, for he must always wait until these ae finshed (to make a dence). Similatly he wil see that i ison atone required by the made of the composition, All these things must be observed by anyone who wishes to begin properly the study of counterpoint. Above al he must practice for many ays in this type of composition, so that he may go on easily into the style of diminished counterpoint, where, as we shall see, many new devices will be used. To make wha I have been saying explicit offer some counterpoints of the note-agunst-note type, all writen upon the subject already mentioned, some above and others below. A. study of these (Ex. 64] will sd in the assimilation of the things I shall ake up later and diminish the effort needed to acquire them. Everyone should be warned that to white note-agsinst-note counter- pine nor only appears but actually is more dificule than diminished counterpoint. This is because the restriction that each note of the subject Simple Counterpoint for Two Voices ty Example 64 may have only one consonance against it doss not apply in diminished ‘writing, In diminished counterpoint each note may have several conso- ‘nances intermingled with disonances if desired, according to the tate of ‘the compose. In note-against-note i is not easy to arrange the parts 50