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Beyond national culture:

implications of cultural dynamics
for consumer research

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C. Samuel Craig and Susan P. Douglas

Received June 2005

Revised November 2005
Accepted November 2005

Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, USA

Abstract
Purpose To develop a more thorough understanding of culture in a rapidly changing global
environment.
Design/methodology/approach The recent literature dealing with ways in which cultural
dynamics are influencing the nature and meaning of culture are examined. Different perspectives of
culture related to three key components of culture, intangibles, material culture and communication,
are explored. Based on this, directions for research on the content of culture are discussed as well as
how it should be approached.
Findings Culture is becoming increasingly deterritorialized and penetrated by elements from other
cultures. This is resulting in cultural contamination, cultural pluralism and hybridization. It has
become more difficult to study culture as it is becoming diffuse. At the same time, it is becoming more
important to study it because of its pervasive influence on consumer behavior.
Research limitations/implications Given that culture is no longer a phenomenon defined by
and isolated to a particular locale, research on culture must carefully specify the role of culture, define
the appropriate unit of analysis, isolate confounding influences and expand the range of contexts.
Originality/value The parallel trends of globalization and multiculturalism make it increasingly
important to develop a deeper understanding of culture and its various manifestations. For progress to
be made, research designs must account for this complexity and span multiple contexts to establish
the generality of findings. This will result in improved knowledge of culture and its role in molding
consumption behavior.
Keywords Cross-cultural studies, National cultures, Globalization, Consumer behaviour
Paper type Conceptual paper

International Marketing Review

Vol. 23 No. 3, 2006
pp. 322-342
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
0265-1335
DOI 10.1108/02651330610670479

Introduction
Culture has a profound influence on all aspects of human behavior. Its impact may be
subtle or pronounced, direct or oblique, enduring or ephemeral. It is so entwined with
all facets of human existence that it is often difficult to determine how and in what
ways its impact is manifested. Adding to the complexity of understanding the impact
of culture is its inherently dynamic nature. Cultural influences change and culture
evolves as political, social, economic and technological forces reshape the cultural
landscape (Usunier and Lee, 2005). Given the rapid pace of change, it becomes
increasingly imperative to take into account the dynamic character of culture and to
understand the way the composition of culture is being transformed by global forces.
Expanding networks of inter-personal and mass communications, spawned by the
growth of satellite communication links, the internet and voice/data networks have
altered traditionally static territorially based notions of culture (Hermans and Kempen,
1998) and resulted in greater interchange and linkages between cultural entities.

Members of different cultural groupings are moving from one country to another,
bringing with them their interests, values, and distinctive behavior patterns and
intermingling with others, thus further clouding the spatial and social boundaries of
culture (Andreasen, 1990). This results in cultural interpenetration, i.e. the penetration
of one culture by another. As a result, it becomes increasingly difficult to identify the
ethnie core of a culture due to cultural contamination. Greater commingling and
fusion of elements of different cultures at the same time dilutes, enriches, and alters
individual cultures.
The purpose of this paper is to develop a more thorough understanding of cultural
dynamics and the different ways in which new sources of cultural influence are
permeating and changing society. Emphasis is placed on examining the components of
culture and providing a conceptual overview of the key forces impacting and changing
culture. Its metamorphosis from a set of socially independent and geographically
isolated units to a more complex, multi-level, intertwined, and evolving organism is
examined. This is based on examining previous literature in marketing and related
fields, notably global sociology. First, different concepts of culture in marketing
are explored. Then ways in which cultural dynamics are influencing the nature of
culture are examined. Based on this, some directions for research on the content
of culture are discussed as well as how it should be approached.
Culture and marketing
Culture is a pervasive influence which underlies all facets of social behavior and
interaction. It is evident in the values and norms that govern society. It is embodied in
the objects used in everyday life and in modes of communication in society. The
complexity of culture is reflected in the multitude of definitions of culture. Krober and
Kluckholn (1952) in their classic review of culture in the Peabody papers listed over 160
different definitions of culture, and were sufficiently dissatisfied with all of them to add
a one more (161) of their own. Of all these definitions, perhaps the most widely accepted
is that given by Tylor (1881) who described culture as that complex whole which
includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of society, or as later synthesized by Herskovits
(1955) as the manmade part of the environment i.e. what distinguishes humans
from other species.
Consumer researchers have largely followed this view of culture. McCracken (1986)
adopts an all encompassing view of culture defining it as the lens through which the
individual views phenomena. As such it determines how individuals perceive and
interpret phenomena, provides the blueprint of human activity, determines the
co-ordinates of social action and productive activity and specifies the behaviors and
objects that issue from both. This view follows closely the interpretative perspective of
scholars such as Clifford (1988), Geertz (1973) and Marcus (1999) and their view of
culture as interpretation of meaning in a culturally constituted world.
This represents a different view of culture from that recently discussed by Leung
et al., (2005) which views culture as a multi-layered construct existing at different
levels, global, national, organizational and group cultures, which encompass the
individual. Attention is focused on aggregate social and group processes, and
particularly the extent to which these are converging or diverging across countries,
rather than on the individual, which is the heart of consumer culture. Emphasis is

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placed on the intersection of these aggregate levels and the factors, which facilitate
cultural change. Individual characteristics are viewed as a moderating influence rather
than the heart of the investigation as is the case in consumer research. Further, the
current epoch is viewed as one of partial globalization rather than of cultural
convergence.
The framework adopted here is based on that developed by Sojka and Tansuhaj
(1995) who group research in marketing on culture into three major streams:
(1) abstract or intangible elements of culture such as values and belief systems;
(2) material aspects of culture, such as artifacts, symbols and rites; and
(3) the communication links which bind and perpetuate a cultural system.
Each of these perspectives is rooted in a different research tradition. As such each
provides a unique and distinct perspective and insights into a facet of culture.
In the past, these three elements have often been discussed independently or
attention has focused on a single element. They are, however, closely intertwined
(Figure 1). Communication provides a means of transmitting the intangible aspects of
culture, such as values and beliefs from one person to another or from one generation to
another. This communication process is inherently dynamic and at the same time
continually evolving. Artifacts ranging from religious icons to shoes or clothing, may
also be an expression of intangible beliefs, and at the same time designate membership
in a particular culture.
The interdependence of the three elements is evident in the lifestyles of teens
throughout the world. They are exposed to media advertising as well as movies, music
and magazines, communicating shared values such as individualism, independence
and self-reliance. Items of apparel such as jeans, athletic shoes, baseball caps, jewelry,
and watches, symbolize their membership in this global culture. At the same time,
communications, such as advertising or magazines, both reflect and influence cultural
values. For example, Nike advertising targeted at teens in the US emphasizes sports
and stresses individualistic values and competitiveness core values of US teen
culture. The same advertising aimed at teens in collectivist societies that emphasize
relations and interaction with others, suggests and instills new values and may

LANGUAGE AND
COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

MATERIAL CULTURE
AND ARTIFACTS

Figure 1.
Components of culture

VALUES
AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

CULTURE

gradually change core beliefs to resemble those of their peers in the western world.
This is not to suggest that all teens are subject to western influence, but the impact, to
varying degrees, is apparent throughout the world.
Values and belief systems
The intangible elements of culture incorporate the dominant societal values and belief
systems that characterize a society or culture and guide the patterning of behavior in
that society. Here, it is important to consider the layering of beliefs and value-systems as
well as their scope or relevance to a particular behavior or consumption situation.
Value-systems can be examined at the level of the society, specific groups or
organizations within society, as well as at the level of the individual (i.e. personal values).
Equally, values may be general value orientations, relating, for example, to time,
behavior towards others, concepts of self or alternatively relative to specific areas or
domains of life, e.g. work and leisure, relations to others, or to specific consumption or
purchase situations, i.e. a gift, a consumer durable, a family purchase, or for ones self.
Attention has been focused on cultural intangibles at the societal level and their
impact on individual behavior. However, there are numerous other intangibles that
impact individual consumption patterns and ways of behaving. These include, for
example, ideals and aspirations, role norms and gender ideology, cultural myths,
metaphors and signs. While complex and difficult to compare across cultures due to
their subjective and existential nature, these are nonetheless key elements of culture
that determine the patterning of daily life and behavior of consumers.
At the aggregate or societal level, a dominant stream of research has focused on
identifying value-orientations in society. In their classic study, Kluckholm and
Strodtbeck (1961) identified four value orientations: mans relation to nature, time
dimension, personal activity and mans relation to others. Particularly, influential has
been the schema of national culture developed by Hofstede (2001) based on an
extensive study of work related goals and value patterns of managers in a large
multi-national company. He initially identified four dimensions: power distance, or
acceptance of inequality in power in society; Individualism, or emphasis on self-interest
and immediate family vs collective goals; uncertainty avoidance or societys tendency
to cope with unstructured situations by developing strict codes of behavior; and
masculinity vs femininity or the extent to which society values goals perceived as
masculine such as competition vs goals perceived as feminine such as nurturing.
A fifth dimension, long- vs short-term orientation, was subsequently added when the
study was extended to Asia based on a study of Chinese values. This revealed another
dimension opposing long- to short-term aspects of Confucian thinking, persistence and
thrift to personal stability and respect for tradition. These five dimensions are
postulated to represent the collective patterning of the mind, and to constitute
fundamental value orientations that underlie differences in managerial practices,
organizational patterns and decision-making. This has also been widely used in
marketing to characterize the national culture of different countries and as an
independent variable to explain or understand cross-national differences (Clark, 1990;
Nakata and Sivakumar, 1996; Shimp and Sharma, 1987).
An alternative schema, grounded in Rokeachs value survey, was developed by
Schwarz (1992). Schwarz grouped values into value types according to the underlying
motivational goals. Reasoning that the same basic human values would be found in all

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cultures, he developed measures of each value and examined their existence in a

number of countries (Schwarz and Bilsky, 1996). This has also been widely used in
marketing and consumer behavior (Steenkamp et al., 1999).
At the societal level, these value types were grouped into three cultural dimensions,
conservatism vs autonomy, hierarchy vs egalitarianism, and mastery vs harmony.
While Schwarz viewed his approach as distinctly different from that of Hofstede, there
are some strong underlying similarities. The first two dimensions closely resemble the
individualism-collectivism and the power distance value-orientations while mastery
vs harmony parallel Hofstedes masculinity/feminity dimensions. The similarities
between the two value schemas provide further support for their validity as dominant
value structures, which exist across societies.
Cultural orientation has been the central construct used in psychology and other
social sciences (Oysermann et al., 2002) to understand and define culture (Aaker and
Maheswaran, 1997; Aaker, 2000). This perspective, grounded in psychology, has
focused on examining cognition and cognitive processes and the universality of
models and conceptual frameworks developed in one society or culture in another.
Countries are selected as exemplars of either individualist or collectivist societies
and cognitive processes or behavior patterns of respondents in two or more countries
compared. A key objective is to determine whether cognitive processes and constructs
typically identified in an individualist society such as the USA, can be generalized to
collectivist societies such as Hong Kong, Taiwan or Japan. In marketing, cultural
orientation has been studied primarily in relation to marketing communications and
cognitive processes. Differences have been found between individualist and collectivist
societies in relation to the influence of consensus information on product evaluation
(Aaker and Maheswaran, 1997), information content in advertising (Hong et al., 1987),
emotional appeals in advertising (Aaker and Williams, 1998), and in the accessibility or
diagnosticity of persuasion appeals (Aaker, 2000). These studies suggest the existence
of major differences in the salience of appeals between individualist and collectivist
societies, notably related to the importance of the individual relative to the group.
While cultural value orientations tap a central dimension of cultural variation and
provide a highly parsimonious approach to studying culture, they constitute broad
societal constructs which do not reflect more nuanced or process-oriented aspects of
society or the importance of contextual variables in influencing behavior and cognition
(Miller, 2002; Oysermann et al., 2002). In particular, they ignore differences among
individuals in the extent to which they subscribe to the dominant societal cultural
orientation as well as the extent to which cultural influences may be activated in a
given situation (Briley et al., 2001). It has, therefore, been argued that a dynamic
constructionist view of culture should be adopted, which focuses on identifying specific
knowledge structures or implicit cultural theories that mediate social behavior in
specific domains (Hong and Chui, 2001).
Material culture and artifacts
Each culture has its own vision of the world and set of culturally constituted meanings
that provide understanding and rules for its members which may be unintelligible to
others. Within this stream, McCrackens (1986) work provides a framework for
understanding the cultural meaning of consumer goods and consumption patterns
(Applebaum and Jordt, 1996). It identifies cultural categories of time, space, nature, and

person as the fundamental co-ordinates of meaning that organize the phenomenal

world. A key mechanism framing interpretation of consumption is advertising in a
society, which serves as a conduit through which viewers or readers are informed of
the meaning of consumer goods (Belk and Pollay, 1985; Tse et al., 1989).
Material culture incorporates the rituals, artifacts, institutions and symbols of a
society that bind it together and establish rules and norms for behaving towards others
within society, either in general or on specific occasions such as weddings, funerals,
festivals, etc. The meaning and symbolism attached to individual possessions and
goods owned by individuals, families or social groups and the significance attached to
gifts and gift-giving rituals are also important elements of material culture.
Consumption patterns also demarcate life-styles and social class (Holt, 1998).
The meaning attached to possessions is another integral component of culture.
Wallendorf and Arnould (1988) note objects serve as the set and props on the
theatrical stage of our lives and markers to remind ourselves of who we are. Favorite
objects serve as possessions that reflect local cultures, and as such different values and
social structure. In the southwest of the US, favorite objects represent unique
individual expressions of self or personal experiences, while in Niger they are fewer
and more likely to represent links with other members of society, either of a
co-operative, e.g. Koranic texts, or competitive nature, e.g. horses (Wallendorf and
Arnould, 1988). While the specific objects differed between cultures, attachment to
objects as distinct from materialism is a pervasive phenomenon in all cultures.
The rituals and institutions established by society are important indicators of the
strength of cultural ties and the shared collective programming of society. In Japan, for
example, the existence of formal rituals and customs is an important element binding
the society and ensuring harmonious relations among its members. In the USA, on the
other hand, the broad mix of cultures and national origins results in multiple and
diverse cultural traditions and rituals which often intermingle and blend into each
other.
Rituals associated with consumption behavior, or specific consumption occasions
provide insights into the way in which consumer goods are embedded in and form an
integral part of the cultural fabric of society (Arnould, 1989; Belk et al., 1989). Gift
giving has been one of the most extensively studied social rituals (Belk, 1988: Sherry,
1983). Here, the practices surrounding the formalized nature of gift giving in Japan has
been contrasted with gift-giving practices in other cultures. Equally, study of
gift-giving practices in Hong Kong has revealed these to be embedded in particular
socio-cultural practices, which form a continuum from intimates to acquaintances
(Joy, 2001). In essence, each culture develops its own gift-giving practices incorporating
ties of obligation and reciprocity consistent with the network of social relationships
within the culture.
Brands also serve as cultural markers (Holt, 1998). The meaning and set of
associations surrounding a brand name as also a brand category may vary from one
culture to another (Joy, 2001; Sherry, 1983). Studies of diffusion patterns and favorite
objectives also underscore differences in preference formation from one culture to
another and hence the importance of understanding cultural-specific factors
underlying diffusion patterns in society (Wallendorf and Arnould, 1988).
These studies generate a rich understanding of consumption phenomena at a
particular site, especially in terms of product use and symbolism. However, to the

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extent that the unit of analysis is a specific cultural context, generalizations to a

broader context, and implicit comparisons with regard to other cultures are difficult to
make. As a result, integration of findings relating to specific sites into a broader
understanding of cultural influences on consumption, and of the significance and
meaning of these influences across multiple sites or cultural contexts is somewhat
problematic. Ultimately, much depends on how sites are selected, and the cultural
components being studied
Language and communication systems
The view of culture as content focuses on interpreting the role of artifacts and the
meanings consumers ascribe to them. Closely related to this is research that examines
the meaning and implications of language as an interpretation of culture. While both
streams may end up examining similar stimuli, the focus is different. Content studies
examine the role and meaning of an object as it is used by consumers. For example,
favorite objects of specific cultural groups such as the Hansa (Arnould, 1989) and
Indian immigrants to the US (Mehta and Belk, 1991) and Italian immigrants in
Montreal (Joy et al., 1995) have been studied. Communication studies, on the other
hand, examine the use of objects and language as conveyors of culture, as for example,
the use of ideographic writing systems in brand recall (Schmitt et al., 1994).
Communication is a key element of culture as it provides a mechanism for
transmitting and interpreting messages relating to the world around an individual.
Communication takes place in a physical and social context such as time, location
and the social relationship of the participants, as well as in relation to other competing
messages (Hall, 1973). All these influence and condition how a communication
is received. Members of a culture share a common key for interpreting their
social surroundings, which establishes rules for governing the interaction. Members
of different cultures may not know how to interpret these signs, resulting in
miscommunication.
Modes of communication both verbal and non-verbal are an integral part of culture
(Hall, 1973, 1976; Samovar and Porter, 1994; Whorf, 1956) and provide links within and
across cultural units. Communication arises from the need to connect and interact with
others and unites otherwise isolated individuals. Communication involves messages
that are encoded and transmitted to others who decode them and respond accordingly.
Language is a key component of communication since it provides a mechanism for
encoding and decoding messages. A shared language is thus a key factor unifying
members of a common culture. Language provides an organizing schema for
interpreting and understanding the world. The Sapir Whorf hypothesis, for example,
postulates that language plays an important role in the formation of thought patterns
and behavioral response as well as in the transmission of cultural norms and behavior
patterns from one generation to another (Whorf, 1956). Thus, for example, Eskimos
have several words for snow to reflect different types of snow, and in the UK there are
multiple words for different types of rain.
Language and communication also give meaning to objects and symbols for the
individual. At the same time, they act as a unifying force binding together the members
of a specific society and culture, and facilitating intra-group interaction, while at the
same time hindering interaction with members of other societies and cultures. Rapid
advances in communications technology have dramatically reduced the importance of

geographic proximity for communication. Individuals can now be in instant touch with
others around the world by voice or written word. Information that once took days or
weeks to spread is available immediately. As a result, physical proximity is no longer a
key requirement for formation of a cultural entity.
Language has many facets that relate to the meaning of consumer products.
Linguistic structure plays an important role in the formation of cognitive processes
such as perception and hence judgment and choice (Schmitt and Zang, 1998) as well as
in brand recall and recognition (Schmitt et al., 1994) and the encoding and recall of
information (Tavassoli, 1999). Equally, foreign language and loanwords can help in
establishing the identity of a local (indigenous) product (Sherry and Camargo, 1987).
Use of a minority subcultures language in advertising (Koslow et al., 1994) has also
been found to impact consumer response. Examination of how bilinguals process
information in advertisements further demonstrates the importance of language in
message recall (Luna and Peracchio, 2001). Language is shown to be an important
thread of culture not only in communication within a culture, but also in categorizing
cultural content and in retaining information relating to that culture.
While language is a key element of culture it provides only one aspect of
communication in a culture. In addition, visual expression, gestures and signs are
often important elements of communication particularly in certain types of cultures
(Hall, 1976). Both language and visual modes of communication play an important
role in social communication and issues such as message interpretation or
misinterpretation which merit further attention, particularly in relation to
communications between cultures.
Intercultural communication, or face-to-face communication between people of
different national cultures, gives rise to numerous issues of which differences
in language constitute but one important barrier (Gudykunst, 2003). Differences in
cultural background, values and mores and self-identifies may act as impediments to
effective communication. Ways of expressing emotions, perceptions of self, others and
of phenomena may also differ and give rise to problems of miscommunication. As a
result communication between peoples of different cultures is fraught with difficulties.
Even within cultures different groups and communities may have their own particular
modes of communication, binding them together, but at the same time excluding others
(Abrams et al., 2003).
The three intertwined components of culture comprise the underlying fabric of
society. They permeate all aspects of daily life and human interaction. However,
culture is not static, but continually evolving and changing. As a result of increased
movement, contact, and interaction occurring across cultures, local cultural patterns
and traditions are being altered, breaking down and being permeated by new
influences from other cultures. These dynamics and their consequences are discussed
next.
Cultural dynamics
Growing links between local cultures and the increasing permeability of cultural
boundaries are changing the nature of culture and transforming its patterning.
With advances in communications technology, cultures are increasingly linked by
global flows diffusing ideas, products and images across the world at amazing speed.
The sociologist Appadurai (1990) has identified five global flows that are transforming

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the nature of society and muting the effect of divisions and barriers between them.
Mediascapes, i.e. flows of image and communication, are the most far-reaching in both
influencing consumers and at the same time are subject to influence by marketers.
Ethnoscapes, i.e. flows of tourists, migrants, foreign students, are also shaping beliefs
and result in direct exposure of members of one culture to another. Ideoscapes, i.e.
flows of political ideas and ideologies, exert more subtle influences that take more time
to have any impact. Ethnoscapes and mediascapes are the conduits for transmission of
ideas and ideologies. The last two scapes, technoscapes, i.e. flows of technology and
know-how or linkages between plants and offices throughout the world, and
finanscapes, i.e. flows or capital and money, are important forces but less evident for
individual consumers. In many instances it is the desire to expand markets for goods
and services that sets many of these flows in motion. Technology and capital are
critical factors for business as they seek to expand around the globe and their impact is
ultimately manifested in the first three scapes. These flows are the primary
mechanisms that transmit content from one culture to another.
The five global flows dramatically change the character of the global landscape, and
in particular, the way in which the cultural context is configured. Traditionally, culture
has been viewed as localized and defined by territorial boundaries. Cultural behavior
patterns are viewed as delimited within a given locality, with little interaction or
overlap with other cultures. The strength of global flows creates a very different
landscape in which cultural patterns are no longer concentrated in a given locality, but
are rather interconnected across broad geographic areas and multiple groupings as
cultural boundaries become less clearly defined. The consequences of these flows are
identified in Table I and the remainder of this section is devoted to an elaboration of
these consequences.
Cultural interpenetration
Flows from one culture to another, result in the second culture being interpenetrated by
the first. When the flows are bilateral, both cultures become interpenetrated. As links
are established across cultures, geographically localized cultural entities are rapidly
disappearing. New contact zones or spatial patterns of interaction are established
across national groups and cultures. For example, changing ethnoscapes result in the
creation of ties that span national boundaries (Hermans and Kempen, 1998). As guest
workers from developing countries enter into the work force of more affluent societies,
Dynamic

Definition

Cultural interpenetration

Flows of information, ideas and products from one culture enter another
transforming its nature
A particular culture is no longer defined exclusively in terms of a specific
geographic location
A culture becomes tainted by elements of other cultures making it more
difficult to identify the central ethnie core of the culture
Individuals within a culture exhibit elements of multiple cultures.
Sometimes this is a product of a transition from one culture to another.
It may also be a product of close contact with different cultures
A fusion of two or more elements from different cultures resulting in a new
cultural element

Deterritorialization
Cultural contamination
Cultural pluralism
Table I.
Consequences of cultural
dynamics

Cultural hybridization

they are able to retain contact with their homeland through global media, resulting in
attachment to policies in their country of origin, or bringing in products from that
country. For example, Turkish migrant workers to Germany and the Netherlands have
introduced the Doner Kebap, a Turkish sandwich of roasted meat, and pide,
Turkish flat bread, into those countries (Caglar, 1995). If there are sufficient numbers of
immigrants, retail shops and restaurants will be established that offer products and
services from their home country.
In some instances, such ties may result in disruption or discontinuities, as
dominance of an immigrant group gives rise to fears of disappearance of indigenous
local habits and traits. In other cases, these intrusions are benign, and different cultures
co-exist in harmony along side each other, each respecting the boundaries of the other,
and in some cases adopting certain habits or traits of the other.
Deterritorialization
One of the consequences of cultural interpenetration is that a specific culture is no
longer confined to a defined geographic locale. Linkages and scapes crossing many
diverse cultures create an array of transnational contact zones or cultural contexts.
On the one hand, they impact the homogeneity of the different cultures and on the
other; establish linkages that transform locality to translocality (Featherstone, 1990).
This deterritorialization of culture implies that geographic location is far less critical
and at times misleading in defining culture and cultural particularity. A culture that
once developed relative to specific resources or specific institutions available at a given
location, now draws from different resources scattered in multiple locations and
through links established between locations.
Localized cultural units no longer form the nuclei for the development of distinct
cultures, but are replaced by geographically dispersed cultures linked together through
modern communications technology (Pieterse, 1995; Hermans and Kempen, 1998).
Cultural boundaries are becoming more porous, as contact is established between
different cultural contexts through the various flows. As a result of such contact,
values, attitudes and/or behavior are becoming more amorphous and continually
changing, particularly with regard to other cultures and cultural values.
Cultural contamination
One important consequence of changing cultural boundaries and the reconfiguration of
the cultural context is cultural contamination. No longer can the pure ethnie core of a
culture and its distinctive compositional elements be clearly distinguished. This
common ethnie of shared memories, myths, values and symbols woven together and
sustained in popular consciousness (Featherstone, 1990) is becoming more broadly
diffused among the general population and no longer forms a common bond shared
uniquely by members of the culture.
The ease of establishing contact between individuals at geographically dispersed
locations throughout the world through global systems of communication and mass
media, further contributes to the breakup of the close knit ties of local cultures and the
widespread diffusion of products, ideas and images of diverse cultures. This results in
a blurring of cultural boundaries which is further reinforced by increased consumer
mobility and travel and greater exposure to global and culturally diverse media.

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Cultural pluralism
Rather than rapidly assimilating into a host country, immigrants in many countries
and contexts are retaining their own ethnic or cultural identity (Thompson and
Tambyah, 1999). This is facilitated by the ease with which links can be maintained
across cultural contexts. The proliferation of cultural groupings is also resulting in
increasing cultural pluralism. As a result, consumers often belong to multiple cultural
groupings, i.e. ethnic, linguistic or religious groups, and hence have multiple identities.
For example, female Catholic Korean immigrants in California are members of the
Asian immigrant culture in California, as well as the Korean culture, the Korean
immigrant culture in California, and the Catholic Asian culture, etc.
Some individuals identify strongly with multiple groupings. For example, a
Pakistani Muslim immigrant, may identify strongly with the Muslim religion, with his
country of origin, as well as with his country of adoption, rather than shifting from
identification with his country of origin to his country of adoption as is commonly
assumed (Alexander, 1994). This gives rise to the question of whether strong ethnic or
cultural identification is a personality trait, or in other words, whether some
individuals have a strong drive to identify with a group, while others have much
weaker drives for group identification.
Different identities may, therefore, be operant depending on the specific context or
situation. The ethnic identity of origin may, for example, be operant in the home, while
that of the host culture dominates in the work place. Equally, the importance of a
specific cultural influence may vary depending on the product category. For example,
religion may be operant in terms of food and sometimes clothing purchases, while
ethnic origin influences choice of store, and language determines choice of information
sources.
Hybridization
A very subtle trend is the hybridization of cultures. As Pieterse (1995) indicates,
hybridization occurs when . . . new forms become separated from existing practices
and recombine with new forms in new practices. Thus, rather than resulting in a
homogeneous or universal globalization, different compositional elements and cultural
streams become intermingled, forming a complex new entity combining elements of
each stream.
Hybridization occurs not only among elements of culture that are in harmony with
each other, as for example, adoption in the USA of other elements of western cultures
or Japanese art forms, but among cultures that are substantially different from one
other. Thus, for example, European Americans adopt African-American music just as
Indian musical traditions have permeated western music, resulting in the emergence of
world music (Pieterse, 1995; Featherstone and Lash, 1995).
Co-existence of people from different cultures in close proximity may also lead to
hybridization of culture (Pieterse, 1995) as they become intermingled through
intermarriage, or other forms of social interaction. Immigrants of different national or
ethnic origins will become exposed to each others cultural traditions, life-styles and
behavior patterns, as well as those of their common host culture. The customs or
festivals of one group may be adopted by others, as for example; Christmas has been
widely adopted in many Asian countries by non-Christians. Similarly, American sports
such as basketball, baseball and football have been adopted in other parts of the world,

and soccer in the US. As a result, cultural identities are continually changing and
evolving over time and compositional elements are no longer specific to a given context
as the fluidity of boundary lines blurs the lines of cultural demarcation.
Implications for research on culture
Each of the three streams of research identified earlier provides a distinctive aperture
and lens to view the intertwined facets of culture. Each is rooted in a specific research
tradition reflecting a focus on a particular aspect of culture. As a result, any one
perspective provides only a partial glimpse that fails to capture the full richness of
cultural influences. As a consequence, findings are often interpreted in terms of a single
perspective, ignoring other possible interpretations or insights.
The complexity of cultural influences and the numerous ways in which these are
changing, suggest the need to adopt a broader perspective. This perspective should
capture the richness and diversity of these different aspects of culture and their
influence, as well as providing a view of culture that can be applied meaningfully to
marketing situations. In addition to thinking about conceptual issues in designing
research on culture, research design must also consider the methodological
implications of changing cultural dynamics. Both of these are examined next.
Conceptual issues in cross-cultural research
Research might, for example, usefully focus on studying in-depth a particular culture
over time, examining how values and belief systems evolve, how patterns of
communication change and new forms of material artifacts replace the old. Given the
importance of the global flows identified earlier, of even greater salience is the
examination of how such flows impact cultural patterning and establish linkages
across cultural boundaries. Cultural interpenetration, cultural contamination, cultural
pluralism and hybridization while by no means new, have been little studied to date.
More detailed examination of such phenomena and the implications for marketing
would undoubtedly provide fruitful avenues for understanding the dynamics of
cultural change.
A consequence of cultural interpenetration is cultural contamination. This implies
that the central values of a culture are no longer distinct and readily measurable, but
rather permeated by influences from other cultures. Consequently, there will be greater
variance within country on measures of individual values such as the Schwarz
typology. Greater within country variance also makes it more difficult to obtain
significant differences between countries as well. Equally, at the aggregate level, the
dominant value system of a country or region will begin to incorporate values from
other countries. The rate and degree of change will be a function of the extent and type
of contact with other countries. Values typically characterizing western societies, such
as individualism and independence, will increasingly be adopted in collectivist Asian
societies. At the same time, Asian values such as harmony will become more evident in
western societies. Examination of the extent to which individuals in a given society are
embracing non-traditional values from other societies would begin to document the
extent of change.
The mechanisms through which such changes in the value system occur vary.
Some individuals who have been exposed to other cultures either passively through
mass-media and communication systems or actively through living in or traveling to

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other cultures, will exhibit adaptability to different culture systems as they move from
one culture to another. Such individuals have been termed variously world minded
(Beckmann et al., 2000) or cosmopolitan (Cannon and Yaprak, 2002; Thompson and
Tambyah, 1999). In a recent study of worldmindedness (Beckmann et al., 2000),
qualitative research was undertaken in a preliminary emic stage of research to assess
how individuals in the three countries studied, Austria, Denmark, and the USA,
perceived the concept of worldmindedness or cosmopolitanism. This was closely
related to the linguistic context of the study.
More research is also needed to assess how far language influences meaning and
equivalency in different cultures. More specifically, it is important to assess whether
the same construct is linked to the same product related attitudes and consumption
patterns in each country. As cultural interpenetration and contamination occur, the
unique material associated with the ethnie core of a culture, i.e. its artifacts, symbols
and rituals will become less clear and readily identifiable. It will become increasingly
difficult to distinguish one ethnie core from another. A blurring of the ethnie core
will occur as objects and symbols transferred from one culture to another are adopted,
and often adapted in a new and different cultural context. Traditions and rituals
become intermingled and merged, as those of one culture are adopted and absorbed by
another. As a result of this interchange new food consumption patterns, clothing or
entertainment that reflect a fusion of two or more cultures are emerging, as for
example, Afro Hispanic rhythms or Asian fusion cuisine. At the same time, increasing
cultural interpenetration results in a resurgence of traditional rituals and artifacts
among a small fragmented market segment. Often they may seek to establish and
reaffirm their cultural identity and affinity, resulting in extensive use of objects
and symbols as well as performance of rituals characteristic of their culture of origin.
Cultural dynamics also influence the diffusion of objects and artifacts from one
culture to another or the extent to which symbols of belonging to one culture have been
adopted by another. Measures to trace the flows of goods and artifacts from one culture
or geographic location to another need to be developed. This requires more than
tracing the diffusion of new products from one country to another. It implies that, for
example, studies should track not only the movement of goods, but also the transfer of
meaning associated with the objects. This is particularly salient for objects that are
cultural icons or typical of a particular culture.
Given the increased fluidity of culture and the growth of inter-linkages between
cultures, it is important that more time is spent examining the extent to which trade
linkages and communication links such as media, or travel as well as cultural
similarity or geographic distance influence adoption of products from one country to
another. As communication across broad geographic distances becomes increasingly
easy, linguistic similarity of cultures becomes more critical than geographic proximity
in determining diffusion patterns.
US films have, for example, been found to be more successful in English-speaking
countries, countries with values similar to the USA, and somewhat surprisingly, those
with more McDonalds outlets per capita (Craig et al., 2005). Subsequent research might
validate this latter indicator as a measure of Americanization, examining whether the
number of McDonalds is related to consumption of other US products such as Levis
jeans or Nike athletic shoes. Further, the extent to which adoption of such symbols of
Americanization is related to other indicators of links with the USA or of potential

US influence might be examined, as for example, trade flows with the USA, presence
of US subsidiaries, mail flows, telephone communications, and number of business and
tourist travelers to and from the USA. Similar measures examining bilateral flows of
products, trade and communication between two or more countries could be used to
assess the relative influence and inter-linkages between other countries.
Tracking of links between different cultures at the macro-economic, product-market
and individual level can provide an indication of the interconnection between these
cultures and the degree of intercommunication. This should also include examination
of verbal communication such as phone calls or face-to-face meetings, as well as
physical and written communication, as for example, travel between cultures,
movement of goods and performance of services across cultural boundaries, use of the
internet, e-mail, instant messaging, etc.
Given the fluidity of communication, research needs to capture the dynamics as they
unfold, focusing, for example, on the impact of the rise of bilingualism or the increased
use of loan words. In targeting immigrant bi-linguals, the effectiveness of adapting ads
to local languages needs to be further probed. Attention might be directed towards
language preference differences between first, second and third generation immigrants,
as also whether the similarity of their native language to the language of the country or
adoption, or socio-economic status plays a role. The extent to which immigrants have
learned the language prior to arriving in the country of adoption, as well as the reasons
for choosing to immigrate to a particular country are also important.
Use of loan words also merits further investigation and is becoming increasingly
significant as more individuals travel and are exposed to languages, customs, brand
names and material objects from other countries (Sherry and Camargo, 1987). Research
might focus on the factors underlying the rise of this phenomenon, as for example,
increased inter-linkages and communication between countries and cultures, similarity
in cultural values between countries, etc. This will require text-based analysis, i.e. of
the ad stimuli that provide a mirror of the values and practices of a culture (Belk and
Pollay, 1985). This type of analysis is greatly facilitated by the availability of ads in
an electronic format. In addition, use of electronic techniques such as e-mail and
internet-based surveys allow use of qualitative analysis in conjunction with
quantitative analysis to tap into the emotional impact of ads (Sharman et al., 2004).
Methodological issues in cross-cultural research
Specifying the role of culture. Research on culture must specify why and in what way
culture is relevant to the phenomenon being studied (for more detail on international
research methodology see, Craig and Douglas, 2005; Douglas and Craig, 2006). This in
turn requires delineating different levels of culture, i.e. global, regional, national,
sub-national, to be examined and the nature of their influence on consumption
behavior. In some cases, cultural influences may form the focal point of the study, as
for example, where attention is centered on examining cultural conventions such
as weddings, and the extent to which traditional wedding practices in countries such as
China and Thailand are becoming westernized. In other cases, cultural factors may
play a mediating role. For example, the extent to which values, such as ethnocentricism
or world mindedness, mediate responses to marketing stimuli, could be examined by
gauging responses to advertising showing products positioned as foreign or domestic
(Alden et al., 1999).

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Where attitudes, interest and behavior are examined in multiple contexts, it is

important to select these contexts based on some relevant dimension or aspect
hypothesized to affect the attitudes and behavior studied. For example, inter-personal
behavior might be examined in a collectivist vs an individualistic society (Triandis,
1995). Observed differences can then be attributed to collectivist vs individualistic
values. In this case, the societies being compared should differ primarily with regard to
the aspect of interest, and not systematically with regard to some other underlying
factor, which may affect the outcome. Factors such as country size, population density,
average level of education, and per capita income may all exert some influence on the
observed outcome. Inclusion of other cultural distance measures such as geographic
distance or cultural similarity (using, for example, the Schwarz individual level
measures) in investigating differences and similarities in attitudes and consumption
patterns between countries and cultures would also help to shed further light on the
impact of culture.
Identifying the unit of analysis. Deterritorialization, market fragmentation and the
development of linkages across national borders imply that national culture is no
longer as relevant as the unit of analysis for examining culture. Rather the dominance
of national culture and national borders has been replaced by a multiplicity of complex
cultural influences, which may be studied at the global, regional, cross-national or sub
national (e.g. urban/rural) level. Research designs must begin to take into account these
different levels of culture. Further, less reliance should be placed on the country as the
unit of analysis. Instead greater attention is needed to alternative units which are finer
and more closely knit to find ones that are culturally pure.
The culti-unit proposed by Naroll, the cultural anthropologist is particularly
useful in identifying analytically pure units to study (Naroll, 1970). A culti-unit consists
of people who are domestic speakers of a common distinct language and belong to the
same state or contact group. The two key criteria defining the unit are language,
which may be a dialect or main language, and the degree of social interaction and
communication. This definition is well suited for examining consumer behavior, where
language and communication or interactions are often important boundary lines
staking differences and similarities in consumption and purchase behavior (Douglas
and Craig, 1997). Use of the culti-unit is also consistent with the view that transmission
of collective identity requires a sense of continuity, shared memories, and a sense of
common destiny in order to endure (Smith, 1990). An enduring cultural identity is most
forcibly provided at the level of the contact group with its ethnie core of shared myths,
memories, values and symbols.
There are two key issues involved in identifying and analyzing a culti-unit.
First, the culti-unit has to be identified so that the research effort can progress. The
available sampling frames or the population to which the researcher has access will
typically be the defining factor, as it is difficult to identify an appropriate culti-unit a
priori. In many cases, therefore the definition may be subjective and somewhat
arbitrary. The second step is more important, that of determining whether the selected
culti-unit appears to be analytically pure. Since, cultural contamination occurs
primarily through outside influence, the purity of a culti-unit and the extent to which
its ethnie core has been culturally contaminated can be assessed by examining in-depth
the impact of relations of members of a given culti-unit with individuals within and
outside the group. A given culti-unit can be selected, for example, ethnic Chinese living

in an upscale area in Guangzhou China. Once all the data have been collected, the
values, beliefs, and consumer behavior patterns of those who have traveled abroad
extensively and have substantial business and/or social interaction with Chinese in
other areas of China or with individuals in other parts of the world can then be
compared with those whose relations and interaction are predominantly with other
Chinese of the same background and in the same area in Guangzhou. The differences
observed between the two groups will then suggest how the ethnie core is evolving and
the extent to which cultural contamination is taking place.
Isolating confounding influences. A third issue concerns the isolation of confounding
influences on the behavior studied. This in turn is closely related to the definition of the
unit of analysis and the structure of the research design. Since, multi-site marketing
research involves the comparison of variations between spatially distinct entities or
units, it is critical that confounding external influences be isolated or accounted for.
Further, interaction between units will plague the researcher and contaminate research
results. This poses a particular problem in examining the dynamics of cultural change
insofar as respondents are exposed to direct and indirect influences that extend well
beyond their locale.
As Galton noted in his remarks following Tylors presentation of his classic paper
on the cross-cultural method at the Royal Statistical Society in 1889, it is typically
impossible to obtain cross-cultural sampling units, which are independent of each other
(Naroll, 1970). Traits that are supposedly culturally distinctive often spread between
neighboring or historically proximate regions through diffusion or migration. This
problem apparent over 100 years ago is even more significant intodays world where
the five flows identified by Appudurai are inter-linking countries.
Respondents, especially where these are students, are likely to have traveled to
other countries or at a minimum have been exposed to ideas and influences emanating
from other countries and cultures. Even respondents, who have not traveled, are
exposed to images and information about other countries through mass media.
Consequently, findings relating to differences or similarities between countries, for
example, in relation to consumption or purchasing patterns, attitudes towards different
foreign or global brands, may simply reflect consumer mobility and migration, and
exposure to other life-styles and consumption patterns
This suggests that it is important to set-up controls to test for the impact of such
influences on attitudes and behavior, especially where this relates to products from
another cultures. Respondents can, for example, be asked to indicate the extent to
which they have traveled or lived in other cultures, listen to TV programs and other
media, use the internet, have friends or relatives from other cultures, or are in general
interested in and exposed to information about other cultures.
Expanding the range of contexts. Another priority is the extension of the range and
diversity of countries and socio-cultural contexts. This is critical in order to understand
which elements of culture are universal and which are embedded in a specific culture.
It will also aid in studying variation in cultural theories and constructs in different
societal contexts. Study of a broader range of socio-cultural contexts especially where
extensive preliminary research is conducted in each case; also helps to identify new
concepts and constructs or relevant elements of culture. In addition, it enables
systematic examination of the impact of specific aspects of the socio-cultural context,
such as language, size or geographic scope. This is parallel to the distinction made by

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Lonner and Adamopoulos (1997) in comparing the impact of cultural context vs

cultural content.
Most cross-cultural consumer research, published in English has been US-centric
i.e. conducted by US or US-trained researchers. Often it has focused on examining the
generality of models and theories developed in the US to other countries in Europe or
Asia. In particular, focus on individualism/collectivism, for example, has resulted in
comparison of behavior in the USA as an exemplar of individualism, with that in an
Asian country such as China, Taiwan or Hong Kong, as an exemplar of collectivism
(Oysermann et al., 2002). Examination of cultural phenomena and cultural traditions in
other continents such as Latin America, Africa or India, would considerably enrich and
enhance our understanding of the range of culture and its influence.
Conclusion
The parallel trends of globalization and multiculturalism make it increasingly
important to develop a deeper understanding of culture and its various manifestations.
Cultural influences are changing dramatically, as cultures are no longer dependent on
local resources to formulate their characteristic tastes, preferences and behavior and
are increasingly linked across vast geographic distances by modern communication
media. Membership in a culture is becoming more fluid as individuals travel widely
and both adapt to new cultural contexts while transporting elements of one culture to
another. As membership in a culture becomes increasingly transitional, unique
elements are less clearly demarcated or distinctive. New hybrid cultures are emerging,
blending elements of different origins. The dynamic and evolving character of these
cultural influences greatly complicates research designed to disentangle the impact
and meaning of culture. For progress to be made, research designs must account for
this complexity and span multiple contexts to establish the generality of findings. This
will result in improved knowledge of culture and its role in molding consumption
behavior.
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Corresponding author
C. Samuel Craig can be contacted at: scraig@stern.nyu.edu

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