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CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:Scholasticism

Scholasticism
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Scholasticismisatermusedtodesignatebothamethodandasystem.Itisappliedto
theologyaswellastophilosophy.ScholastictheologyisdistinguishedfromPatristic
theologyontheonehand,andfrompositivetheologyontheother.Theschoolmen
themselvesdistinguishedbetweentheologiaspeculativasivescholasticaandtheologia
positiva.Appliedtophilosophy,theword"Scholastic"isoftenusedalso,todesignatea
chronologicaldivisioninterveningbetweentheendofthePatristicerainthefifthcentury
andthebeginningofthemodernera,about1450.Itwill,therefore,makeforclearnessand
orderifweconsider:
I.Theoriginoftheword"Scholastic"
II.ThehistoryoftheperiodcalledScholasticinthehistoryofphilosophy
III.TheScholasticmethodinphilosophy,withincidentalreferencetothe
Scholasticmethodintheologyand
IV.ThecontentsoftheScholasticsystem.
TherevivalofScholasticisminrecenttimeshasbeenalreadytreatedundertheheadNEO
SCHOLASTICISM.
ThereareinGreekliteratureafewinstancesoftheuseofthewordscholastikosto
designateaprofessionalphilosopher.Historically,however,theword,asnowused,isto
betraced,nottoGreekusage,buttoearlyChristianinstitutions.IntheChristianschools,
especiallyafterthebeginningofthesixthcentury,itwascustomarytocalltheheadofthe
schoolmagisterscholae,capiscola,orscholasticus.Astimewenton,thelastofthese
appellationswasusedexclusively.Thecurriculumofthoseschoolsincludeddialectic
amongthesevenliberalarts,whichwasatthattimetheonlybranchofphilosophystudied
systematically.Theheadoftheschoolgenerallytaughtdialectic,andoutofhisteaching
grewboththemannerofphilosophizingandthesystemofphilosophythatprevailed
duringalltheMiddleAges.Consequently,thename"Scholastic"wasusedandisstill
usedtodesignatethemethodandsystemthatgrewoutoftheacademiccurriculumofthe
schoolsor,moredefinitely,outofthedialecticalteachingofthemastersoftheschools
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(scholastici).Itdoesnotmatterthat,historically,theGoldenAgeofScholastic
philosophy,namely,thethirteenthcentury,fallswithinaperiodwhentheschools,the
curriculumofwhichwasthesevenliberalarts,includingdialectichadgivenwayto
anotherorganizationofstudies,thestudiageneralia,oruniversities.Thename,once
given,continued,asitalmostalwaysdoes,todesignatethemethodandsystemwhichhad
bythistimepassedintoanewphaseofdevelopment.Academically,thephilosophersof
thethirteenthcenturyareknownasmagistri,ormastershistorically,however,theyare
Scholastics,andcontinuetobesodesignateduntiltheendofthemedievalperiod.And,
evenafterthecloseoftheMiddleAges,aphilosopherortheologianwhoadoptsthe
methodorthesystemofthemedievalScholasticsissaidtobeaScholastic.

TheScholasticperiod
TheperiodextendingfromthebeginningofChristianspeculationtothetimeofSt.
Augustine,inclusive,isknownasthePatristicerainphilosophyandtheology.Ingeneral,
thaterainclinedtoPlatonismandunderestimatedtheimportanceofAristotle.TheFathers
strovetoconstructonPlatonicprinciplesasystemofChristianphilosophy.Theybrought
reasontotheaidofRevelation.Theyleaned,however,towardsthedoctrineofthe
mystics,and,inultimateresort,reliedmoreonspiritualintuitionthanondialecticalproof
fortheestablishmentandexplanationofthehighesttruthsofphilosophy.Betweentheend
ofthePatristicerainthefifthcenturyandthebeginningoftheScholasticeraintheninth
thereinterveneanumberofintercalarythinkers,astheymaybecalled,likeClaudianus
Mamertus,Boethius,Cassiodorus,St.IsidoreofSeville,VenerableBedeetc.,whohelped
tohanddowntothenewgenerationthetraditionsofthePatristicageandtocontinueinto
theScholasticerathecurrentofPlatonism.WiththeCarolingianrevivaloflearninginthe
ninthcenturybeganaperiodofeducationalactivitywhichresultedinanewphaseof
ChristianthoughtknownasScholasticism.Thefirstmastersoftheschoolsintheninth
centuryAlcuin,Rabanus,etc.,werenotindeed,moreoriginalthanBoethiusor
CassiodorusthefirstoriginalthinkerintheScholasticerawasJohntheScot(seeJOHN
SCOTUSERIUGENA).NeverthelesstheyinauguratedtheScholasticmovementbecause
theyendeavouredtobringthePatristic(principallytheAugustinian)traditionintotouch
withthenewlifeofEuropeanChristianity.TheydidnotabandonPlatonism.Theyknew
littleofAristotleexceptasalogician.Butbytheemphasistheylaidondialectical
reasoning,theygaveanewdirectiontoChristiantraditioninphilosophy.Inthe
curriculumoftheschoolsinwhichtheytaught,philosophywasrepresentedbydialectic.
Onthetextbooksofdialecticwhichtheyusedtheywrotecommentariesandglosses,into
which.Littlebylittle,theyadmittedproblemsofpsychology,metaphysics,cosmology,
andethics.SothattheScholasticmovementasawholemaybesaidtohavesprungfrom
thediscussionsofthedialecticians.
Method,contents,andconclusionswereinfluencedbythisorigin.Thereresultedaspecies
ofChristianRationalismwhichmorethananyothertraitcharacterizesScholastic
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philosophyineverysuccessivestageofitsdevelopmentandmarksitoffverydefinitely
fromthePatristicphilosophy,which,ashasbeensaid,wasultimatelyintuitionaland
mystic.WithRoscelin,whoappearedaboutthemiddleoftheeleventhcentury,thenoteof
Rationalismisverydistinctlysounded,andthefirstrumblingisheardoftheinevitable
reaction,thevoiceofChristianmysticismutteringitsnoteofwarning,andcondemning
theexcessintowhichRationalismhadfallen.Intheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies,
therefore,Scholasticismpassedthroughitsperiodofstormandstress.Ontheoneside
weretheadvocatesofreason,Roscelin,Abelard,PeterLombardontheotherwerethe
championsofmysticism,St.Anselm,St.PeterDamian,St.Bernard,andtheVictorines.
Likeallardentadvocates,theRationalistswenttoofaratfirst,andonlygraduallybrought
theirmethodwithinthelinesoforthodoxyandharmonizeditwithChristianreverencefor
themysteriesofFaith.Likeallconservativereactionists,themysticsatfirstcondemned
theuseaswellastheabuseofreasontheydidnotreachanintelligentcompromisewith
thedialecticiansuntiltheendofthetwelfthcentury.Inthefinaloutcomeofthestruggle,it
wasRationalismthat,havingmodifieditsunreasonableclaims,triumphedintheChristian
schools,without,howeverdrivingthemysticsfromthefield.
Meantime,Eclectics,likeJohnofSalisbury,andPlatonists,likethemembersofthe
SchoolofChartres,gavetotheScholasticmovementabroaderspiritoftoleration,
imparted,sotospeak,asortofHumanismtophilosophy,sothat,whenwecometothe
eveofthethirteenthcentury,Scholasticismhasmadetwoverydecidedstepsinadvance.
First,theuseofreasoninthediscussionofspiritualtruthandtheapplicationofdialectic
totheologyareacceptedwith.outprotest,solongastheyarekeptwithintheboundsof
moderation.Second,thereisawillingnessonthepartoftheSchoolmentogooutsidethe
linesofstrictecclesiasticaltraditionandlearn,notonlyfromAristotle,whowasnow
beginningtobeknownasametaphysicianandapsychologist,butalsofromtheArabians
andtheJews,whoseworkshadbeguntopenetrateinLatintranslationsintotheschoolsof
ChristianEurope.ThetakingofConstantinoplein1204,theintroductionofArabian,
Jewish,andGreekworksintotheChristianschools,theriseoftheuniversities,andthe
foundationofthemendicantordersthesearetheeventswhichledtotheextraordinary
intellectualactivityofthethirteenthcentury,whichcenteredintheUniversityofParis.At
firsttherewasconsiderableconfusion,anditseemedasifthebattleswoninthetwelfth
centurybythedialecticiansshouldbefoughtoveragain.ThetranslationsofAristotle
madefromtheArabianandaccompaniedbyArabiancommentariesweretingedwith
Pantheism,Fatalism,andotherNeoplatonicerrors.EvenintheChristianschoolsthere
weredeclaredPantheists,likeDavidofDinant,andoutspokenAverroists,likeSigerof
Brabant,whobadefairtoprejudicethecauseofAristoteleanism.
Thesedevelopmentsweresuppressedbythemoststringentdisciplinarymeasuresduring
thefirstfewdecadesofthethirteenthcentury.Whiletheywerestillasourceofdanger,
menlikeWilliamofAuvergneandAlexanderofHaleshesitatedbetweenthetraditional
AugustinianismoftheChristianschoolsandthenewAristoteleanism,whichcamefroma
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suspectedsource.Besides,AugustinianismandPlatonismaccordedwithpiety,while
Aristoteleanismwasfoundtolacktheelementofmysticism.Intime,however,the
translationsmadefromtheGreekrevealedanAristotlefreefromtheerrorsattributedto
himbytheArabians,and,aboveall,thecommandinggeniusofSt.AlbertusMagnusand
hisstillmoreillustriousdisciple,St.ThomasAquinas,whoappearedatthecritical
moment,calmlysurveyedthedifficultiesofthesituation,andmetthemfearlessly,won
thevictoryforthenewphilosophyandcontinuedsuccessfullythetraditionsestablishedin
theprecedingcentury.Theircontemporary,St.Bonaventure,showedthatthenewlearning
wasnotincompatiblewithmysticismdrawnfromChristiansources,andRogerBacon
demonstratedbyhisunsuccessfulattemptstodevelopthenaturalsciencesthepossibilities
ofanotherkindwhichwerelatentinAristoteleanism.
WithDunsScotus,ageniusofthefirstorder,butnotoftheconstructivetype,beginsthe
criticalphase,ofScholasticism.Evenbeforehistime,theFranciscanandtheDominican
currentshadsetoutindivergentdirections.Itwashiskeenandunrelentingsearchforthe
weakpointsinThomisticphilosophythatirritatedandwoundedsusceptibilitiesamongthe
followersofSt.Thomas,andbroughtaboutthespiritofpartisanshipwhichdidsomuchto
dissipatetheenergyofScholasticisminthefourteenthcentury.Therecrudescenceof
Averroismintheschools,theexcessivecultivationofformalismandsubtlety,thegrowth
ofartificialandevenbarbarousterminology,andtheneglectofthestudyofnatureandof
historycontributedtothesameresult.Ockham'sNominalismandDurandus'sattemptto
"simplify"Scholasticphilosophydidnothavetheeffectwhichtheirauthorsintended.
"Thegloryandpowerofscholasticismfadedintothewarmthandbrightnessof
mysticism,"andGerson,ThomasKempis,andEckhartaremorerepresentativeofwhat
theChristianChurchwasactuallythinkinginthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturiesthan
aretheThomists,Scotists,andOckhamistsofthatperiod,whofritteredawaymuch
valuabletimeinthediscussionofhighlytechnicalquestionswhicharosewithinthe
schoolsandpossesslittleinterestexceptforadeptsinScholasticsubtlety.Aftertheriseof
Humanism,whentheRenaissance,whichusheredinthemodernera,wasinfullprogress,
thegreatItalian,Spanish,andPortuguesecommentatorsinauguratedanageofmore
healthyScholasticism,andthegreatJesuitteachers,Toletus,Vasquez,andFrancisco
Surez,seemedtorecallthebestdaysofthirteenthcenturyspeculation.Thetriumphof
scientificdiscovery,withwhich,asarule,therepresentativesofScholasticismintheseats
ofacademicauthorityhad,unfortunately,toolittlesympathy,ledtonewwaysof
philosophizing,andwhen,finally,Descartesinpractice,ifnotintheory,effecteda
completeseparationofphilosophyfromtheology,themodernerahadbegunandtheage
knownasthatofScholasticismhadcometoanend.

TheScholasticmethod
NomethodinphilosophyhasbeenmoreunjustlycondemnedthanthatoftheScholastics.
Nophilosophyhasbeenmoregrosslymisrepresented.Andthisistruenotonlyofthe
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details,butalsoofthemostessentialelementsofScholasticism.Twocharges,especially,
aremadeagainsttheSchoolmen:First,thattheyconfoundedphilosophywiththeology
andsecond,thattheymadereasonsubservienttoauthority.Asamatteroffact,thevery
essenceofScholasticismis,first,itscleardelimitationoftherespectivedomainsof
philosophyandtheology,and,second,itsadvocacyoftheuseofreason.
Theologyandphilosophy

Christianthinkers,fromthebeginning,wereconfrontedwiththequestion:Howareweto
reconcilereasonwithrevelation,sciencewithfaith,philosophywiththeology?Thefirst
apologistspossessednophilosophyoftheirown.Theyhadtodealwithapaganworld
proudofitsliteratureanditsphilosophy,readyatanymomenttoflauntitsinheritanceof
wisdominthefaceofignorantChristians.Theapologistsmetthesituationbyatheory
thatwasasaudaciousasitmusthavebeendisconcertingtothepagans.Theyadvancedthe
explanationthatallthewisdomofPlatoandtheotherGreekswasduetotheinspirationof
theLogosthatitwasGod'struth,and,therefore,couldnotbeincontradictionwiththe
supernaturalrevelationcontainedintheGospels.Itwasahypothesiscalculatednotonly
tosilenceapaganopponent,butalsotoworkconstructively.WefinditinSt.Basil,in
Origen,andeveninSt.Augustine.Thebeliefthatthetwoordersoftruth,thenaturaland
thesupernatural,mustharmonize,istheinspirationofintellectualactivityinthePatristic
era.Butthateradidlittletodefinethelimitsofthetworealmsoftruth.St.Augustine
believesthatfaithaidsreason(credoutintelligam)andthatreasonaidsfaith(intelligout
credam)heis,however,inclinedtoemphasizethefirstprincipleandnotthesecond.He
doesnotdevelopadefinitemethodologyindealingwiththem.TheScholastics,almost
fromthefirst,attemptedtodoso.
JohnScotusEriugena,intheninthcentury,byhisdoctrinethatalltruthisatheophany,or
showingforthofGod,triedtoelevatephilosophytotherankoftheology,andidentifythe
twoinaspeciesoftheosophy.Abelard,inthetwelfthcentury,triedtobringtheology
downtothelevelofphilosophy,andidentifybothinaRationalisticsystem.Thegreatest
oftheScholasticsinthethirteenthcentury,especiallySt.ThomasAquinas,solvedthe
problemforalltime,sofarasChristianspeculationisconcerned,byshowingthatthetwo
aredistinctsciences,andyetthattheyagree.Theyaredistinct,heteaches,because,while
philosophyreliesonreasonalone,theologyusesthetruthsderivedfromrevelation,and
alsobecausetherearesometruths,themysteriesofFaith,whichliecompletelyoutside
thedomainofphilosophyandbelongtotheology.Theyagree,andmustagree,because
Godistheauthorofalltruth,anditisimpossibletothinkthatHewouldteachinthe
naturalorderanythingthatcontradictswhatHeteachesinthesupernaturalorder.The
recognitionoftheseprinciplesisoneofthecrowningachievementsofScholasticism.Itis
oneofthecharacteristicsthatmarkitofffromthePatristicera,inwhichthesame
principleswere,sotospeak,insolution,andnotcrystallizedindefiniteexpression.Itis
thetraitwhichdifferentiatesScholasticismfromAverroism.Itistheinspirationofall
Scholasticeffort.AslongasitlastedScholasticismlasted,andassoonastheopposite
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convictionbecameestablished,theconviction,namely,thatwhatistrueintheologymay
befalseinphilosophy,Scholasticismceasedtoexist.Itis,therefore,amatterofconstant
surprisetothosewhoknowScholasticismtofinditmisrepresentedonthisvitalpoint.
Scholasticrationalism

Scholasticismsprangfromthestudyofdialecticintheschools.Themostdecisivebattle
ofScholasticismwasthatwhichitwagedinthetwelfthcenturyagainstthemysticswho
condemnedtheuseofdialectic.ThedistinguishingmarkofScholasticismintheageofits
highestdevelopmentisitsuseofthedialecticalmethod.Itis,therefore,amatter,once
more,forsurprise,tofindScholasticismaccusedofunduesubserviencetoauthorityand
oftheneglectofreason.Rationalismisawordwhichhasvariousmeanings.Itis
sometimesusedtodesignateasystemwhich,refusingtoacknowledgetheauthorityof
revelation,testsalltruthbythestandardofreason.Inthissense,theScholasticswerenot
Rationalists.TheRationalismofScholasticismconsistsintheconvictionthatreasonisto
beusedintheelucidationofspiritualtruthandindefenceofthedogmasofFaith.Itis
opposedtomysticism,whichdistrustedreasonandplacedemphasisonintuitionand
contemplation.Inthismildermeaningoftheterm,alltheScholasticswereconvinced
Rationalists,theonlydifferencebeingthatsome,likeAbelardandRoscelin,weretoo
ardentintheiradvocacyoftheuseofreason,andwentsofarastomaintainthatreason
canproveeventhesupernaturalmysteriesofFaith,whileothers,likeSt.Thomas,
moderatedtheclaimsofreason,setlimitstoitspowerofprovingspiritualtruth,and
maintainedthatthemysteriesoffaithcouldnotbediscoveredandcannotbeprovedby
unaidedreason.
ThewholeScholasticmovement,therefore,isaRationalisticmovementinthesecond
senseofthetermRationalism.TheScholasticsusedtheirreasontheyapplieddialecticto
thestudyofnature,ofhumannatureandofsupernaturaltruth.Farfromdepreciating
reason,theywentasfarasmancangosomemoderncriticsthinktheywenttoofar
intheapplicationofreasontothediscussionofthedogmasofFaith.Theyacknowledged
theauthorityofrevelation,asallChristianphilosophersareobligedtodo.Theyadmitted
theforceofhumanauthoritywhentheconditionsofitsvalidapplicationwereverified.
Butintheology,theauthorityofrevelationdidnotcoercetheirreasonandinphilosophy
andinnaturalsciencetheytaughtveryemphaticallythattheargumentfromauthorityis
theweakestofallarguments.Theydidnotsubordinatereasontoauthorityinany
unworthysenseofthatphrase.ItwasanopponentoftheScholasticmovementwhostyled
philosophy"thehandmaidoftheology",adesignationwhich,however,someofthe
Schoolmenacceptedtomeanthattophilosophybelongsthehonourabletaskofcarrying
thelightwhichistoguidethefootstepsoftheology.Oneneednotgosofarastosay,with
BarthlemySaintHilaire,that"Scholasticism,initsgeneralresult,isthefirstrevoltofthe
modernspiritagainstauthority."Nevertheless,oneiscompelledbythefactsofhistoryto
admitthatthereismoretruthinthatdescriptionthaninthesuperficialjudgmentofthe
historianswhodescribeScholasticismasthesubordinationofreasontoauthority.
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DetailsofScholasticmethod

TheScholasticmanneroftreatingtheproblemsofphilosophyandtheologyisapparent
fromaglanceatthebodyofliteraturewhichtheSchoolmenproduced.Theimmense
amountofcommentaryonAristotle,onPeterLombard,onBoethius,onPseudo
Dionysius,andontheScripturesindicatestheformofacademicactivitywhich
characterizestheScholasticperiod.Theuseoftextsdatesfromtheverybeginningofthe
Scholasticerainphilosophyandtheology,andwascontinueddownintomoderntimes.
Thematureteacher,however,veryoftenembodiedtheresultsofhisownspeculationina
Summa,which,intimebecameatextinthehandsofhissuccessors.TheQuestiones
disputataewerespecialtreatisesonthemoredifficultorthemoreimportanttopics,andas
thenameimplied,followedthemethodofdebateprevalentintheschools,generallycalled
disputationordetermination.TheQuodlibetaweremiscellaniesgenerallyintheformof
answerstoquestionswhichassoonasateacherhadattainedawidespreadrenown,began
tocometohim,notonlyfromtheacademicworldinwhichhelived,butfromallclasses
ofpersonsandfromeverypartofChristendom.Thedivisionoftopicsintheologywas
determinedbythearrangementfollowedinPeterLombard's"BooksofSentences"(see
SUMMAE),andinphilosophyitadheredcloselytotheorderoftreatisesinAristotle's
works.ThereisagooddealofdivergenceamongtheprincipalScholasticsinthedetailsof
arrangement,aswellasintherelativevaluesofthesubtitles,"part","question",
"disputation","article",etc.All,however,adoptthemanneroftreatmentbywhichthesis,
objections,andsolutionsofobjectionsstandoutdistinctlyinthediscussionofeach
problem.WefindtracesofthisinGerbert'slittletreatise"Derational)etrationeuti"inthe
tenthcentury,anditisstillmoredefinitelyadoptedinAbelard's"Sicetnon".Ithadits
rootinAristoteleanmethod,butwasdeterminedmoreimmediatelybythedialectical
activityoftheearlyschools,fromwhich,aswassaid,Scholasticismsprang.
MuchhasbeensaidbothinpraiseandinblameofScholasticterminologyinphilosophy
andtheology.Itisrathergenerallyacknowledgedthatwhateverprecisionthereisinthe
modernlanguagesofWesternEuropeisduelargelytothedialecticdisquisitionsofthe
Scholastics.Ontheotherhand,ridiculehasbeenpouredonthestiffness,the
awkwardness,andthebarbarityoftheScholasticstyle.Inanimpartialstudyofthe
question,itshouldberememberedthattheScholasticsofthethirteenthcenturyandit
wasnottheybuttheirsuccessorswhowereguiltyofthegrossestsinsofstylewere
confrontedwithaterminologicalproblemuniqueinthehistoryofthought.Theycame
suddenlyintopossessionofanentirelynewliterature,theworksofAristotle.Theyspoke
alanguage,Latin,onwhichtheterminologyofAristotleinmetaphysicspsychologyetc.,
hadmadenoimpression.Consequently,theywereobligedtocreateallatonceLatin
wordsandphrasestoexpresstheterminologyofAristotle,aterminologyremarkablefor
itsextent,itsvariety,anditstechnicalcomplexity.Theydidithonestlyandhumbly,by
translatingAristotle'sphrasesliterallysothatmanyastrangesoundingLatinphrasein
thewritingsoftheSchoolmenwouldbeverygoodAristoteleanGreek,ifrenderedword
forwordintothatlanguage.TheLatinofthebestoftheScholasticsmaybelackingin
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eleganceanddistinctionbutnoonewilldenythemeritsofitsrigorousseverityofphrase
anditslogicalsoundnessofconstruction.Thoughwantingthegracesofwhatiscalledthe
finestyle,graceswhichhavethepowerofpleasingbutdonotfacilitatethetaskofthe
learnerinphilosophy,thestyleofthethirteenthcenturymasterspossessesthe
fundamentalqualities,clearness,conciseness,andrichnessoftechnicalphrase.

ThecontentsoftheScholasticsystem
InlogictheScholasticsadoptedallthedetailsoftheAristoteleansystem,whichwas
knowntotheLatinworldfromthetimeofBoethius.Theirindividualcontributions
consistedofsomeminorimprovementsinthematterofteachingandinthetechnicofthe
science.TheirunderlyingtheoryofknowledgeisalsoAristotelean.Itmaybedescribedby
sayingthatitisasystemofModerateRealismandModerateIntellectualism.TheRealism
consistsinteachingthatoutsidethemindthereexistthingsfundamentallyuniversalwhich
correspondtoouruniversalideas.TheModerateIntellectualismissummedupinthetwo
principles:
allourknowledgeisderivedfromsenseknowledgeand
intellectualknowledgediffersfromsenseknowledge,notonlyindegreebutalsoin
kind.
Inthisway,ScholasticismavoidsInnatism,accordingtowhichallourideas,orsomeof
ourideas,arebornwiththesoulandhavenooriginintheworldoutsideus.Atthesame
time,itavoidsSensism,accordingtowhichoursocalledintellectualknowledgeisonly
senseknowledgeofahigherorfinersort.TheScholastics,moreover,tookafirmstand
againstthedoctrineofSubjectivism.Intheirdiscussionofthevalueofknowledgethey
heldthatthereisanexternalworldwhichisrealandindependentofourthoughts.Inthat
worldaretheformswhichmakethingstobewhattheyare.Thesameformsreceivedinto
themindintheprocessofknowingcauseusnottobetheobjectbuttoknowtheobject.
Thispresenceofthingsinthemindbymeansofformsistruerepresentation,orrather
presentation.Foritistheobjectivethingthatwearefirstawareof,notitsrepresentation
inus.
TheScholasticoutlookontheworldofnatureisAristotelean.TheSchoolmenadoptthe
doctrineofmatterandform,whichtheyapplynotonlytolivingthingsbutalsoto
inorganicnature.Sincetheform,orentelechyisalwaysstrivingforitsownrealizationor
actualization,theviewofnaturewhichthisdoctrineleadstoisteleological.Instead,
however,ofascribingpurposeinavague,unsatisfactorymannertonatureitself,the
Scholasticsattributeddesigntotheintelligent,providentauthorofnature.Theprincipleof
finalitythusacquiredamoreprecisemeaning,andatthesametimethedangerofa
Pantheisticinterpretationwasavoided.Onthequestionoftheuniversalityofmatterthe
Schoolmenweredividedamongthemselves,some,liketheFranciscanteachers,
maintainingthatallcreatedbeingsarematerial,others,likeSt.Thomas,holdingthe
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existenceof"separateforms",suchastheangels,inwhomthereispotencybutnomatter.
Again,onthequestionoftheonenessofsubstantialforms,therewasalackofagreement.
St.Thomasheldthatineachindividualmaterialsubstance,organicorinorganic,thereis
butonesubstantialform,whichconfersbeing,substantialityand,inthecaseofman,life,
sensation,andreason.Others,onthecontrary,believedthatinonesubstance,man,for
instance,therearesimultaneouslyseveralforms,oneofwhichconfersexistence,another
substantiality,anotherlife,andanother,reason.Finally,therewasadivergenceofviews
astowhatistheprincipleofindividuation,bywhichseveralindividualsofthesame
speciesaredifferentiatedfromoneanother.St.Thomastaughtthattheprincipleof
individuationismatterwithitsdetermineddimensions,materiasignata.
Inregardtothenatureofman,thefirstScholasticswereAugustinians.Theirdefinitionof
thesouliswhatmaybecalledthespiritual,asopposedtothebiological,definition.They
heldthatthesoulistheprincipleofthoughtactivity,andthattheexerciseofthesensesis
aprocessfromthesoulthroughthebodynotaprocessofthewholeorganism,thatis,of
thebodyanimatedbythesoul.TheScholasticsofthethirteenthcenturyfranklyadopted
theAristoteleandefinitionofthesoulastheprincipleoflife,notofthoughtmerely.
Therefore,theymaintained,manisacompoundofbodyandsoul,eachofwhichisan
incompletesubstantialprincipletheunionbeing,consequently,immediate,vital,and
substantial.Forthemthereisnoneedofanintermediary"bodyoflight"suchasSt.
Augustineimaginedtoexist.Allthevitalactivitiesoftheindividualhumanbeingare
ascribedultimatelytothesoul,astotheiractiveprinciple,althoughtheymayhavemore
immediateprinciplesnamelythefaculties,suchasintellect,thesenses,thevegetativeand
muscularpowers.Butwhilethesoulisinthiswayconcernedwithallthevitalfunctions,
being,infact,thesourceofthem,andthebodyentersasapassiveprincipleintoallthe
activitiesofthesoul,exceptionmustbemadeinthecaseofimmaterialthoughtactivities.
Theyare,likealltheotheractivities,activitiesoftheindividual.Thesoulistheactive
principleofthem.Butthebodycontributestothem,notinthesameintrinsicmannerin
whichitcontributestoseeing,hearing,digestingetc.,butonlyinanextrinsicmanner,by
supplyingthematerialsoutofwhichtheintellectmanufacturesideas.Thisextrinsic
dependenceexplainsthephenomenaoffatigue,etc.Atthesametimeitleavesthesoulso
independentintrinsicallythatthelatteristrulysaidtobeimmaterial.
Fromtheimmaterialityofthesoulfollowsitsimmortality.Settingasidethepossibilityof
annihilation,apossibilitytowhichallcreatures,eventheangelsaresubject,thehuman
soulisnaturallyimmortal,anditsimmortality,St.Thomasbelieves,canbeprovedfrom
itsimmateriality.DunsScotus,however,whosenotionofthestrictrequirementsofa
demonstrationwasinfluencedbyhistraininginmathematics,deniestheconclusiveforce
oftheargumentfromimmateriality,andcallsattentiontoAristotle'shesitationor
obscurityonthispoint.Aristotle,asinterpretedbytheArabians,was,undoubtedly,
opposedtoimmortality.Itwas,however,oneofSt.Thomas'sgreatestachievementsin
philosophythat,especiallyinhisopusculum"Deunitateintellectus",herefutedthe
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ArabianinterpretationofAristotle,showedthattheactiveintellectispartoftheindividual
soul,andthusremovedtheuncertaintywhich,fortheAristoteleans,hungaroundthe
notionsofimmaterialityandimmortality.Fromtheimmaterialityofthesoulfollowsnot
onlythatitisimmortal,butalsothatitoriginatedbyanactofcreation.Itwascreatedat
themomentinwhichitwasunitedwiththebody:creandoinfunditur,etinfundendo
creaturistheScholasticphrase.
ScholasticmetaphysicsaddedtotheAristoteleansystemafulldiscussionofthenatureof
personality,restatedinmoredefinitetermsthetraditionalargumentsfortheexistenceof
God,anddevelopedthedoctrineoftheprovidentialgovernmentoftheuniverse.The
exigenciesoftheologicaldiscussionoccasionedalsoaminuteanalysisofthenatureof
accidentingeneralandofquantityinparticular.Theapplicationoftheresultingprinciples
totheexplanationofthemysteryoftheEucharist,ascontainedinSt.Thomas'sworkson
thesubject,isoneofthemostsuccessfulofalltheScholasticattemptstorenderfaith
reasonablebymeansofdialecticaldiscussion.Indeed,itmaybesaid,ingeneral,thatthe
peculiarexcellenceoftheScholasticsassystematicthinkersconsistedintheirabilityto
takeholdoftheprofoundestmetaphysicaldistinctions,suchasmatterandform,potency
andactuality,substanceandaccident,andapplythemtoeverydepartmentofthought.
Theywerenomereapriorists,theyrecognizedinprincipleandinpracticethatscientific
methodbeginswiththeobservationoffacts.Nevertheless,theyexcelledmostofallinthe
talentwhichispeculiarlymetaphysical,thepowertograspabstractgeneralprinciplesand
applythemconsistentlyandsystematically.
SofarastheethicsofScholasticismisnotdistinctlyChristian,seekingtoexpoundand
justifyDivinelawandtheChristianstandardofmorals,itisAristotelean.Thisisclear
fromtheadoptionandapplicationoftheAristoteleandefinitionofvirtueasthegolden
meanbetweentwoextremes.Fundamentally,thedefinitioniseudemonistic.Itrestsonthe
convictionthatthesupremegoodofmanishappiness,thathappinessistherealization,or
completeactualization,ofone'snature,andthatvirtueisanessentialmeanstothatend.
ButwhatisvagueandunsatisfactoryinAristoteleanEudemonismismadedefiniteand
safeintheScholasticsystem,whichdeterminesthemeaningofhappinessandrealization
accordingtotheDivinepurposeincreationandthedignitytowhichmanisdestinedasa
childofGod.
Intheirdiscussionoftheproblemsofpoliticalphilosophythephilosophersofthe
thirteenthcenturywhilenotdiscardingthetheologicalviewsofSt.Augustinecontainedin
"TheCityofGod",laidanewfoundationforthestudyofpoliticalorganizationsby
introducingAristotle'sscientificdefinitionoftheoriginandpurposeofcivilsociety.Man,
saysSt.Thomas,isnaturallyasocialandpoliticalanimal.Bygivingtohumanbeingsa
naturewhichrequiresthecooperationofotherhumanbeingsforitswelfare,God
ordainedmanforsociety,andthusitisHiswillthatprincesshouldgovernwithaviewto
thepublicwelfare.Theendforwhichthestateexistsis,then,notmerelyviverebutbene
vivere.AllthatgoestomakelifebetterandhappierisincludedtheDivinecharterfrom
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whichkingsandrulersderivetheirauthority.TheScholastictreatisesonthissubjectand
thecommentariesonthe"Polities"ofAristotlepreparedthewayforthemedievaland
moderndiscussionsofpoliticalproblems.Inthisdepartmentofthought,asinmany
others,theSchoolmendidatleastoneservicewhichposterityshouldappreciate:they
strivetoexpressinclearsystematicformwhatwaspresentintheconsciousnessof
Christendomintheirday.

Aboutthispage
APAcitation.Turner,W.(1912).Scholasticism.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.New
York:RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13548a.htm
MLAcitation.Turner,William."Scholasticism."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.13.
NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,1912.6Jun.2015
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13548a.htm>.
Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyTomasHancil.
Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.February1,1912.RemyLafort,D.D.,Censor.
Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.
Contactinformation.TheeditorofNewAdventisKevinKnight.Myemailaddressis
webmasteratnewadvent.org.Regrettably,Ican'treplytoeveryletter,butIgreatly
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