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VaticanCouncil
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TheVaticanCouncil,thetwentiethanduptonow[1912]thelastecumenicalcouncil,
openedon8December,1869,andadjournedon20October,1870.Itmetthreehundred
yearsaftertheCouncilofTrent.
Previoustotheofficialconvocation

On6December,1864,twodaysbeforethepublicationoftheSyllabus,PiusIX
announced,atasessionoftheCongregationofRites,hisintentiontocallageneral
council.HecommissionedthecardinalsresidingatRometoexpressinwritingtheirviews
astotheopportunenessofthescheme,andalsotonamethesubjectswhich,intheir
opinion,shouldbelaidbeforethecouncilfordiscussion.Ofthetwentyonereportssent
in,onlyone,thatofCardinalPentini,expressedtheopinionthattherewasnooccasionfor
theholdingofanecumenicalcouncil.Theothersaffirmedtherelativenecessityofsuchan
assembly,althoughfivedidnotconsiderthetimesuitable.Nearlyallsentlistsof
questionsthatseemedtoneedconciliardiscussion.EarlyinMarch,1865,thepope
appointedacommissionoffivecardinalstodiscusspreliminaryquestionsinregardtothe
council.Thiswastheimportant"Congregazionespezialedirettricepergliaffaridelfuturo
conciliogenerale",generallycalledthedirectingpreparatorycommission,orthecentral
commission.Fourmorecardinalswereaddedtothenumberofitsmembers,andbesidesa
secretaryitwasgiveneightconsultors.Itheldnumerousmeetingsintheintervalbetween
9March,1865,andDec.,1869.Itsfirstmotionwasthatbishopsofvariouscountries
shouldalsobecalleduponforsuggestionsastomattersfordiscussion,andon27March,
1865,thepopecommandedthirtysixbishopsoftheLatinRitedesignatedbyhimto
expresstheirviewsunderpledgeofsilence.Earlyin1866healsodesignatedseveral
bishopsoftheOrientalRiteunderthesameconditions.Itwasnownecessarytoform
commissionsforthemorethoroughdiscussionofthesubjectstobedebatedatthecouncil.
Accordingly,theologiansandcanonists,belongingtothesecularandregularclergy,were
summonedtoRomefromthevariouscountriestocooperateinthework.Asearlyas
1865thenuncioswereaskedtosuggestnamesofsuitablepeopleforthesepreliminary
commissions.ThewarbetweenAustriaandItalyin1866andthewithdrawalofthe
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FrenchtroopsfromRomeon11Dec.ofthesameyearcausedanunwelcomeinterruption
ofthepreparatorylabours.Theyalsomadetheoriginalplan,whichwastoopenthe
councilontheeighteenthcentenaryfestivaofthemartyrdomofthetwogreatApostles,29
June,1867,impossible.However,thepopemadeuseofthepresenceatRomeofnearly
fivehundredbishops,whohadcometoattendthecentennialcelebration,tomakethefirst
publicannouncementofthecouncilataconsistoryheldon26June,1867.Thebishops
expressedtheiragreementwithjoyinanaddressdated1July.Afterthereturnofthe
Frencharmyofprotectionon30Oct.,1867,thecontinuanceofthepreparationsandthe
holdingofthecouncilitselfseemedagainpossible.Thepreparatorycommissionnow
debatedexhaustivelythequestionwhoshouldbeinvitedtoattendthecouncil.Thatthe
cardinalsanddiocesanbishopsshouldbesummonedwasselfevident.Itwasalsodecided
thatthetitularbishopshadtherighttobecalled,andthatoftheheadsoftheordersan
invitationshouldbegiventotheabbotsnullius,theabbotsgeneralofcongregations
formedfromseveralmonasteries,andlastly,tothegeneralsofthereligiousorders.Itwas
consideredwiser,onaccountofthestateofaffairsatthetime,nottosendanactual
invitationtoCatholicprinces,yetitwasintendedtograntadmissiontothemortheir
representativesondemand.Inthissense,therefore,theBullofConvocation,"terni
Patris",waspromulgated,29June,1868itappointed8Dec.,1869,asthedateforthe
openingofthecouncil.Theobjectsofthecouncilweretobethecorrectionofmodern
errorsandaseasonablerevisionofthelegislationoftheChurch.AspecialBrief,"Arcano
divinprovidenti",of8Sept.,1868invitednonUniateOrientalstoappear.Athird
Brief,"Jamvosomnes",of13Sept.,1868,notifiedProtestantsalsooftheconvokingof
thecouncil,andexhortedthemtousetheoccasiontoreflectonthereturntotheone
householdoffaith.
Receptionofthepromulgation

AlthoughtheBullconvokingthecouncilwasreceivedwithjoybythebulkoftheCatholic
masses,itarousedmuchdiscontentinmanyplaces,especiallyinGermany,France,and
England.Inthesecountriesitwasfearedthatthecouncilwouldpromulgateanexact
determinationoftheprimatialprerogativesofthepapacyandthedefinitionofpapal
infallibility.ThedeanofthetheologicalfacultyofParis,BishopMaret,wrotein
oppositiontothesedoctrinesthework"Duconcilegnraleetdelapaixreligieuse"(2
vols.,Paris1869).BishopDupanloupofOrlanspublishedthework"Observationssurla
controversesouleverelativementladfinitiondelinfaillibilitauprochainconcile"
(Paris,Nov.,1869).Maret'sworkwasansweredbyseveralFrenchbishopsandby
ArchbishopManning.ArchbishopDechampsofMechlin,Belgium,whohadwrittena
workinfavourofthedefinitionentitled"Linfaillibilitetleconcilegnrale"(Paris,
1869),becameinvolvedinacontroversywithDupanloup.InEnglandabookentitled
"TheCondemnationofPopeHonorius"(London,1868),writtenbytheconvert,LePage
Renouf,arousedanimateddiscussionsinnewspapersandperiodicals.Renouf's
publicationwasrefutedbyFatherBotalla,S.J.,in"HonoriusReconsideredwithReference
toRecentApologies"(London,1869).LettersfromFrenchcorrespondentsinthefirst
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numberforFeb.,1869,ofthe"CiviltCattolica",whichstatedthatthemajorityofFrench
Catholicsdesiredthedeclarationofinfallibility,addedfreshfueltotheflames.In
particular,itledtotheappearanceinthediscussionofIgnazDllinger,provostofSt.
CajetanandprofessorofchurchhistoryatMunich.FromnowonwardsDllingerwasthe
leadingspiritofthemovementinGermanyhostiletothecouncil.Hedisputedmost
passionatelytheSyllabusandthedoctrineofpapalinfallibilityinfiveanonymousarticles
thatwerepublishedinMarch,1869,inthe"AllgemeineZeitung"ofAugsburg.Alarge
numberofCatholicscholarsopposedhimvigorously,especiallyafterhepublishedhis
articlesinbookformunderthepseudonymof"Janus","DerPapstunddasKonzil"
(Leipzig,1869).AmongthesewasProfessorJosephHergenrtherofWrzburg,who
issuedinreply"AntiJanus"(Freiburg,1870).Stilltheexcitementoverthemattergrewin
suchmeasurethatfourteenofthetwentytwoGermanbishopswhometatFuldaearlyin
Sept.,1869,feltthemselvesconstrainedtocalltheattentionoftheHolyFathertoitina
specialaddress,statingthatonaccountoftheexcitementthetimewasnotopportunefor
definingpapalinfallibility.ThepapalnotificationsaddressedtotheschismaticOrientals
andtheProtestantsdidnotproducethedesiredeffect.TheEuropeanGovernments
receivedfromPrinceHohenlohe,presidentoftheBavarianministry,acircularletter
drawnupbyDllinger,designedtoprejudicethedifferentCourtsagainstthecoming
councilbuttheydecidedtoremainneutralforthetimebeing.Russiaaloneforbadeits
Catholicbishopstoattendthecouncil.
Preparatorydetails

InthemeantimezealousworkhadbeendoneatRomeinpreparationforthecouncil.
Besidesthegeneraldirectionthatitexercised,thepreparatorycommissionhadtodrawup
anexhaustiveorderofprocedureforthedebatesofthecouncil.Fivespecialcommittees,
eachpresidedoverbyacardinalandhavingtogethereightyeightconsultors,preparedthe
plan(schemata)tobelaidbeforethecouncil.Thesecommitteeswereappointedto
considerrespectively:
dogma
churchdiscipline
orders
OrientalChurchesandmissions
ecclesiasticopoliticalquestions.
Itmayjustlybedoubtedwhetherthepreliminarypreparationsforanycouncilhadever
beenmademorethoroughly,ormoreclearlydirectedtotheaimtobeattained.Astheday
ofitsopeningapproached,thefollowingdraftswerereadyfordiscussion:
threegreatdogmaticdrafts,(a)ontheCatholicdoctrineinoppositiontotheerrors
whichfrequentlyspringfromRationalism,(b)ontheChurchofChristand,(c)on
Christianmarriage
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twentyeightdraftstreatingmattersofchurchdiscipline.Theyhadreferenceto
bishops,episcopalsees,thedifferentgradesoftheotherclergyseminaries,the
arrangementofphilosophicalandtheologicalstudies,sermons,thecatechism,rituals,
impedimentstomarriage,civilmarriage,mixedmarriages,improvementofChristian
morals,feastdays,fastsandabstinences,duelling,magnetism,spiritualism,secret
societies,etc.
eighteendraftsofdecreeshadreferencetothereligiousorders
twowereontheOrientalRitesandmissionsthesesubjectshadalsobeenconsidered
intheotherdraftsofdecrees.
Inadditionalargenumberofsubjectsfordiscussionhadbeensentbythebishopsof
variouscountries.Thus,forinstance,thebishopsofthechurchprovincesofQuebecand
Halifaxdemandedthelesseningoftheimpedimentstomarriage,revisionoftheBreviary,
and,aboveall,thereformandcodificationoftheentirecanonlaw.Thepetitionof
ArchbishopSpaldingofBaltimoretreated,amongotherthings,therelationsbetween
ChurchandStatereligiousindifference,secretsocieties,andtheinfallibilityofthepope.
Thedefinitionofthislastwasdemandedbyvariousbishops.Othersdesiredarevisionof
theindexofforbiddenbooks.Nolessthanninepetitionsbearingnearlytwohundred
signaturesdemandedthedefinitionofthebodilyAssumptionoftheBlessedVirgin.Over
threehundredfathersofthecouncilrequestedtheelevationofSt.Josephaspatronsaintof
theUniversalChurch.

Proceedingsofthecouncil
Presidingofficers,orderofprocedure,numberofmembers

On2Dec.,1869,thepopeheldapreliminarysessionintheSistineChapel,whichwas
attendedbyaboutfivehundredbishops.Atthisassemblytheofficialsofthecouncilwere
announcedandtheconciliarprocedurewasmadeknown.Thecouncilreceivedfive
presidents.TheChiefpresidingofficerwastohavebeenCardinalReisach,butashedied
on22Dec.,CardinalFilippodeAngelistookhisplace,3Jan.,1870.Theotherpresiding
officerswereCardinalsAntoniodeLuca,AndreaBizarri,AloisioBilio,andAnnibale
Capalti.BishopJosephFesslerofSanktPlten,LowerAustria,wassecretarytothe
council,andMonsignorLuigiJacobiundersecretary.TheConstitution"Multiplicesinter"
announcingtheconciliarprocedurecontainedtenparagraphs.Accordingtothisthe
sessionsofthecouncilweretobeoftwokinds:privatesessionsfordiscussingthedrafts
andmotions,underthepresidencyofacardinalpresident,andpublicsessions,presided
overbythepopehimselfforthepromulgationofthedecreesofthecouncil.Thefirst
draftsofdecreesdebatedweretobethedogmaticanddisciplinaryoneslaidbeforethe
assemblybythepope.Proposalsofferedbymembersofthecouncilweretobesenttoa
congregationofpetitionsthesepetitionsorpostulatesweretobeexaminedbythe
committeeandthenrecommendedtothepopeforadmissionornot.Ifthedraftofadecree
wasfoundbythegeneralcongregationtoneedamendments,itwassentwiththeproposed
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amendmentstotherespectivesubcommitteeordeputatio,eithertotheonefordogmasor
fordiscipline,orreligiousorders,orforOrientalRites.Eachofthesefoursubcommittees
ordeputationswastoconsistoftwentyfourpersonsselectedfromthemembersofthe
council,andacardinalpresidentappointedbythepope.Thedeputationexaminedthe
proposedamendments,alteredthedraftasseemedbest,andpresentedtothegeneral
congregationaprintedreportonitsworkthatwastobeorallyexplainedbyamemberof
thedeputation.Thisprocedurewastocontinueuntilthedraftmetwiththeapprovalofthe
majority.
Thevotinginthecongregationwasbyplacet,placetjuxtamodum(withthecorresponding
amendments),andnonplacet.Secrecywastobeobservedinregardtotheproceedingsof
thecouncil.Inthepublicsessionsthevotingcouldonlybebyplacetornonplacet.The
Decreespromulgatedbythepopeweretobearthetitle,"PiusEpiscopus,servusservorum
Dei:sacroapprobanteConcilioadperpetuamreimemoriam".Thenorthernrighttransept
ofSt.Peter'swasarrangedasthehallofsessions.Between8Dec.,1869,and1Sept.,
1870,fourpublicsessionsandeightyninegeneralcongregationswereheldhere.There
wereintheentireworldapproximatelyonethousandandfiftyprelatesentitledtotakepart
inthecouncil,andofthesenolessthansevenhundredandseventyfourappearedduring
thecourseoftheproceedings.Inattendanceatthefirstpublicsessionwere47cardinals,9
patriarchs,7primates,117archbishops,479bishops,5abbotsnullius,9abbotsgeneral,
and25generalsoforders,makingatotalof698.Atthethirdpublicsessionvoteswere
castby47cardinals,9patriarchs,8primates,107archbishops,456bishops,1
administratorApostolic,20abbots,and20generalsoforders,atotalof667.Therewasan
attendanceatthecouncilfromtheUnitedStatesofAmericaofallofthe7archbishopsof
thattime,37ofthe47bishops,andinaddition2vicarsApostolic.Theoldestmemberof
thecouncilwasArchbishopMacHale,ofTuam,Irelandtheyoungest,Bishop(now
Cardinal)Gibbons.
Fromtheformalopeningtothedefinitionoftheconstitutiononthe
Catholicfaithinthethirdpublicsession

(1)TheFirstDebates
Aftertheformalopeningofthecouncilbythepopeatthefirstpublicsessionon8Dec.,
1869,themeetingsofthegeneralcongregationbeganon10Dec.Theirsessionswere
generallyheldbetweenthehoursofnineandone.Theafternoonswerereservedforthe
sessionsofthedeputationsorsubcommittees.First,thenamesofthemembersofthe
congregationofpetitionswerecommunicatedthiswasfollowedbytheelectionstothe
fourdeputations.ThefirstmatterbroughtupfordebatewasthedogmaticdraftofCatholic
doctrineagainstthemanifolderrorsduetoRationalism,"Dedoctrinacatholicacontra
multipliceserroresexrationalismoderivatos".Thediscussionofitwastakenupon28
Dec.inthefourthgeneralcongregation.Afteradebatelastingsevendays,duringwhich
thirtyfivemembersspoke,itwassentbythetenthgeneralcongregationheldon10Jan.,
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1870,tothedeputationonfaithforrevision.Therehadbeenheldinthemeantimeon6
Jan.thesecondpublicsession.Thishadbeenpreviouslydeterminedupon,on26Oct.,
1869,bythecentralcommissionforthemakingoftheconfessionoffaithbythemembers
ofthecouncil.Thesubjectsdiscussedfromthetenthtothetwentyninthmeetingofthe
generalcongregation(on22Feb.)werethedraftsoffourdisciplinarydecrees,namely,on
bishops,onvacantepiscopalsees,onthemoralsofecclesiastics,andonthesmaller
Catechism.Finallytheywereallsentforfurtherrevisiontothedeputationondiscipline.
(2)TheParties
Suchslowprogressoftheworkhadprobablynotbeenexpected.Thereasonofthe
disagreeabledelaywastobefoundinthequestionofinfallibility,whichhadcalledforth
muchexcitementevenbeforethecouncil.Directlyaftertheopeningofthesessionits
influencewasevidentintheelectionofthedeputations.Itdividedthefathersofthe
councilintotwo,itmightalmostbesaidhostilecampsonalloccasionsthedecisionsand
modesofactionofeachofthesepartiesweredeterminedbyitsattitudetothisquestion.
Onaccountoftheviolentdisputeswhichhadbeencarriedoneverywhereforthepastyear
overthequestionofpapalinfallibilitytheoverwhelmingmajorityconsideredtheconciliar
discussionanddecisionofthequestiontobeimperativelynecessary.Ontheotherhand
theminority,comprisingaboutonefifthofthetotalnumber,fearedtheworstfromthe
definition,theapostasyofmanywaveringCatholics,anincreasedestrangementofthose
separatedfromtheChurch,andinterferencewiththeaffairsoftheChurchbythe
Governmentsofthedifferentcountries.Theminority,therefore,alloweditselftobe
guidedbyopportunistconsiderations.Onlyafewbishopsappeartohavehaddoubtsasto
thedogmaitself.Bothpartiessoughttogainthevictoryfortheiropinions.Ashoweverthe
minoritywassoonobligedtorecognizeitspowerlessness,itendeavouredbyprotracting
thediscussionsofthecouncilatleasttodelay,oreventoprevent,adecisionaslongas
possible.MostoftheGermanandAustroHungarianmembersofthecouncilwereagainst
thedefinition,aswellasnearlyhalfoftheAmericanandaboutonethirdoftheFrench
fathers.About7oftheItalianbishops,2eachoftheEnglishandIrishbishops,3bishops
fromBritishNorthAmerica,and1Swissbishop,Greith,belongedtotheminority.While
onlyafewArmenianbishopsopposedthedefinition,mostoftheChaldeanandGreek
Melchitessidedwiththeminority.IthadnoopponentsamongthebishopsfromSpain,
Portugal,Belgium,Holland,andCentralandSouthAmerica.Themostprominent
membersoftheminorityfromtheUnitedStateswereArchbishopsKenrickofSt.Louis
andPurcellofCincinnati,andBishopVrotofSt.Augustinethesewerejoinedby
ArchbishopConnollyofHalifax,NovaScotia.Prominentmembersofthemajoritywere
ArchbishopSpaldingofBaltimore,BishopsWilliamsofBoston,WoodofPhiladelphia,
andConroyofAlbany.
Conspicuousmembersofthecouncilfromothercountrieswere:France:amongthe
minority,ArchbishopsDarboyofParis,GinoulhiacofLyons,BishopsDupanloupof
Orlans,andDavidofSaintBrieucamongthemajority,ArchbishopGuibertofTours,
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BishopsPieofPoitiers,FreppelofAngers,PlantierofNmes,RaessofStrasburg.
Germany:minorityBishopsHefeleofRottenburg,KettelerofMainz,DinkelofAugsburg
majority,BishopsMartinofPaderborn,SenestryofRatisbon,StahlofWrzburg.Austria
Hungary:minority,ArchbishopsCardinalRauscherofVienna,CardinalSchwarzenberg
ofPrague,HaynaldofKalocsa,andBishopStrossmayerofDiakovrmajority,Bishops
GasserofBrixen,FesslerofSanktPlten,RiccabonaofTrent,ZwergerofSeckau.Italy:
minority,ArchbishopNazaridiCalabianaofMilan,BishopsMorenoofIvrea,Losannaof
Biellamajority,Valerga,LatinPatriarchofJerusalem,BishopsGastaldiofSaluzzo,
GandolfiofLoreto.England:minority,BishopCliffordofCliftonmajority,Archbishop
ManningofWestminster.Ireland:minority,ArchbishopMacHaleofTuammajority,
ArchbishopsCullenofDublinandLeahyofCashel.TheEast:minority,Jussef,Greek
MelchitePatriarchofAntiochmajority,Hassun,PatriarchoftheArmenians.Switzerland:
minority,BishopGreithofStGallmajority,BishopMermillodofGeneva.Important
championsofthedefinitionfromthecountrieswhichsentnomembersoftheminority
wereArchbishopDechampsofMechlin,Belgium,andBishopPayyRicoofCuenca,
Spain.
(3)ChangeofProcedure:theHallofAssemblyReducedinSize
VariousmemorialswerenowsenttheHolyFatherpetitioningfornewrulesofdebatefor
thesakeofacorrespondingprogressintheproceedingsofthecouncil.Consequently,the
conciliarprocedurewasmoreexactlydefinedbytheDecree"Apostolicislitteris",issued
on20Feb.,1870.AccordingtothisDecree,anymemberofthecouncilwhowishedto
raiseanobjectiontothedraftunderdiscussionwastosendinhisproposedamendmentsin
writing,inorderthattheymightbethoroughlyconsideredbytherespectivedeputation.In
thegeneralcongregationthediscussionofadraftasawholewasalwaystoprecedethe
discussionoftheindividualpartsofthedraftofadecree.Themembersofadeputation
receivedtherighttospeakinexplanationorcorrectionwhennotonthelistofspeakers.
Speakerswhowanderedfromthesubjectweretobecalledbacktoit.Ifasubjecthadbeen
sufficientlydebatedthepresident,onthemotionofatleasttenmembersofthecouncil,
couldputthequestionwhetherthecouncildesiredtocontinuethediscussionornot,and
thenclosethedebateatthewishofthemajority.Althoughtheserulesmadeforanevident
improvement,stilltheminoritywasnotsatisfiedwiththem,especiallyinsofarasthey
contemplatedapossibleshorteningofthedebates.Theyexpressedtheirdissatisfactionin
severalpetitionswhich,however,hadnosuccess.Ontheotherhand,everyeffortwas
madetosatisfyanothercomplaintwhichhadreferencetothebadacousticsofthecouncil
hail.Between22Feb.and18March,thatisbetweenthetwentyninthandthirtieth
sessionsofthegeneralcongregation,thecouncilhallwasreducedaboutonethirdinsize
fortheuseofthegeneralcongregations,sothatthefatherswhowerethusbroughtcloser
togethercouldunderstandthespeakersbetter.Thehallwasrestoredtoitsoriginalsizefor
eachofthepublicsessions.
(4)CompletionoftheFirstConstitution
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TheinterruptionthuscausedwasusedbythedeputationonFaithtorevisethedraftofthe
Decree"Dedoctrinacatholica"inaccordancewiththewishesofthegeneralcongregation.
On1March,BishopMartinofPaderbornlaidbeforethedeputationthefirstpartofthe
revision,theworkofFatherJosephKleutgen,S.J.*Itconsistedofanintroductionand
fourchapterswiththecorrespondingcanons.Afteranexhaustivediscussioninthe
deputation,itwasreadytobedistributedtothefathersofthecouncilon14Marchasthe
actual"Constitutiodefidecatholica".Areportinwritingwasalsoaddedbythe
deputation.ArchbishopSimorofGrangavetheoralreporton18Marchinthethirtieth
generalcongregation.Thedebatebeganonthesameday,andwasclosedafterseventeen
sessionson19April,inthefortysixthgeneralcongregation.Overthreehundredproposed
amendmentswerebroughtupanddiscussed.Althoughmanyobjectionsweremadeby
bothsides,yetthenewrulesofproceduremadepossiblearelativelysmoothcoursetothe
debates.TheonlydisturbingincidentwasthepassionatespeechofBishopStrossmayerof
Diakovron22Marchinthethirtyfirstgeneralcongregationitcalledforthastormof
indignationfromthemajority,whichfinallyforcedthespeakertoleavethetribune.On24
April,thefirstConstitution,"Defidecatholica",wasunanimouslyadoptedinthethird
publicsessionbythe667fatherspresent,andwasformallyconfirmedandpromulgatedby
thepope.
Thequestionofpapalinfallibility

(1)MotionscallingforandopposingDefinition
Theopponentsofinfallibilityconstantlyassertthatthepopeconvokedthecouncilofthe
Vaticansolelytohavepapalinfallibilityproclaimed.Everythingelsewasmerelyan
excuseandforthesakeofappearances.Thisassertioncontradictstheactualfacts.Nota
singleoneofthenumerousdraftsdrawnupbythepreparatorycommissionboreonpapal
infallibility.OnlytwoofthetwentyoneopinionssentinbytheRomancardinals
mentionedit.Itistruethatalargenumberoftheepiscopalmemorialsrecommendedthe
definition,butthesewerenottakenintoconsiderationinthepreparationsforthecouncil.
Itwasnotuntilthecontestoverpapalinfallibilityoutsideofthecouncilgrewconstantly
moreviolentthatvariousgroupsofmembersofthecouncilbegantourgeconciliar
discussionofthequestionofinfallibility.Thefirstmotionforthedefinitionwasmadeon
Christmas,1869,byArchbishopDechampsofMechlin.Hewassupportedbyalltheother
Belgianbishops,whopresentedaformalopinionoftheUniversityofLouvain,which
culminatedinapetitionforthedefinition.Theactualpetitionforthedefinitionwasfirst
circulatedamongthefathersofthecouncilonNewYear'sDay,1870.Severalpetitions
fromsmallergroupsalsoappeared,andthepetitionssoonreceivedaltogetherfivehundred
signatures,althoughquiteanumberofthefriendsofthedefinitionwerenotamongthe
numberofsubscribers.Fiveopposingmemorialscirculatedbytheminorityfinally
obtained136names.Uponthis,earlyinFeb.,thecongregationforpetitionsunanimously,
withexceptionofCardinalRauscher,requestedthepopetoconsiderthepetitionfor
definition.PiusIXwasalsoinfavourofthedefinition.Thereforeon6March,thedraftof
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theDecreeontheChurchofChrist,whichhadbeendistributedamongthefatherson21
Jan.,wasgivenanewtwelfthchapterentitled"RomanumPontificeminrebusfideiet
morumdefiniendiserrarenonposse"(TheRomanPontiffcannoterrindefiningmattersof
faithandmorals).Withthisthematterdroppedagaininthecouncil.
(2)TheAgitationOutsidetheCouncil
Thepetitionsconcerninginfallibilitycalledforthoncemoreoutsidethecouncilalarge
numberofpamphletsandinnumerablearticlesinthedailypapersandperiodicals.About
thistimetheFrenchOratorianGratryandArchbishopDechampsofMechlinopposed
eachotherincontroversialpamphlets.AletterpublishedbyCountMontalemberton27
Feb.,1870,inwhichhespokeofanidolwhichhadbeenerectedintheVatican,attracted
muchattention.InEngland,Newmangaveanxiousexpressionofhisfearsastothebad
resultsofthedeclarationofinfallibilityinaletterwritteninMarch,1870,tohisbishop,
UllathorneofBirmingham.ThemostextremeopponentwasProfessorDllingerof
Bavaria.Inhis"RmischeBriefevomKonzil",publishedinthe"AllgemeineZeitung"
andissuedinbookform(Munich,1870),underthepseudonymof"Quirinus",heused
informationsenthimfromRomebyhispupils,JohannFriedrichandLordActon.Inthese
lettershedideverythinghecouldbydistortingandcastingdoubtsuponfacts,byscorn
andridicule,toturnthepublicagainstthecouncil.Thiswasespeciallysoinanarticleof
19Jan.,1870,inwhichheattackedsoseverelytheaddressoninfallibility,whichhadjust
becomeknown,thatevenBishopKettelerofMainz,anoldpupilofDllinger'sanda
memberoftheminority,protestedpubliclyagainstit.TheGovernmentsofthedifferent
countriesalsotookmeasuresonthesubjectofinfallibility.Assoonastheoriginaldraftof
thedecree"Deecclesia"withitscanonswaspublishedinthe"AllgemeineZeitung",
CountvonBeust,ChancellorofAustria,sentaprotestagainstittoRomeon10Feb.,
1870,whichsaidthattheAustrianGovernmentwouldforbidandpunishthepublication
ofalldecreesthatwerecontrarytothelawsoftheState.TheFrenchministerofforeign
affairs,Daru,alsosentathreateningmemorandumon20Feb.Hedemandedthe
admissionofanenvoytothecouncil,andnotifiedtheotherGovernmentsofhisstepsin
Rome.Austria,Bavaria,England,SpainandPortugaldeclaredtheiragreementwiththe
memorandum.ThepresidentofthePrussianministry,Bismarck,wouldnotchangehis
attitudeofreserve,notwithstandingtheurgencyofvonArnim,theambassadoratRome.
On18April,theleaderoftheagitation,CountDaru,retiredfromhispostintheministry.
ThepresidentoftheFrenchministry,Ollivier,assumedchargeofforeignaffairshewas
determinedtoleavethecouncilfree.
(3)TheDebatesintheCouncil
Inthemeantimethebishopsoftheminorityinthecouncilhadconstantlysoughttoblock
thematter,andespeciallytoexertinfluencetothisendonCardinalBilio,thepresidentof
thedeputationonfaith.Ifthemembersofthemajorityhadnoturgedthefulfilmentwith
thesameperseverance,papalinfallibilitywouldneverhavereacheddebate.Finally,on29
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April,duringthefortyseventhgeneralcongregation,thepresidentinterruptedthesecond
debateonthesmallerCatechismbytheannouncementthatassoonaspossiblethefathers
shouldreceiveforexaminationthedraftofaConstitution,"DeRomanoPontifice"which
wouldcontainthedogmaoftheprimacyandoftheinfallibilityofthepope.Forthis
purposethedeputationonfaithhadalteredtheeleventhandtwelfthchaptersoftheold
draftoftheConstitution"Deecclesia".On9Mayitwasdistributedamongthefathersin
printedformasthe"Constitutioprimadeecclesia",consistingof4chaptersand3canons.
Forafullmonth(13May13June)thegeneraldebateoverthedraftasawholewas
carriedoninfourteengeneralcongregations,andsixtyfour,mostlyverylong,speeches
weredelivered.Thefollowingspecialdebatesovertheseparatechaptersandcanonslasted
morethanamonth.Notlessthanahundredspeakerstookpartinthediscussions,which
werecarriedonfrom6Juneto13July,in22congregations.Mostofthespeecheswereon
thefourthchapter,whichtreatedpapalinfallibility.Themostprominentspeakersofthe
minoritywere:FrenchDarboy,Ginoulhiac,MaretGermanHefele,Ketteler,Dinkel
AustrianRaucher,Schwarzenberg,StrossmayerUnitedStatesofAmericaandCanada
VrotandConnolly.ArchbishopKenrickofSt.Louis,wholosthisopportunitytospeak
bytheclosingofthegeneraldebate,publishedinpamphletformhis"Concioinconcilio
habenda,atnonhabita".Ontheotherhandtheconciliarspeechpublishedunderthename
ofBishopStrossmayerisaforgeryperpetratedbyanapostateAugustinianmonkfrom
Mexico,JosAgostinodeEscudero,whowastheninItaly(cf.GranderathKirchIII,189).
ThemajoritywerechieflyrepresentedbytheFrenchmembersofthecouncilPieand
FreppeltheBelgianmember,DechampstheEnglishmember,ManningtheIrish,
CullentheItalianmembers,GastaldiandValergatheSpanishmember,PayayRicothe
Austrian,GassertheGermanmembers,MartinandSenestreytheAmericanmember,
Spalding.SeveralmembersoftheminorityasKenrick,Bauseher,Hefele,Schwarzenberg,
andKetteler,discussedthequestionofinfallibilityinpamphletsthattheyindividually
issued,towhichnaturallythemajoritywerenotslowtoreply.Themostimportantof
theseanswerswasthe"Animadversionesoftheconciliartheologian,W.Wilmers,S.J.,in
whichthewritingsofthelastfouroftheantagonistsjustmentionedwere,insuccession,
thoroughlyconfuted.Scarcelyinanyparliamenthaveimportantmatterseverbeen
subjectedtoasmuchdiscussionaswasthequestionofpapalinfallibilityintheVatican
Councilinthecourseoftwomonthsallthereasonsproandconhadbeenagainandagain
discussed,andonlywhathadbeenalreadyoftensaidcouldnowberepeated.
Consequentlyintheeightysecondgeneralcongregationheldon4July,mostofthosewho
stillhadtherighttospeak,notonlyofthemajority,butalsooftheminority,renounced
theprivilege,andthecardinalpresidentwasable,amidgeneralapplause,toclosethe
debates.
(4)FinalVotingandDefinition
Thetimeoftheeightythird,eightyfourth,andeightyfifthgeneralcongregationswas
almostentirelyoccupiedwiththereportsofthedeputationonfaithconcerningthelasttwo
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chapters.ThereportofPrinceBishopGasseronthefourthchapterwasaverynotableone.
Intheeightyfifthgeneralcongregationheldon13Julyageneralvotewastakenonthe
entiredraft.Therewerepresent601fathers.Ofthese451votedplacet,62placetjuxta
modum(conditionalaffirmative),88nonplacet.OftheNorthAmericanbishopsonly7
votednonplacetthesewereKenrick,Vrot,Domenec,Fitzgerald,MacQuaid,
MacCloskey,andMrac.BishopFitzgeraldstillvotednonplacetinthefourthpublic
session,whileonthisoccasionBishopDomenecvotedplacet.Theotherfivedidnot
attendthissession.Intheeightysixthgeneralcongregationthefatherscondemned,onthe
motionofthepresident,twoanonymouspamphletswhichcalumniatedthecouncilinthe
coarsestmanner.One,entitled"CequisepasseauConcile",culminatedintheassertion
thattherewasnofreedomofdiscussionatthecouncil.Theother,"Ladernireheuredu
Concile",repeatedalltheaccusationsthattheenemiesofthecouncilhadraisedagainstit,
andexhortedthebishopsoftheminoritytostandfirmandcourageouslyvotenonplacetin
thepublicsession.OnaccountofthewarwhichthreatenedtobreakoutbetweenGermany
andFrance,anumberoffathersofbothopinionshadreturnedhome.Shortlybeforethe
fourthpublicsessionalargenumberofthebishopsoftheminorityleftRomewiththe
permissionofthedirectingofficersofthecouncil.Theydidnotopposethedogmaof
papalinfallibilityitself,butwereagainstitsdefinitionasinopportune.OnMonday,18
July,1870,onedaybeforetheoutbreakoftheFrancoGermanWar,435fathersofthe
councilassembledatSt.Peter'sunderthepresidencyofPopePiusIX.Thelastvotewas
nowtaken433fathersvotedplacet,andonlytwo,BishopAloisioRiccioofCajazzo,
Italy,andBishopEdwardFitzgeraldofLittleRock,Arkansas,votednonplacet.During
theproceedingsathunderstormbrokeovertheVatican,andamidthunderandlightning
thepopepromulgatedthenewdogma,likeaMosespromulgatingthelawonMountSinai.
TheCouncilfromthefourthpublicsessionuntiltheprorogation

Atthecloseoftheeightyfifthgeneralcongregationa"Monitum"wasreadwhich
announcedthatthecouncilwouldbecontinuedwithoutinterruptionafterthefourthpublic
session.Still,themembersreceivedageneralpermissiontoleaveRomeforsomemonths.
Theyhadonlytonotifythesecretaryinwritingoftheirdeparture.By11Nov.,St.
Martin'sday,allweretobebackagain.Somanyofthefathersmadeuseofthis
permissionthatonlyafewmorethan100remainedatRome.Naturallythesecouldnot
takeupanynewquestions.Consequentlythedraftofthedecreeonvacantepiscopalsees,
whichhadbeenamendedinthemeantimebythedeputationofdiscipline,wasagain
broughtforward,anddebatedinthreefurthergeneralcongregations.Theeightyninth,
whichwasalsotobethelast,washeldon1Sept.On8Sept.thePiedmontesetroops
enteredtheStatesoftheChurchatseveralpointsonTuesday,20Sept.,alittlebefore
eighto'clockinthemorning,theenemyenteredRomethroughthePortaPia.Thepope
wasaprisonerintheVatican.Hewaitedamonthlonger.Hethenissuedon20Oct.the
Bull,"PostquamDeimunere",whichproroguedthecouncilindefinitely.Thisdaywasthe
dayafteraPiedmontesedecreehadbeenissuedorganizingthePatrimonyofPeterasa
Romanprovince.AcircularletterissuedbytheItalianminister,ViscontiVenosta,on22
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Oct.,toassurethecouncilofthefreedomofmeeting,naturallymetwithnocredence.A
veryremarkableletterwassentfromLondononthesamedaybyArchbishopSpaldingto
CardinalBarnabo,prefectofthePropagandaatRome.Inthisletterhemadethe
proposition,whichmettheapprovalofCardinalCullen,ArchbishopManning,and
ArchbishopDechamps,tocontinuethecouncilintheBelgiancityofMechlin,andgave
tenreasonswhythiscityseemedsuitableforsuchsessions.Unfortunatelythegeneral
conditionofaffairswassuchthatacontinuationofthecouncilevenatthemostsuitable
placecouldnotbethoughtof.

Acceptanceofthedecreesofthecouncil
Afterthecouncilhadmadeitsdecisioneveryonenaturallylookedwithinteresttothose
membersoftheminoritywhohadmaintainedtheiroppositiontothedefinitionof
infallibilityuptothelastmoment.Wouldtheyrecognizethedecisionofthecouncil,or,as
theenemiesofthecouncildesiredwouldtheypersistintheiropposition?Asamatterof
fact,notasingleoneofthemwasdisloyaltohissacredduties.Aslongasthediscussions
lastedtheyexpressedtheirviewsfreelyandwithoutmolestation,andsoughttocarrythem
intoeffect.Afterthedecision,withoutexception,theycameovertoit,Thetwobishops
whoon18Julyhadvotednonplacetadvancedtothepapalthroneatthesamesessionand
acknowledgedtheiracceptanceofthetruththusdefined.TheBishopofLittleRocksaid
simplyandwithtruegreatness,"HolyFather,nowIbelieve."Itisnotpossibleinthisbrief
spacetomentiontheaccessionofeachmemberoftheminority.Asconcernsthemembers
fromNorthAmericawhoareofspecialinteresthere,BishopVrotofSt.Augustinegave
hisadhesiontothedogmawhilestillatRomeinaletteraddressedon25Julytothe
secretaryofthecouncil.BishopMracofSaultSaintMariesenthisdeclarationof
adherenceatthelatestbyJan.,1872.AyearlaterBishopDomenecofPittsburghdidthe
same.In1875BishopMacQuaidofRochester,ifnotearlier,announcedhisadherenceto
thedogmabyitsformalandpublicpromulgation.WhenArchbishopKenrickofSt.Louis
returnedtohisdioceseon30Dec.,1870,hemadeanaddressatthereceptiongivenhim,
inwhichhefirstgavethereasonsthathaddecidedhispositionatthecouncilaslong,as
thequestionwasopentodiscussion,andthenclosedwiththedeclarationthat,nowthe
councilhaddecided,hesubmittedunconditionallytoitsdecree.Heexpressedhimself
similarlyinaletterof13Jan.,1871,totheprefectofthePropaganda.WhenLordActon
questionedthearchbishopinregardtohissubmission,thelatterrepliedbyalongletter
dated29March,1871,whichshows,itmaybe,acertaindiscontent,butwhichclearly
confirmedhisbeliefintheinfallibilityofthepope.Inthesamewaythedistinguished
FrenchmenandEnglishmenwho,outsideofthecouncil,hadexpressedopinions
antagonistictothepromulgationofinfallibility,e.g.Gratry,Newman,Montalembert,and
finally,asitappears,Acton,alsosubmittedafterthedecisionhadbeenmade.Ontheother
hand,inGermanyanumberofProfessorDllinger'sadherentsapostatisedfromthe
ChurchandformedthesectofOldCatholics.Dllingeralsoapostatized,without,
however,connectinghimselfwithanyotherdenomination.InSwitzerlandtheopponents
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ofthecouncilunitedinasectcalledChristianCatholics.Outsideofthese,howeverthe
Catholicsoftheentireworld,bothclergyandlaity,acceptedthedecisionofthecouncil
withgreatjoyandreadiness.AfterthecloseoftheFrancoGermanWartheGerman
Governmentmadethedogmaofinfallibilitytheexcuseforwhatiscalledthe
Kulturkampf.Yetthebishopsandpriestswerereadytobearlossofproperty,
imprisonment,andexileratherthanbedisloyaltoanypartoftheirecclesiasticalduties.
TheAustrianGovernmenttooktheopportunityofferedbythedefinitiontorelieveitself
fromuncomfortableobligations,anddeclaredthat,astheothercontractingpartyhad
changed,theConcordatwiththeRomanSeewasannulled.ExceptinginafewSwiss
cantons,thepromulgationofthedecisionofthecouncildidnotencounteranyactual
difficultieselsewhere.

Theresults
Incomparisonwiththelargescopeofthepreparationsforthecouncil,andwiththegreat
amountofmateriallaidbeforeitfordiscussioninthenumerousdraftsandproposals,the
immediateresultofitslaboursmustbecalledsmall.Butthecouncilwasonlyinits
beginningswhentheoutbreakofwarbroughtittoasuddenclose.Itisalsotrueasis
known,thatreasonswithinthecouncilpreventedalargerresultfromitssessions.Thusit
wasthatintheendonlytwonotverylargeConstitutionscouldbepromulgated.If,
however,thecontentsofthesetwoconstitutionsbeexaminedtheirgreatimportanceis
unmistakable.Thecontentsmeetinastrikingmannertheneedsofthetimes.
A.ThedogmaticConstitutionontheCatholicFaithdefendsthefundamentalprinciplesof
ChristianityagainsttheerrorsofmodernRationalism,Materialism,andatheism.Inthe
firstchapteritmaintainsthedoctrineoftheexistenceofapersonalGod,WhoofHisown
freevolitionfortherevelationofHisperfection,hascreatedallthingsoutofnothing,
Whoforeseesallthings,eventhefuturefreeactionsofreasonablecreatures,andWho
throughHisProvidenceleadsallthingstotheintendedend.Thesecondchaptertreatsthe
naturalandsupernaturalknowledgeofGod.ItthendeclaresthatGod,thebeginningand
endofallthingscanalsobeknownwithcertaintybythenaturallightofreason.Itthen
treatstheactualityandnecessityofasupernaturalrevelation,ofthetwosourcesof
Revelation,Scriptureandtradition,oftheinspirationandinterpretationoftheHoly
Scripture.Thethirdchaptertreatsthesupernaturalvirtueoffaith,itsreasonableness
supernaturalness,andnecessity,thepossibilityandactualityofmiraclesasaconfirmation
ofDivineRevelationandlastly,thefoundingoftheCatholicChurchbyJesusChristas
theGuardianandHeraldofrevealedtruth.Thefourthchaptercontainsthedoctrine,
especiallyimportanttoday,ontheconnectionbetweenfaithandreason.Themysteriesof
faithcannot,indeed,befullygraspedbynaturalreason,butrevealedtruthcannever
contradictthepositiveresultsoftheinvestigationofreason.Contrariwise,however,every
assertionisfalsethatcontradictsthetruthofenlightenedfaith.Faithandtruelearningare
notinhostileoppositiontheyrathersupporteachotherinmanyways.Yetfaithisnotthe
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sameasaphilosophicalsystemofteachingthathasbeenworkedoutandthenturnedover
tothehumanmindtobefurtherdeveloped,butithasbeenentrustedasaDivinedepositto
theChurchforprotectionandinfallibleinterpretation.When,therefore,theChurch
explainsthemeaningofadogmathisinterpretationistobemaintainedinallfuturetime,
anditcanneverbedeviatedfromunderpretenceofamoreprofoundinvestigation.Atthe
closeoftheConstitutiontheopposingheresiesarerejectedineighteencanons.
B.TheotherdogmaticConstitutionisofequal,ifnotgreater,importanceitisthefirston
theChurchofChrist,or,asitisalsocalledinreferencetoitscontents,onthePopeof
Rome."TheintroductiontotheConstitutionsaysthattheprimacyoftheRomanpontiff,
onwhichtheunity,strength,andstabilityoftheentireChurchrests,hasalwaysbeen,and
isespeciallynow,theobjectofviolentattacksbytheenemiesoftheChurch.Therefore
thedoctrineofitsorigin,constantpermanence,andnaturemustbeclearlysetforthand
established,aboveallonaccountoftheopposingerrors.Thusthefirstchaptertreatsofthe
establishmentoftheApostolicprimacyinthepopesofRome.Eachchaptercloseswitha
canonagainsttheopposingdogmaticopinion.Themostimportantmatterofthe
Constitutionisthelasttwochapters.Inthethirdchapterthemeaningandnatureofthe
primacyaresetforthinclearwords.TheprimacyofthePopeofRomeisnomere
precedenceofhonour.Onthecontrary,thepopepossessestheprimacyofregularly
constitutedpoweroverallotherChurches,andthetrue,direct,episcopalpowerof
jurisdiction,inrespecttowhichtheclergyandfaithfulofeveryriteandrankareboundto
trueobedience.Theimmediatepowerofjurisdictionoftheindividualbishopsintheir
dioceses,therefore,isnotimpairedbytheprimacy,butonlystrengthenedanddefended.
Byvirtueofhisprimacythepopehastherighttohavedirectandfreerelationswiththe
clergyandlaityoftheentireChurch.Nooneispermittedtointerferewiththisintercourse.
Itisfalseandtoberejectedtosaythatthedecreesissuedbythepopefortheguidanceof
theChurcharenotvalidunlessconfirmedbytheplacetofthesecularpower.Thepopeis
alsothesupremejudgeofallthefaithful,towhosedecisionallmattersunderexamination
bytheChurchcanbeappealed.Ontheotherhand,nofurtherappeal,noteventoan
ecumenicalcouncil,canbemadefromthesupremedecisionofthepope.Consequently
thecanonappendedtothethirdchaptersays:"When,therefore,anyonesaysthatthePope
ofRomehasonlytheofficeofsupervisionorofguidance,andnotthecompleteand
highestpowerofjurisdictionovertheentireChurchnotmerelyinmattersoffaithand
morals,butalsoinmatterswhichconcernthedisciplineandadministrationoftheChurch
throughouttheentireworld,orthatthepopehasonlythechiefshare,butnottheentire
fullnessofthishighestpower,orthatthishispowerisnotactualandimmediateeither
overallandindividualChurches,oroverallandindividualclergyandfaithful,lethimbe
anathema."
Thefourthchapter,lastly,containsthedefinitionofpapalinfallibility.First,allthe
correspondingdecreesoftheFourthCouncilofConstantinople,680(SixthEcumenical),
oftheSecondCouncilofLyons,1274(FourteenthEcumenical)andoftheCouncilof
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Florence,1439(SeventeenthEcumenical),arerepeatedandconfirmed.Itispointedout,
further,thatatalltimesthepopes,intheconsciousnessoftheirinfallibilityinmattersof
faithforthepreservationofthepurityoftheApostolictradition,haveactedasthecourtof
lastinstanceandhavebeencalleduponassuch.Thenfollowstheimportanttenetthatthe
successorsofSt.PeterhavebeenpromisedtheHolyGhost,notforthepromulgationof
newdoctrines,butonlyforthepreservationandinterpretationoftheRevelationdelivered
bytheApostles.TheConstitutioncloseswiththefollowingwords:"Faithfullyadhering,
therefore,tothetraditioninheritedfromthebeginningoftheChristianFaith,we,withthe
approbationofthesacredcouncil,forthegloryofGodourSaviour,fortheexaltationof
theCatholicreligion,andthesalvationofChristianpeoples,teachanddefine,asa
Divinelyrevealeddogma,thattheRomanpontiff,whenhespeaksexcathedra,thatis,
whenhe,intheexerciseofhisofficeasshepherdandteacherofallChristians,byvirtueof
hissupremeApostolicauthority,decidesthatadoctrineconcerningfaithormoralsistobe
heldbytheentireChurchhepossesses,inconsequenceoftheDivineaidpromisedhimin
St.Peter,thatinfallibilitywithwhichtheDivineSaviourwishedtohaveHisChurch
furnishedforthedefinitionofdoctrineconcerningfaithormoralsandthatsuch
definitionsoftheRomanpontiffareofthemselves,andnotinconsequenceofthe
Church'sconsent,irreformable."
WhatisgivenaboveisessentiallythecontentsofthetwoConstitutionsoftheVatican
Council.Theirimportmaybebrieflyexpressedthus:inoppositiontotheRationalismand
FreethinkingofthepresentdaythefirstConstitutiongivesauthoritativeandclear
expressionofthefundamentalprinciplesofnaturalandsupernaturalunderstandingof
rightandtruefaith,theirpossibility,necessity,theirsources,andoftheirrelationstoeach
other.Thusitofferstoallofhonestintentionaguideandafirmfoothold,bothinsolving
thegreatquestionoflifeandinalltheinvestigationsoflearning.ThesecondConstitution
settlesfinallyaquestionwhichhadkeptthemindsofmendisturbedfromthetimeofthe
GreatSchism,andtheCouncilofConstance,andmoreespeciallyfromtheappearanceof
thefourGallicanarticlesof1682,thequestionoftherelationbetweenthepopeandthe
Church.AccordingtothedogmaticdecisionoftheVaticanCouncil,thepapacyfounded
byChrististhecrownandcentreoftheentireconstitutionoftheCatholicChurch.The
papacyincludesinitselftheentirefullnessofthepowerofadministrationandteaching
bestowedbyChristuponHisChurch.Thusecclesiasticalparticularismandthetheoryof
nationalChurchesareforeveroverthrown.Ontheotherhand,itisextravagantandunjust
tosaythatbythedefinitionoftheprimacyofjurisdictionandoftheinfallibilityofthe
popetheecumenicalcouncilshavelosttheiressentialimportance.Theecumenical
councilshaveneverbeenabsolutelynecessary.EvenbeforetheVaticanCounciltheir
decreesobtainedgeneralcurrencyonlythroughtheapprovalofthepope.Theincreasing
difficultyoftheirconvocationastimewentonisshownbytheintervalofthreehundred
yearsbetweenthenineteenthandtwentiethecumenicalcouncils.Thedefinitionsofthe
lastcouncilhave,therefore,broughtaboutthealleviationthatwasdesirableandthe
necessarylegalcertainty.Apartfromthis,however,thehierarchyunitedwiththepopein
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ageneralcouncilis,nowasformerly,themostcompleterepresentationoftheCatholic
Church.
Lastly,asregardsthedraftsandpropositionwhichwereleftunsettledbytheVatican
Council,anumberofthesewererevivedandbroughttocompletionbyPiusIXandhis
twosuccessors.Tomentionafew:PiusIXmadeSt.Josephthepatronsaintofthe
UniversalChurchon8Dec.,1870,thesameyearasthecouncil.Moralandreligious
problems,whichitwasintendedtolaybeforethecouncilfordiscussion,aretreatedinthe
encyclicalsofLeoXIIIontheoriginofthecivilpower(1881),onFreemasonry(1884),on
humanfreedom(1888),onChristianmarriage(1880),etc.LeoXIIIalsoissuedin1900
newregulationsregardingtheindexofforbiddenbooks.Fromthebeginningofhis
administrationPiusXseemstohavehadinviewinhislegislativelaboursthecompletion
ofthegreattasksleftbytheVaticanCouncil.Themoststrikingproofsofthisare:the
reformoftheItaliandiocesanseminaries,theregulationofthephilosophicaland
theologicalstudiesofcandidatesforthepriesthood,theintroductionofonecatechismfor
theRomanchurchprovince,thelawsconcerningtheformofritualforbetrothaland
marriage,therevisionoftheprayersoftheBreviary,and,aboveall,thecodificationofthe
wholeofmoderncanonlaw.

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Sources
(1)ArchivesoftheVaticanCouncil:Allofficialpapersrelatingtothepreparationsforthe
VaticanCouncil,itsproceedings,andtheacceptanceofitsdecrees,havebeenpreserved
intheVaticanPalace,intworoomswhichweresetapartforthem.Thespeechesmadeat
thegeneralcongregationsexistinshorthandnotesandhandwritinginaddition,PiusIX
alsoarrangedtohavethemprinted,Thefirstfourfoliovolumeswereissuedbythe
VaticanPressin18758,thefifthandfinalvolumeappearedin1884.Aboutadozen
copiesofeachvolumeareinthearchives.
(2)CollectionsofOfficialDocuments:CECCONI,StoriadelConcilioecumenico
Vaticanoscrittasuidocumentioriginali.Antecedenti,I(Rome,1873),II,inIIIpts.
(Rome,1879)FRIEDRICH,DocumentaadillustrandumConciliumVaticanum(IIpts.,
Nrdlingen,i871).FRIEDBERG,SammlungderAktenstckezumerstenvatikanischen
KonzilmiteinemGrundrissderGeschichtedesselben(Tbingen,1872)MARTIN,
OmniumConciliiVaticaniquaeaddoctrinametdisciplinampertinentdocumentorum
collectio(Paderborn,1873)themostcompletecollectionisActaetdecretasacrosancti
oecumeniciConciliiVaticani,ed.SCHNEEMANANDGRANDERATH(Freiburg,
1892)thiscollectionisintheCollectioLacensisvolVII.Thedecreesoftheeounciihave
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oftenbeenpublishedasatRomebythePropaganda,atFreiburg.andRatisbon.
(3)HistoricalAccounts:(a)Catholic:bythesecretaryofthecouncil,FESSLER,Das
vatikanischeConcilium,dessenusereBedeutungundinnereVerlauf(Vienna,1871)
MANNING,TheTrueStoryoftheVaticanCouncil(London,1877)OLLIVIER.L'glise
etl'tatauconcileduVatican(2vols.,Paris,1879)GRANDERATHANDKIRCH,
GeschichtedesvatikanischenKonzilsvonseinererstenAnkndigungbiszuseiner
Vertagung,nachdenauthentischenDokumenten(3vols.,Freiburg,1903and1906)
FROND,ActesethistoireduconcileoecumniquedeRome(8vols.,Paris,1869),
numerousillustrationsGRANDERATHinWETZERANDWELTE,Kirchenlexikon,
s.v.Vatican.Concil.(b)NonCatholic:FRIEDRICH,Tagebuchwhrenddes
vatikanischenKonzilsgefhrt(2nded.,Nrdlingen,1873)IDEM,Geschichtedes
vatikanischenKonzils(3vols.,Bonn,187787)MOZLEY,LettersfromRomeonthe
OccasionoftheEcumenicalCouncil18691870(2vols.,London,1891)MIRBTin
Realencyklopdiefrprotest.Theol.,s.v.Vatican.Concil.Inaddition,consultthe
biographiesofthemostdistinguishedmembersofthecouncil.Themostimportantworks
andpamphletsthatappearedduringthecouncilarementionedinthecourseofthearticle.
(4)ExplanationsoftheDecreesoftheCouncil:GRANDERATH,Constitutiones
dogmaticoes.oecumen.ConciliiVaticani,explicat(Freiburg.1892)VACANT,Etudes
thologiquessurlesconstitutionsduconcileduVatican(2vols.,Paris,1895).

Aboutthispage
APAcitation.Kirch,J.(1912).VaticanCouncil.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.New
York:RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15303a.htm
MLAcitation.Kirch,Joseph."VaticanCouncil."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.15.
NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,1912.6Jun.2015
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15303a.htm>.
Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyDouglasJ.Potter.
DedicatedtotheSacredHeartofJesusChrist.
Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.October1,1912.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor.
Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.
Contactinformation.TheeditorofNewAdventisKevinKnight.Myemailaddressis
webmasteratnewadvent.org.Regrettably,Ican'treplytoeveryletter,butIgreatly
appreciateyourfeedbackespeciallynotificationsabouttypographicalerrorsand
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