Explain in your own words as far as possible why there is perpetual competition (line 3)

between all living things.

[2]
[PARAPHRASING QUESTION]

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

Suggested answer

Since nourishment is necessary to support life,

and since the resources available to supply
nourishment are finite, there is perpetual
competition to acquire it. [Lines 2 3]

It exists because the supply of sustenance which

all living organisms need in order to survive [1], is
always limited relative to their needs. [1] There is
thus an endless race to vie for these resources.

2.

Why does the author include the word significantly in line 13?

[1]

[PURPOSE]

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

Suggested answer

Like every other creature they are born with the

impulse to seize what they need and avoid what
will harm eventually they obtained the
dominance which was necessary to establish
order and direction among groups of competing
individuals. [Lines 12 17]

He wanted to highlight the fact that the first

invention of man was one of aggression and
one that allowed them to gain advantage and to
rule over all defenceless creatures. [1]

3.
Why does the author believe that the attempts to usurp authority were inevitable
(line 18)
[1]
[INFERENCE QUESTION]

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

Suggested answer

Like every other creature they are born with the

impulse to seize what they need and avoid what
will harm [Lines 12 13]

It is because every individual human being will

instinctively react against forceful attempts to
subjugate their free will. [1]

Human beings armed with flint arrow-heads were

the masters of animals and unarmed humans;
eventually they attained the dominance among
groups of competing individuals. [Lines 14 17]

4.
Explain how (a) population pressure and (b) dynastic ambition might be possible
motives for war (lines 24-25).
[2]
[LINKING QUESTIONS]
a)

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

Suggested answer

Under such a rule, the community flourished and

grew. This growth required expansion, either into
territory where only animals had to be fought, or
increasingly into land already occupied by other
groups of humans who had to be subdued to
ensure the survival of the aggressors. [Lines 19
22]

As the population of a community increases

exponentially, it requires more resources to
sustain itself, [1/2] which can only be obtained by
conquering other communities. [1/2]

b)

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

Suggested answer

Once established, this ordered community could

only be sustained by individuals who relied on
force to subdue the inevitable attempts to usurp
their authority. [Lines 17 19]

Rulers may resort to violence to ensure that

future successors are from their lineage. [1]

5. Using your own words as far as possible, explain the circumstances under
which, according to the writer, war might be thought to be acceptable
(lines 28-29).
[PARAPHRASING THREE CIRCUMSTANCES]
[3]

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

should be waged only in response to

aggression [lines 29-30]
was justifiable only if undertaken by
legitimate authority [line 30]
only as a last resort. [line 30]

Suggested answer

War was thought acceptable under the

conditions that it was in reaction to the
forceful actions of others, [1] carried
out by leaders recognized on lawful
grounds [1] and employed only when no
better alternatives were available.
[1]

6. What are the two sources of conflict for which the author claims, in
paragraph 6, can be resolved by science? Why, according to the author, are
they not being resolved? Use your own words as far as possible.

[PARAPHRASING/INFERENCE]
[3]

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

Suggested answer

Science has already given us the ability to

control the number of people on the planet,
as well as the ability to increase the
agricultural productivity on which people
depended. [line 58-59]

The writer suggests that science can

reduce the competition for resources
through the regulation of population
size [1/2]. It can also increase the yield
of crops, a resource that people rely on
[1/2].

all that is lacking is willingness of

governments to give priority to the
spreading of information. [lines 61-62]

These two sources of conflict have

remained unresolved because of the
reluctance of governments to attach
primary importance to the sharing of
knowledge [1] and the absence of
commitment in using what is required of
their capabilities to meet these ends. [1]

political will to devote the necessary

resources which is lacking... [lines 65-66]

7. From paragraph 8, identify three statements which might seem controversial, and in each
case, show how the authors language seeks to give an impression of open-mindedness.
[LANGUAGE/WORD CHOICE QUESTION]
[3]
Suggested answer

(1)

It is possibly true that aggression and competitiveness are primarily masculine

characteristics. [lines 79-80] [1/2]

The use of the word possibly gives clue of his open-mindedness to differing
opinions. [1/2]

(2)

Consequently, perhaps the most encouraging development of recent times is the

gradual but unstoppable growth of the power and influence of women. [lines 8081] [1/2]
The use of the word perhaps suggests he is proposing, not stating, that increased
dominance of women is the most important consequence. [1/2]

(3)

The particular virtues of women are widely claimed to be cooperation, care and
concern for others.
or
Therefore, women may enable the human race to tame and render harmless the
aggressive instinct [lines 84-85] [1/2]

The use of the word widely claimed or may shows the writer is aware of the
existence of alternative viewpoints/opinions. [1/2] [general opinion vs asserted fact]

8.
Give the meaning of the following words as they are used the passage. You may write
your answer in one word or a short phrase.
[5]
1m

0m

Fundamental
adj. (line 1)

Of primary importance,
central, key, basic

Vital, crucial, essential,

necessary, integral

Exercised v.

Cultivated, developed,
fostered, performed

(line 45)

utilized, put in
action, practice/put
into practice, applied

Equilibrium n.

Balance, stability

Equality, uniformity,
sameness/similarity, in
proportion

Circulated,
distributed

Propagated, declared,
proclaimed, spread,
communicated,
published

Phrase that is
mindlessly repeated

Imitation, response,
chorus, refrain

(line 50)

Disseminated
v.
(line 61)

Parrot-cry n.
(line 87)

9.

In paragraph 5, the author draws two conclusions about aggression.

Using material from the first four paragraphs of the passage (lines 1-51),
summarize the case the author makes to justify these conclusions. Write
your summary in no more than 120 words, not counting the opening
words which are printed below. Use your own words as far as possible.
[7]

The author argues that aggression is inevitable because

LIFTS (FROM PASSAGE)

1. Nourishment is necessary to support

life, and since the resources available
to supply nourishment are finite, there
is perpetual competition to acquire
it. The plants and animals which
survive by these means contribute to
the development and improvement
of their species.

2. Human beings armed with flint arrowheads were the masters of animals and
unarmed humans; eventually they
attained the dominance which was
necessary to establish order and
direction among groups of competing
individuals. Once established, this
ordered community could only be
sustained by individuals who relied on
force to subdue the inevitable
attempts to usurp their authority.

3. Under such a rule, the community

flourished and grew. This growth
required expansion, either into
territory where only animals had to be
fought or into land already occupied by
other groups of humans who had to be
subdued to ensure the survival of the
aggressors.

4. There are many possible motives for

war: Whatever the motive, those who
are attacked must defend
themselves with equally aggressive
intent and efficiency if they are to
survive.

5. Some would argue that all wars,

whether or not they are regarded as
acceptable, produce beneficial
effects can also motivate the
builders of cities and captains of
industry, whose efforts bring
prosperity to their workers and to
the wider community.

6. It is undeniably true that many of the

great technological and medical
advances of the twentieth century
were made in response to the urgent

Suggested answer

The author argues that aggression is

inevitable because living things
constantly fight to obtain limited
sources of sustenance. [1]
Humans used weapons against rivals to
create a hierarchical society, asserting
aggression to overthrow/crush threats
to their power. [1]
As society prospered and population
increased, land would be conquered
forcefully to accommodate this. [1]
Those threatened must retaliate against
those who hit out at them with similar
hostility. [1]
The author also argues that aggression
brings positive outcomes, inspiring cultural
revolutions and spurring construction of
societies, thus generating wealth. [1]
Numerous significant scientific and
medical developments were produced
because of immediate necessities of
countries at war. [1]
Noble attributes also surface during war
times. [1] In the process, war may also
resolve the issues of overpopulation that
lead to a strain on the Earth. [1]
(11

and vital needs of nations at war. The

jet engine and developments in
disease control come to mind.

7. And without conflict, how would the

heroic virtues be exercised? Is there
no merit in bravery or in the
compassionSome people, indeed,
will even argue that warfare is a
natural solution to the problems of
population excess and imbalance.

0.
Having reviewed the apparent inevitability and compensating benefits of aggression
in the past, Arthur Woolgar suggests some reasons why aggression may play a much reduced
role in the future. How convincing do you find these reasons, and do you consider the gains
would outweigh the losses if aggression ceased to be a central feature of human behaviour?
[8]
R1A: What are the reasons why aggression may play a much reduced role in the
future & are they convincing? (Cite two)
R1B: Would gains would outweigh losses if aggression ceased to be a main feature
of human behaviour?
R2: Evaluate authors arguments to support your R1A & R1B.
R3: Use evidence/examples from your own knowledge & experience.
R1A: Reasons & Evaluation of whether they are convincing
Reasons:
1) Technological change enables the human race to control the population and
to increase agricultural productivity, such that human beings do not have to
rely on aggression to attain land or sources of nourishment anymore.
2) Sporting events as a form of competition have replaced wars.
3) Aggression and competitiveness are masculine characteristics, therefore
these characteristics will be downplayed as women become more influential
and powerful. Therefore, characteristics associated with women such as
cooperation, care and concern will nullify the masculine characteristics needed
for conflict and war.
Possible arguments on how convincing the reasons are:
Convincing
o It is true that people compete for food sources, living space and what is
deemed valuable.
o Swift advancement of technology

o Sporting events as an outlet to release competitive spirit. Means for

nations to interact.
o Sporting events are an alternative rallying point for nationalistic sentiments.
o Women are gaining more seats in governments around the world, as well as
more rights.
o Women do tend not to resort to physical violence as a solution to conflict.
Not convincing:
o Nations develop at different rates, therefore, not every nation is capable
technologically of controlling the population or increasing agricultural
productivity. Therefore, these nations might still rely on aggression to
attain what they need.
o Technology as double-edged sword: Author based argument on utopian
ideals of sharing of knowledge in technology advancement, but nations
with the technological edge might use it as an advantage to assert their
dominance over nations who have not developed at the same pace as
them. Therefore, war just changes its form.
o Other causes of war: Over population and need for sustenance are not the
only reasons why people go to war. There may be a clash in ideologies,
political systems, religion (ie. Israel and Palestine, America and Iraq). War
is also brought about by desire for power, fame and wealth
o Winning in sporting events do not reap the same benefits as going to war.
(contrived setting)
o Feminine characteristics may not necessarily neutralize mens desire for
conflict.
o Also, aggression may not be a gender-specific trait.

R1B: Possible Points for Gains & Losses

Gains

Losses

Peace and harmony among nations

No nationalistic sentiments?

Security and stability

No urgency to advance intellectually

and in science and technology

Stability in living expectations and the

acquisition/supply of food.

No loss of lives
Growth in economy (Cite examples of
war-torn countries not being able to

Complacency on being able to attain

food.
Taking peace for granted
No reason to strive for better

sustain economic growth!)

Learning of alternative ways of relating

with each other.

Civility as a hallmark of refined society

as opposed to aggression/violence
which is a throwback to a more
primitive past. Less inclination to
resort to brute force, more attempt at
diplomacy.

governments, further advancements

in warfare.
Difficulty in removing corrupt
authorities passivity, political apathy
No angst or turmoil to inspire artists!
Aggression is not necessarily tied to
violence alone it is a basic human
impulse associated with motivation,
providing an impetus for action. We
become passive, apathetic, stagnant
as a society. L

Note: Gains generally outweigh losses, but some level of aggression should still play a part
in society for the sake of competition and progress.
Be careful not to sound lame.
Sample AQ

Woolgar argues that the need for aggression is diminished by the

proliferation of technology and the solutions it provides. Despite the inadequacy of
the political desire to ensure the spreading of this know-how to the developing world
the countries that need it the most and which might display aggression to achieve it
Woolgar feels that aggression will no longer be necessary when the Third World places
more political pressure on the developed countries and the developed world as a result of
this relinquishes the relevant technology and aid. However, I feel that the developed
world would have the means to dig in their heels and resist the often belligerent
demands of the Third World for a full technological transfer. Despite the outpouring of aid
to disaster-struck countries such as Myanmar and Sichuan, China, most governments
do not have the patience to make a concerted and sustained effort in
structurally improving the economy and society of another country, especially
when there is little benefit for them. This is ironic, for the fierce desire to stay ahead and
the unwillingness to allow other developed nations to overtake them is a characteristic of
aggression. The unwillingness and insincerity of first-world governments are shown
through the phenomenon of tied debt and tied aid, where aid comes with the conditions
and prerequisites such as unfair trade concessions, which may not amount to physical
provocation, but are nonetheless subtle forms of manipulation and aggression. Hence,
there is little sign of the change necessary to give the third world the tools necessary to
match population growth to resources available. Hence Woolgars hopes are likely
untenable.
Woolgar also argues that sport is a viable substitute for war, and that people
live vicariously through the competition and controlled conflict that occurs with the
sanitised environment and the grip of rules present in a sporting arena, and hence do not
seek to wage war. However, sport hardly diminishes violence and aggression. Major
sports tournaments, such as the Copa America, often bring with them immense violence
as supporters are often knifed, attacked and roundly abused by fans of another team.
The Heysel disaster which occurred when Liverpool Football Club and Juventus in the
Champions League resulted in the deaths of 39 youths. Even the recent Beijing Olympics
have been marred by protests surrounding the Chinese repression of Tibet. Sport remains

a magnet for violence and aggression not merely off the field, but also on it. How
often have we seen massive on-pitch brawls or heinously violent tackles on opponents
that have landed them in the hospital, and worse, sometimes even in death? Sport
engenders hostility and violence, and hardly leads to the reduction of the role of
aggression. In fact, sport in some ways fuels aggression rather than diminishing it.
Neither have wars ceased and conflicts stopped because of sport: civil war and conflict
continue to rage on in every part of the world, in innumerable countries ranging from the
Darfur Ethnic Cleansing to the recent uprising of the monks and the violent reprisals of
the army in Myanmar. Furthermore, the prevention of World War III could be due to a
number of reasons, such as the institutionalising of international law through the creation
of the United Nations, or the rise of international trade, which diminishes the need for
resources through war and acts as an incentive to maintaining cordial relations with
another country.
However, aggression is and should continue to be a central part of human
behaviour but the level of aggression should be tapped or limited. Aggression is a
necessary instinct that is a requirement for survival and needed in daily life
confrontation and the thirst for victory is what allows us to pursue development and
growth, whether we are triumphant over a colleague at work, an opponent in sport,
personal demons or the realisation of an artistic vision. Humans cannot be passive
society moves and grows and flourishes because of our aggression. Yet while aggression
has its inevitable gains, it is also important to note that for most of the world, survival is
beyond hunting animals and who has the technology and ingenuity to create flint arrowheads. We have the capability to rise beyond the immediate and the necessary that is
required for survival the basic simple survival instinct of aggression and hostility to
defend ones health and home is no longer relevant. Instead there should be a focus on
resource allocation to give the Third World what the First World has. Aggression must
continue to exist, but it must be properly channelled.
With teachers notes:
Woolgar argues that the need for aggression is diminished by the proliferation of
technology and the solutions it provides. Despite the inadequacy of the political desire to
ensure the spreading of this know-how to the developing world the countries that need
it the most and which might display aggression to achieve it Woolgar feels that
aggression will no longer be necessary when the Third World places more political
pressure on the developed countries and the developed world as a result of this
relinquishes
the
relevant
technology
and
aid.
(R2A:
selecting/paraphrasing/expanding authors argument) However, I feel that the
developed world would have the means to dig in their heels and resist the often
belligerent demands of the Third World for a full technological transfer. (EV: own
opinion) Despite the outpouring of aid to disaster-struck countries such as Myanmar and
Sichuan, China, most governments do not have the patience to make a concerted and
sustained effort in structurally improving the economy and society of another country,
especially when there is little benefit for them. (EX: showing opinion/observed
principle in real-life examples) This is ironic, for the fierce desire to stay ahead and
the unwillingness to allow other developed nations to overtake them is a characteristic of
aggression. The unwillingness and insincerity of first-world governments are shown
through the phenomenon of tied debt and tied aid, where aid comes with the conditions
and prerequisites such as unfair trade concessions, which may not amount to physical
provocation, but are nonetheless subtle forms of manipulation and aggression. (EX/EV:
Subverting
authors
arguments
through
examples;
intentional
evaluation/exploration of the meaning of these examples) Hence, there is little
sign of the change necessary to give the third world the tools necessary to match
population growth to resources available. Hence Woolgars hopes are likely untenable.
(R1A: Stand R2A is not convincing)
Woolgar also argues that sport is a viable substitute for war, and that people live
vicariously through the competition and controlled conflict that occurs with the sanitised

environment and the grip of rules present in a sporting arena, and hence do not seek to
wage war. (R2B: selecting/paraphrasing/expanding authors argument) However,
sport hardly diminishes violence and aggression. (EV) Major sports tournaments, such as
the Copa America, often bring with them immense violence as supporters are often
knifed, attacked and roundly abused by fans of another team. (EX) The Heysel disaster
which occurred when Liverpool Football Club and Juventus in the Champions League
resulted in the deaths of 39 youths. (EX) Even the recent Beijing Olympics have been
marred by protests surrounding the Chinese repression of Tibet. (EX) Sport remains a
magnet for violence and aggression not merely off the field, but also on it. (EV:
Personal opinion/argument) How often have we seen massive on-pitch brawls or
heinously violent tackles on opponents that have landed them in the hospital, and worse,
sometimes even in death? Sport engenders hostility and violence, and hardly leads to the
reduction of the role of aggression. In fact, sport in some ways fuels aggression rather
than diminishing it. (EV: Personal opinion/argument) Neither have wars ceased and
conflicts stopped because of sport: civil war and conflict continue to rage on in every part
of the world, in innumerable countries ranging from the Darfur Ethnic Cleansing to the
recent uprising of the monks and the violent reprisals of the army in Myanmar. (EX/EV)
Furthermore, the lack of World War III could be due to a number of reasons, such as the
institutionalising of international law through the creation of the United Nations, or the
rise of international trade, which diminishes the need for resources through war and acts
as an incentive to maintaining cordial relations with another country. (R1A: Stand R2B
is not convincing)
However, aggression is and should continue to be a central part of human
behaviour (R1B: More gains) but the level of aggression should be tapped or limited
(EV: Personal opinion on DEGREE). Aggression is a necessary instinct that is a
requirement for survival and needed in daily life confrontation and the thirst for victory
is what allows us to pursue development and growth, whether we are triumphant over a
colleague at work, an opponent in sport, personal demons or the realisation of an artistic
vision. (EX) Humans cannot be passive society moves and grows and flourishes
because of our aggression. (EV: Personal opinion) Yet while aggression has its
inevitable gains, it is also important to note that for most of the world, survival is beyond
hunting animals and who has the technology and ingenuity to create flint arrow-heads.
We have the capability to rise beyond the immediate and the necessary that is required
for survival the basic simple survival instinct of aggression and hostility to defend ones
health and home is no longer relevant. (EV: Weighing gains with losses) Instead
there should be a focus on resource allocation to give the Third World what the First
World has. Aggression must continue to exist, but it must be properly channelled. (R1B:
Stand gains vs losses)