Beruflich Dokumente
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Finite
Element
Analysis
Thermomechanics of Solids
David W. Nicholson
CRC PR E S S
Boca Raton London New York Washington, D.C.
2002041419
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Dedication
To Linda and Mike, with profound love
Preface
Thousands of engineers use finite-element codes, such as ANSYS, for thermomechanical and nonlinear applications. Most academic departments offering advanced
degrees in mechanical engineering, civil engineering, and aerospace engineering offer
a first-level course in the finite-element method, and by now, almost all undergraduates
of such programs have some exposure to the finite-element method. A number of
departments offer a second-level course. It is hoped that this text will appeal to
instructors of such courses. Of course, it hopefully will also be helpful to engineers
engaged in self-study on nonlinear and thermomechanical finite-element analysis.
The principles of the finite-element method are presented for application to the
mechanical, thermal, and thermomechanical response, both static and dynamic, of
linear and nonlinear solids. It provides an integrated treatment of:
Basic principles, material models, and contact models (for example, linear
elasticity, hyperelasticity, and thermohyperelasticity).
Computational, numerical, and software-design aspects (such as finiteelement data structures).
Modeling principles and strategies (including mesh design).
The text is designed for a second-level course, as a reference work, or for self
study. Familiarity is assumed with the finite-element method at the level of a firstlevel graduate or advanced undergraduate course.
A first-level course in the finite-element method, for which many excellent books
are available, barely succeeds in covering static linear elasticity and linear heat transfer.
There is virtually no exposure to nonlinear methods, which are topics for a secondlevel course. Nor is there much emphasis on coupled thermomechanical problems.
However, many engineers could benefit from a text covering nonlinear problems
and the associated continuum thermomechanics. Such a text could be used in a
formal class or for self-study. Many important applications have significant nonlinearity, making nonlinear finite-element modeling necessary. As a few examples, we
mention polymer processing; metal forming; rubber components, such as tires and
seals; biomechanics; and crashworthiness. Many applications combine thermal and
mechanical response, such as rubber seals in hot engines. Engineers coping with
such applications have access to powerful finite-element codes and computers.
However, they often lack and urgently need an in-depth but compact exposition of
the finite-element method, which provides a foundation for addressing future problems. It is hoped this text also fills this need.
Of necessity, a selection of topics has been made, and topics are given coverage
proportional to the authors sense of their importance to the readers understanding.
Topics have been selected with the intent of giving a unified and complete, but still
compact and tractable, presentation. Several other excellent texts and monographs
have appeared over the years, from which the author has benefited. Four texts to
which the author is indebted are:
1. Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Taylor R.L., The Finite Element Method, Vols. 1
and 2, McGraw Hill, London, 1989.
2. Kleiber, M., Incremental Finite Element Modeling in Nonlinear Solid
Mechanics, Chichester, Ellis Horwood, Ltd., 1989.
3. Bonet, J. and Wood, R.D., Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics for Finite
Element Analysis, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
4. Belytschko, T., Lui, W.K, and Moran, B., Nonlinear Finite Elements for
Continua and Structures, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 2000.
This text has the following characteristics:
1. Emphasis on the use of Kronecker Product notation instead of tensor,
tensor-indicial, Voigt, or traditional finite-element, matrix-vector notation.
2. Emphasis on integrated and coupled thermal and mechanical effects.
3. Inclusion of elasticity, hyperelasticity, plasticity, and viscoelasticity with
thermal effects.
4. Inclusion of nonlinear boundary conditions, including contact, in an integrated incremental variational formulation.
Kronecker Product algebra (KPA) has been widely used in control theory for many
years (Graham, 1982). It is highly compact and satisfies simple rules: for example,
the inverse of a Kronecker Product of two nonsingular matrices is the Kronecker
Product of the inverses. Recently, a number of extensions of KPA have been introduced and shown to permit compact expressions for otherwise elaborate quantities
in continuum and computational mechanics. Examples include:
1. Compact expressions for the tangent-modulus tensors in hyperelasticity
(invariant-based and stretch-based; compressible, incompressible, and nearincompressible), thermohyperelasticity, and finite-strain plasticity.
2. A general, compact expression for the tangent stiffness matrix in nonlinear
FEA, including nonlinear boundary conditions, such as contact.
KPA with recent extensions can completely replace other notations in most cases
of interest here. In the authors experience, students experience little difficulty in
gaining a command of it.
The first three chapters concern mathematical foundations, and Kronecker Product
notation for tensors is introduced. The next four chapters cover relevant linear and
nonlinear continuum thermomechanics to enable a unified account of the finite-element
method. Chapters 8 through 15 represent a compact presentation of the finite-element
method in linear elastic, thermal, and thermomechanical media, including solution
methods. The final five chapters address nonlinear problems based on a unified set of
incremental variational principles. Material nonlinearity is treated also, as is geometric
nonlinearity and nonlinearity due to boundary conditions. Several numerical issues in
nonlinear analysis are discussed, such as iterative triangularization of stiffness matrices.
Acknowledgment
Finite Element Analysis: Thermomechanics of Solids is the culmination of many
years of teaching and research, made possible through the love and patience of my
wife Linda and son Michael, to whom this is dedicated. To my profound love, I
cheerfully add my immense gratitude. Much of my understanding of the advanced
topics addressed in this book arose through the highly successful research of my
then-doctoral student, Dr. Baojiu Lin. He continued his invaluable support by providing comments and corrections on the manuscript. Also deserving of acknowledgment is Ashok Balasubranamian, whose careful attention to the manuscript has
greatly helped to make it achieve my objectives. Thanks are due to hundreds of
graduate students in my courses in continuum mechanics and finite elements over
the years. I tested and refined the materials through the courses and benefited
immensely from their strenuous efforts to gain command of the course materials.
Finally, I would like to thank CRC Press for taking a chance on me and especially
for Cindy Renee Carelli for patience and many good suggestions.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Introduction....................................................................................................1
1.1.1
Range and Summation Convention ................................................1
1.1.2
Substitution Operator ......................................................................1
Vectors............................................................................................................2
1.2.1
Notation ...........................................................................................2
1.2.2
Gradient, Divergence, and Curl ......................................................4
Matrices..........................................................................................................5
1.3.1
Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors.........................................................8
1.3.2
Coordinate Transformations............................................................9
1.3.3
Transformations of Vectors .............................................................9
1.3.4
Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates.............................................11
1.3.5
Gradient Operator..........................................................................16
1.3.6
Divergence and Curl of Vectors....................................................17
Appendix I: Divergence and Curl of Vectors in Orthogonal
Curvilinear Coordinates................................................................................18
Derivatives of Base Vectors ..........................................................18
Divergence.....................................................................................19
Curl ................................................................................................20
Exercises ......................................................................................................20
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
Tensors .........................................................................................................25
Divergence, Curl, and Laplacian of a Tensor .............................................27
2.2.1
Divergence.....................................................................................27
2.2.2
Curl and Laplacian ........................................................................28
Invariants......................................................................................................29
Positive Definiteness....................................................................................30
Polar Decomposition Theorem....................................................................31
Kronecker Products on Tensors...................................................................32
2.6.1
VEC Operator and the Kronecker Product ...................................32
2.6.2
Fundamental Relations for Kronecker Products...........................33
2.6.3
Eigenstructures of Kronecker Products ........................................35
2.6.4
Kronecker Form of Quadratic Products........................................36
2.6.5
Kronecker Product Operators for Fourth-Order Tensors..............36
2.6.6
Transformation Properties of VEC and TEN22 ............................37
2.6.7
Kronecker Product Functions for Tensor Outer Products ............38
2.6.8
2.7
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Kinematics ...................................................................................................51
4.1.1
Displacement .................................................................................51
4.1.2
Displacement Vector......................................................................52
4.1.3
Deformation Gradient Tensor .......................................................52
Strain ............................................................................................................53
4.2.1
F, E, EL and u in Orthogonal Coordinates....................................53
4.2.2
Velocity-Gradient Tensor, Deformation-Rate Tensor,
and Spin Tensor.............................................................................56
Differential Volume Element .......................................................................60
Differential Surface Element .......................................................................61
Rotation Tensor............................................................................................63
Compatibility Conditions For EL and D .....................................................64
Sample Problems .........................................................................................67
Exercises ......................................................................................................69
Chapter 5
5.1
Chapter 6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Chapter 7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
9.2
9.3
Introduction................................................................................................117
Overview of the Finite-Element Method ..................................................117
Mesh Development ....................................................................................118
Chapter 9
9.1
Chapter 8
8.1
8.2
8.3
Interpolation Models..................................................................................121
9.1.1
One-Dimensional Members ........................................................121
9.1.2
Interpolation Models: Two Dimensions......................................124
9.1.3
Interpolation Models: Three Dimensions ...................................127
Strain-Displacement Relations and Thermal Analogs ..............................128
9.2.1
Strain-Displacement Relations: One Dimension ........................128
9.2.2
Strain-Displacement Relations: Two Dimensions ......................129
9.2.3
Axisymmetric Element on Axis of Revolution ..........................130
9.2.4
Thermal Analog in Two Dimensions..........................................131
9.2.5
Three-Dimensional Elements......................................................131
9.2.6
Thermal Analog in Three Dimensions........................................132
Stress-Strain-Temperature Relations in Linear Thermoelasticity.............132
9.3.1
Overview .....................................................................................132
9.3.2
One-Dimensional Members ........................................................132
9.3.3
Two-Dimensional Elements ........................................................133
9.4
9.3.4
Element for Plate with Membrane and Bending Response .......135
9.3.5
Axisymmetric Element................................................................135
9.3.6
Three-Dimensional Element .......................................................136
9.3.7
Elements for Conductive Heat Transfer .....................................137
Exercises ....................................................................................................137
10.3
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
14.3
16.5
16.6
Overview....................................................................................................201
Types of Nonlinearity ................................................................................201
Combined Incremental and Iterative Methods: a Simple Example..........202
Finite Stretching of a Rubber Rod under Gravity: a Simple Example ....203
16.4.1 Nonlinear Strain-Displacement Relations...................................203
16.4.2 Stress and Tangent Modulus Relations.......................................204
16.4.3 Incremental Equilibrium Relation...............................................205
16.4.4 Numerical Solution by Newton Iteration....................................208
Illustration of Newton Iteration.................................................................211
16.5.1 Example.......................................................................................212
Exercises ....................................................................................................213
Introduction................................................................................................227
Compressible Elastomers ..........................................................................227
Incompressible and Near-Incompressible Elastomers ..............................228
18.3.1 Specific Expressions for the Helmholtz Potential ......................230
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9
19.2
19.3
19.4
19.5
19.6
Plasticity.....................................................................................................243
19.1.1 Kinematics...................................................................................243
19.1.2 Plasticity ......................................................................................243
Thermoplasticity ........................................................................................246
19.2.1 Balance of Energy .......................................................................246
19.2.2 Entropy-Production Inequality ....................................................247
19.2.3 Dissipation Potential ...................................................................248
Thermoinelastic Tangent-Modulus Tensor ................................................249
19.3.1 Example.......................................................................................250
Tangent-Modulus Tensor in Viscoplasticity ..............................................252
Continuum Damage Mechanics ................................................................254
Exercises ....................................................................................................256
20.2
20.3
Mathematical
Foundations: Vectors
and Matrices
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of mathematical relations, which will prove useful
in the subsequent chapters. Chandrashekharaiah and Debnath (1994) provide a more
complete discussion of the concepts introduced here.
1.1.1 RANGE
AND
SUMMATION CONVENTION
Unless otherwise noted, repeated Latin indices imply summation over the range
1 to 3. For example:
3
ai bi =
a b = a b + a b
i i
1 1
2 2
+ a3 b3
(1.1)
i =1
(1.2)
The repeated index is summed out and, therefore, dummy. The quantity aijbjk in
th
Equation (1.2) has two free indices, i and k (and later will be shown to be the ik
entry of a second-order tensor). Note that Greek indices do not imply summation.
Thus, a b = a1b1 if = 1.
i= j
i j
(1.3)
3
v3
v
e3
e2
v2
e1
v1
1
FIGURE 1.1 Rectilinear coordinate system.
1.2 VECTORS
1.2.1 NOTATION
Throughout this and the following chapters, orthogonal coordinate systems will be
used. Figure 1.1 shows such a system, with base vectors e1, e2, and e3. The scalar
product of vector analysis satisfies
e i e j = ij
(1.4)
0 i = j
(1.5)
It is an obvious step to introduce the alternating operator, ijk, also known as the
th
ijk entry of the permutation tensor:
ijk = [e i e j ] e k
1
= 1
(1.6)
*T)
w = wi e i
(1.7)
*M)
w1
w = w2
w3
(1.8)
It is compact, but also risks confusion by not displaying the underlying base
T
T
vectors. In *M notation, the transposes v and w are also introduced; they are
displayed as row vectors:
*M)
v T = {v1
v2
v3}
w T = {w1
w2
w3}
(1.9)
= vi w j ij
= vi wi
(1.10)
v = vv
(1.11)
v w = v w cos vw
(1.12)
in which vw is the angle between the vectors v and w. The scalar, or dot, product is
*M)
v w vTw
(1.13)
= ijk vi w j e k
(1.14)
Additional results on vector notation are presented in the next section, which
introduces matrix notation. Finally, the vector product satisfies
v w = v w sin vw
*T)
(1.15)
and vxw is colinear with n the unit normal vector perpendicular to the plane containing
v and w. The area of the triangle defined by the vectors v and w is given by 12 v w .
AND
CURL
*M)
d
dx
dx
(1.16)
*M)
( )
x
( )
( ) =
y
( )
z
(1.17)
and clearly,
T
*M)
d ( ) = ( )
dx
(1.18)
dV = n dS
(1.19)
v2
v3 ]
(1.20)
v dV = nv dS
T
(1.21)
Another important relation is the divergence theorem. Let V denote the volume
of a closed domain, with surface S. Let n denote the exterior surface normal to S,
and let v denote a vector-valued function of x, the position of a given point within
the body. The divergence of v satisfies
*M)
dx dV = n vdS
dv
(1.22)
v
x j k
(1.23)
which is the conventional cross-product, except that the divergence operator replaces
the first vector. The curl satisfies the curl theorem, analogous to the divergence
theorem (Schey, 1973):
v dV = n v dS
(1.24)
Finally, the reader may verify, with some effort that, for a vector v(X) and a
path X(S) in which S is the length along the path,
v dX(S) = n v dS .
(1.25)
(1.26)
1.3 MATRICES
An n n matrix is simply an array of numbers arranged in rows and columns, also
known as a second-order array. For the matrix A, the entry aij occupies the intersection
th
th
of the i row and the j column. We may also introduce the n 1 first-order array a,
th
T
in which ai denotes the i entry. We likewise refer to the 1 n array, a , as first-order.
In the current context, a first-order array is not a vector unless it is associated with
a coordinate system and certain transformation properties, to be introduced shortly.
In the following, all matrices are real unless otherwise noted. Several properties of
first- and second-order arrays are as follows:
The sum of two n n matrices, A and B, is a matrix, C, in which cij = aij + bij.
The product of a matrix, A, and a scalar, q, is a matrix, C, in which cij = qaij.
T
The transpose of a matrix, A, denoted A , is a matrix in which aijT = a ji A is
T
T
called symmetric if A = A , and it is called antisymmetric if A = A .
The product of two matrices, A and B, is the matrix, C, for which
*T)
(1.27)
cij = a iT b j
(1.28)
*T)
det(A) =
1
a a a
6 ijk pqr ip jq kr
(1.29)
det(A T ) = det(A)
det(I) = 1
(1.30)
7
1
AA 1 = A 1A = I
(1.31)
(AB) T = BT A T
(1.32)
(AB) 1 = B 1A 1
(1.33)
If c and d are two 3 1 vectors, the vector product c d generates the vector
c d = Cd, in which C is an antisymmetric matrix given by
*M)
C = c3
c2
c3
0
c1
c2
c1
(1.34)
Recalling that c d = ikjckdj, and noting that ikjck denotes the (ij) component
of an antisymmetric tensor, it is immediate that [C]ij = ikjck.
th
If c and d are two vectors, the outer product cd generates the matrix C given by
*M)
c1d1
C = c2 d1
c3 d1
c1d2
c2 d 2
c3 d2
c1d3
c2 d 3
c3 d3
(1.35)
We will see later that C is a second-order tensor if c and d have the transformation
properties of vectors.
An n n matrix A can be decomposed into symmetric and antisymmetric
matrices using
A = As + Aa ,
As =
1
[A + A T ],
2
Aa =
1
[A A T ]
2
(1.36)
1.3.1 EIGENVALUES
AND
EIGENVECTORS
(1.37)
The solution for xj is trivial unless A jI is singular, in which event det(A jI) =
0. There are n possible complex roots. If the magnitude of the eigenvectors is set to unity,
they may likewise be determined. As an example, consider
2
A=
1
(1.38)
1
A 1I =
1
1
A 2 I =
1
(1.39)
Note that in each case, the rows are multiples of each other, so that only one row
is independent. We next determine the eigenvectors. It is easily seen that magnitudes
of the eigenvectors are arbitrary. For example, if x1 is an eigenvector, so is 10x1.
T
Accordingly, the magnitudes are arbitrarily set to unity. For x1 = {x11 x12} ,
x11 + x12 = 0
2
2
x11
+ x12
=1
(1.40)
A[x1 : x 2 :K x n ] = [x1 : x 2 :K x n ]
n1
. (1.41)
(1.42)
yij = x iT x j = ij
(1.43)
1
X T AX =
A = X XT
(1.44)
and X can be interpreted as representing a rotation from the reference axes to the
principal axes.
*T)
(1.45)
= ij
*M)
(1.46)
in which case the matrix Q is called orthogonal. An analogous argument proves that
T
T
T
2
Q Q = I. From Equation (1.30), 1 = det(QQ ) = det(Q)det(Q ) = det (Q). Righthanded rotations satisfy det(Q) = 1, in which case Q is called proper orthogonal.
1.3.3 TRANSFORMATIONS
OF
VECTORS
The vector v is the same as the vector v, except that v is referred to e j , while v is
referred to ei. Now
v = v j e j
*T)
= v j q ji e i
= vi e i
(1.47)
10
v = Q T v (a )
th
v = Qv ( b)
(1.48)
*M)
d = d Q T
dx
dx
(1.49)
for which reason d/dx is called a contravariant vector, while v is properly called a
covariant vector.
Finally, to display the base vectors to which the tensor A is referred (i.e., in
tensor-indicial notation), we introduce the outer product
ei e j
(1.50)
(1.51)
(1.52)
11
(1.53)
dR x = dxi e i
(1.54)
(1.55)
where
dR y =
dy g
g = h
dx j dx j
h =
dy dy
dxi
dy
dx j dx j
dy dy
(1.56)
ei
1 dxi
e
h dy i
in which h is called the scale factor. Recall that the use of Greek letters for indices
implies no summation. Clearly, is a unit vector. Conversely, if the transformation
is reversed,
dR y = g i dyi
=
dyi
g dx
dx j i j
(1.57)
12
dyi
g =
dx j i
dx
dy
(1.58)
We restrict attention to orthogonal coordinate systems yj, with the property that
T =
(1.59)
(1.60)
Under restriction to orthogonal coordinate systems, the initial base vectors ei can be
expressed in terms of using
e i = Tj e i j
=
1 xi
hi y j j
1 xi x k
e
hi h j y j y j k
(1.61)
and furnishing
1 xi x k
= ik
hi h j y j y j
(1.62)
Also of interest is the volume element; the volume determined by the vector
dRy is given by the vector triple product
dVy = (h1dy1 1 ) [h2 dy2 2 h3 dy3 3 ]
= h1h2 h3 dy1dy2 dy3
(1.63)
and h1h2h3 is known as the Jacobian of the transformation. For cylindrical coordinates
using r, , and z, as shown in Figure 1.2, x1 = rcos , x2 = rsin , and x3 = z. Simple
manipulation furnishes that hr = 1, h = r, hz = 1, and
e r = cos e1 + sin e2
e = sin e1 + cos e2
e z = e3
(1.64)
which, of course, are orthonormal vectors. Also of interest are the relations der =
e d and de = er d.
13
x3
ez
x2
e
er
x1
Transformation of the coordinate system from rectilinear to cylindrical coordinates can be viewed as a rotation of the coordinate system through . Thus, if the
vector v is referred to the reference rectilinear system and v is the same vector
referred to a cylindrical coordinate system, then in two dimensions,
cos
Q( ) = sin
v = Q( )v
sin
cos
0
(1.65)
dQ( ) T
v +
Q ( )v
t
dt
(1.66)
where the partial derivative implies differentiation with instantaneously held fixed
and
sin
dQ( )
= cos
dt
cos
sin
0
0
d
0
dt
1
(1.67)
14
x3
e
er
x2
e
x1
Now
since
dQ ( )
dt
0=
d
dQ( ) T
dQ( ) T
Q ( ) +
Q ( )
(Q( )Q T ( )) =
dt
dt
dt
(1.68)
In fact,
0
dQ( ) T
Q ( ) = 1
dt
1
0
0
0
d
0
dt
0
(1.69)
It follows that
d
v = v + v
dt
t
(1.70)
x 2 = r sin cos
x3 = r sin
(1.71)
15
(1.72)
Now er has the same direction as the position vector: r = rer. Thus, it follows that
e r = cos cos e1 + sin cos e 2 + sin e 3
(1.73)
x1
= r sin cos
x 2
= r cos cos
x3
=0
x1
= r cos sin
x 2
= r sin sin
x3
= r cos
(1.74)
(1.75)
e r = cos cos e1 + sin cos e 2 + sin e 3 e1 = cos cos e r sin e sin cos e
e = sin e1 + cos e 2
e 3 = sin e r + cos e .
v = vr e r + v e + v e .
(1.76)
Eliminating e1, e2, e3 in favor of er, e, e and using *M notation permits writing
v = Q( , )v,
cos cos
Q( , ) = sin
sin cos
sin cos
cos
sin sin
sin
0 .
cos
(1.77)
16
Suppose now that v(t), , and are functions of time. As in cylindrical coordinates,
d
v = v + v
dt
t
dQ ( )
dt
sin cos
dQ( )
= cos
dt
sin sin
cos cos
sin
cos sin
cos sin
+
0
cos cos
sin sin
0
d
dt
cos
dt
sin
sin cos
cos
dQ( ) T
Q ( ) = cos
dt
(1.78)
0
d
+ 0
sin
dt
1
0
0
sin
(1.79)
d
dt
dx
xi i
= [ ] dr,
dr = e i dxi
= e i
xi
(1.80)
dx
xi i
h1 y
h y
h dy
h dy
(1.81)
17
(1.82)
e
+
+ ez
r
z
r
(1.83)
e e z
+
+
r r cos
r
(1.84)
= e r
and in spherical coordinates
= e r
1.3.6 DIVERGENCE
AND
CURL
OF
VECTORS
Under orthogonal transformations, the divergence and curl operators are invariant
and satisfy the divergence and curl theorems, respectively. Unfortunately, the transformation properties of the divergence and curl operators are elaborate. The reader
is referred to texts in continuum mechanics, such as Chung (1988). The development
is given in Appendix I at the end of the chapter. Here, we simply list the results.
Let v be a vector referred to rectilinear coordinates, and let v denote the same vector
referred to orthogonal coordinates. The divergence and curl satisfy
( v ) =
1
h1h2 h3
(h2 h3 v1 ) +
(h3 h1v2 ) +
(h1h2 v3 )
y
y
y
2
3
1
(1.85)
and
( v ) =
1
h1h2 h3
(h3 v3 )
(h2 v2 ) 1
h1
y3
y2
h2
(h3 v3 )
(h1v1 ) 2
y3
y1
+ h3
(h2 v2 )
(h1v1 ) 3
y 2
y1
(1.86)
1 (rvr ) 1 v vz
+
+
r r
r
z
(1.87)
18
and
( v ) =
1 vz (rv )
(rv ) vr
vz vr
re +
e
e r
r
z
z
z
r
r
(1.88)
OF
BASE VECTORS
v gh .
ek =
g =
x
e
yk k
y
x k
h = g g
(a.1)
(a.2)
h ,
2 x y
= h
yk y j x k
The bracketed quantities are known as Cristoffel symbols. From Equations (a.1 and a.2),
dh
dg
=
dy j
dy j
Continuing,
(a.3)
1 g h
=
h y j h y j
y j
=
cj ,
cj =
1
(1 )
h
(a.4)
19
DIVERGENCE
The development that follows is based on the fact that
dv
dv
v = v = tr
= tr
dr
dr
(a.5)
(a.6)
v j
yk
j dyk
j (h dy )
1 v j
v j
h1 y
(h dy )
1 v j
j dr
(a.7)
Similarly,
vjd j = vj
=
v j j
(h dy )
v j j
v j j
(h dy )
y
dyk
yk
v
j
h
dr
y
c j dr
(a.8)
20
Consequently,
dv = 1 v j + v c ,
j j
dr h y j
v =
h1 y
+ v j c j
(a.9)
CURL
In rectilinear coordinates, the individual entries of the curl can be expressed as a
th
divergence, as follows. For the i entry,
[ v]i = ijk
=
vk
x j
(i )
w
x j j
w (ji ) = jki vk
= w (i )
(a.10)
v = w (2)
w ( 3)
(a.11)
The transformation properties of the curl can be readily induced from Equation (a.9).
1.4 EXERCISES
1. In the tetrahedron shown in Figure 1.4, A1, A2, and A3 denote the areas
of the faces whose normal vectors point in the e1, e2, and e3 directions.
Let A and n denote the area and normal vector of the inclined face,
respectively. Prove that
n=
A
A1
A
e + 2e + 3e
A 1 A 2 A 3
ijk jk = 0,
i = 1, 2, 3.
21
A
n
e3
A1
A2
A3
e1
e2
1
FIGURE 1.4 Geometry of a tetrahedron.
1/ 2
1/ 4
1
B=
1/ 2
1/ 3
1/ 4
b
d
1 d
ad bc c
6. For the matrices in Exercise 4, find the inverses and verify that
(AB) 1 = B 1 A 1
7. Consider the matrix
cos
Q=
sin
sin
cos
22
Verify that
T
T
(a) QQ = Q Q
T
1
(b) Q = Q
(c) For any 2 1 vector a
Qa = a
[The relation in (c) is general, and Qa represents a rotation of a.]
8. Using the matrix C from Exercise 5, and introducing the vectors (onedimensional arrays)
q
a=
r
s
b=
t
verify that
a T Cb = b T C T a
9. Verify the divergence theorem using the following block, where
x y
v=
x + y
Y
n vdS = vdV
2003 by CRC CRC Press LLC
23
n AdS = A dV
T
using
a11 = x + y + x 2 + y 2
a12 = x + y + x 2 y 2
a21 = x + y x 2 y 2
a22 = x y x 2 y 2
12. Obtain the expressions for the gradient, divergence, and curl in spherical
coordinates.
Mathematical
Foundations: Tensors
2.1 TENSORS
We now consider two n 1 vectors, v and w, and an n n matrix, A, such that v =
Aw. We now make the important assumption that the underlying information in this
relation is preserved under rotation. In particular, simple manipulation furnishes that
v = Qv
)
= QAw
= QAQTQw
= QAQT w .
(2.1)
The square matrix A is now called a second-order tensor if and only if A = QAQ .
Let A and B be second-order n n tensors. The manipulations that follow
1
T
demonstrate that A , (A + B), AB, and A are also tensors.
T
(A T ) = (QAQT )T
T
= QT ATQT
(2.2)
A B = (QAQ T )(QBQ T )
= QA(QQ T )BQ T
= QABQ T
(2.3)
(A + B) = A + B
= QAQ T + QBQ T
= Q(A + B)Q T
(2.4)
A 1 = (QAQT )1
1
= Q T A 1Q 1
= QA 1Q T .
(2.5)
25
26
( xx T ) = x x T
= (Qx )(Qx ) T
= Q( xx T )Q T
(2.6)
Next,
d
d
H = .
dx d x
T
d 2 = dx T H dx
(2.7)
However,
dx T H dx = (Q dx ) T H Q dx
= dx T (Q T H Q) dx,
(2.8)
u
du T = dx T
x
(2.9)
and also
T
du T = dx T u T .
x
(2.10)
We conclude that
T
u T
u
= T.
x
x
(2.11)
u
u T
=Q
Q ,
x
x
from which we conclude that
are tensors.
u
x
(2.12)
27
2.2.1 DIVERGENCE
Recall the divergence theorem c Tn dS = Tc dV. Let c = A T b, in which b is an
arbitrary constant vector. Now
b T An dS =
=
(A b)dV
T
A dV b
T
= b T [ T A T ]T dV .
(2.13)
AndS [ A ] dV = 0.
)
T T
(2.14)
In tensor-indicial notation,
b a n dS b [[ A ] ] dV = 0.
T
i ij j
T T
(2.15)
bi
aij [ T A T ]T
x j
] dV = 0.
i
(2.16)
aij =
a T.
x j
x j ji
(2.17)
Thus, if we are to write A as a (column) vector, mixing tensor- and matrixvector notation,
A = [ T A T ]T .
(2.18)
28
(2.19)
th
2.2.2 CURL
AND
T 2
T 3 ).
(2.20)
LAPLACIAN
The curl of vector c satisfies the curl theorem c dV = n c dS. Using tensorindicial notation,
n cdS =
ijk
n j akl bl dS
= ijk n j akl dS bl
c n dSb ,
ij
(2.21)
From the divergence theorem applied to the tensor cij = ijk akl bl,
n AbdS =
a
= ijk kl dV bl
x j
= A T dV b ,
if [ A]il = ijk
a .
x j kl
(2.22)
A = 1
3 .
(2.23)
29
th
If I is the array for the I column of A, then
A T = 1
3 .
(2.24)
(2.25)
2 2
2 3 ].
(2.26)
(2.27)
(2.28)
T T
(2.29)
2.3 INVARIANTS
Letting A denote a nonsingular, symmetric, 3 3 tensor, the equation det(A l) =
0 can be expanded as
3 I12 + I2 I3 = 0,
(2.30)
in which
I1 = tr(A)
I2 =
1 2
[tr (A) tr(A 2 )]
2
I3 = det(A).
(2.31)
Here, tr (A) = ijaij denotes the trace of A. Equation 2.30 also implies the CayleyHamilton theorem:
A 3 I1A 2 + I2 A I3 I = 0,
(2.32)
30
from which
1
I3 = [tr(A 3 ) I1tr(A 2 ) + I2 tr(A)]
3
A
1
3
(2.33)
= I [A I1A + I2 I]
2
The trace of any n n symmetric tensor B is invariant under orthogonal transformations (rotations), such as tr(B) = tr(B), since
a pq pq = q pr qqs ars pq
= ars q pr qqs
= ars rs .
2
(2.34)
2
Likewise, tr(A ) and tr(A ) are invariant since A, A , and A are tensors, thus I1,
I2, and I3 are invariants. Derivatives of invariants are presented in a subsequent section.
(2.35)
y .
2
i i
(y = X T x )
(2.36)
31
The last expression can be positive for arbitrary y (arbitrary x) only if i > 0, i =
T
1, 2,, n. The matrix A is semidefinite if x Ax 0, and negative-definite (written
T
T
T
A < 0), if x Ax < 0. If B is a nonsingular tensor, then B B > 0, since q(B B, x) =
T T
T
x B Bx = y y > 0 (in which y = Bx and denotes the quadratic product). If B is
(2.37)
BT B = X Tb b X b
1
= X Tb ( b ) 2 YY T ( b ) 2 X b
T
1
1
= X Tb ( b ) 2 Y X Tb ( b ) 2 Y ,
(2.38a)
B = Y T ( b ) 2 X b .
(2.38b)
1
2
b
BT B = X Tb X b ,
1
b2 =
BT B using
.
. ,
(2.38c)
32
in which the positive square roots are used. It is easy to verify that ( BT B ) 2 = B and
that BT B > 0 . Note that
B B T B
1
2
B B T B
1
2
B B
1
2
T
[B B]
B B
= I.
1
2
(2.38d)
= ZX Tb b2 X b .
(2.38e)
Finally, noting that (ZX Tb )(ZX Tb ) T = Z(X Tb X b )Z T = ZZ T = I , we make the identification Y T = ZX Tb in Equation 2.38b. Equation 2.38 plays a major role in the
interpretation of strain tensors, a concept that is introduced in subsequent chapters.
AND THE
KRONECKER PRODUCT
a21
a31
an,n1
ann}T .
(2.39)
a21B
AB= .
a B
n1
a12 B
a1m B
. .
anm B
(2.40)
33
a1b
a2 b
ab = . .
.
an b
FOR
(2.41)
KRONECKER PRODUCTS
K=I
KI
1,
u IK =
0,
K=J
KJ
(2.42)
Then,
VEC(A T ) = U nm VEC(A).
(2.43)
Note that uJK = uJI = 1 and uIK = uIJ = 1, with all other entries vanishing. Hence
if m = n, then uJI = uIJ, so that Unm is symmetric if m = n.
Relation 2: If A and B are second-order n n tensors, then
tr(AB) = VEC T (A T )VEC(B).
(2.44)
(2.45)
(2.46)
34
(2.47)
(2.48)
1
.
U nn = U Tnn = U nn
U 2nn = I n2
(2.49)
Unn is hereafter called the permutation tensor for n n matrices. If A is symmetric, then
(U nn I n2 ) VEC(A) = 0. If A is antisymmetric, then (Unn + Inn)VEC(A) = 0.
If A and B are second-order n n tensors, then
tr(AB) = VEC T (B)VEC(A T )
= VEC T (B)U nn VEC(A)
= [U nn VEC(B)]T VEC(A)
= VEC T (BT )VEC(A)
= tr(BA),
(2.50)
(2.51)
(2.52)
35
(2.53)
Consequently, if C is arbitrary,
U n2 B AVEC(C) = A BU n2 VEC(C),
(2.54)
(2.55)
(2.56)
The Kronecker sum and difference appear frequently (for example, in control
theory) and are defined as follows:
A B = A In + In B
A B = A I n I n B.
(2.57)
2.6.3 EIGENSTRUCTURES
OF
KRONECKER PRODUCTS
Let j and k denote the eigenvalues of A and B, and let yj and zk denote the
corresponding eigenvectors. The Kronecker product, sum, and difference have the
following eigenstructures:
expression
jk th eigenvalue
jk th eigenvector
AB
j k
y j zk
AB
j + k
y j zk
j k
yj zk
(2.58)
36
As proof,
j y j k zk = j k y j zk
= Ay j Bz k
= (A B)(y j z k ).
(2.59)
OF
QUADRATIC PRODUCTS
a T Rb = tr[ba T R]
= VEC T ([ba T ]T )VEC(R)
= VEC T (ab T )VEC(R)
= b T a T r.
(2.60)
(2.61)
Note that
TEN 22(ACB)VEC(D) = VEC(ACBD)
= I n A VEC(CBD)
= I n A TEN 22(C) VEC(BD)
= I n A TEN 22(C)I n B VEC(D),
(2.62)
37
1
OF
VEC
AND
TEN22
(2.63)
1
(2.64a)
(2.64b)
It follows that
n2 n
TEN12(Cb ) = QTEN12(C b )Q T Q T
n n2 ,
(2.65)
38
i, j = 1, 2, 3,
(2.66)
in which Tij and Eij are entries of the (small-deformation) stress and strain tensors
denoted by T and E. Here, ij denotes the substitution (Kronecker) tensor. Equation 2.66
exhibits three tensor outer products of the identity (Kronecker) tensor I: ik jl, il jk,
and ijkl. In general, let A and B be two nonsingular n n second-order tensors
with entries a ij and bij; let a = VEC(A) and b = VEC(B). There are 24 permutations
of the indices ijkl corresponding to outer products of tensors A and B. Recalling the
definitions of the Kronecker product, we introduce three basic Kronecker-product
functions:
C1 (A, B) = ab T
C 2 (A, B) = A B
C 3 (A, B) = A BUn2 .
(2.67)
(2.68)
39
With t = VEC(T) and e = VEC(E), and noting that U9e = e (since E is symmetric),
we now restate Equation 2.66 as
t = [ [C2 (I, I) + C3 ( I, I)] + C1 (I, I)]e
(2.69)
The proof is presented for several of the relations in Equation 2.68. We introduce
tensors R and S with entries rij and sij. Also, let s = VEC(S) and r = VEC(R).
a.) Suppose that sij = aij bkl rkl. However, aij bkl rkl = aij b lk rkl , in which case b kl
th
T
T
is the kl entry of B . It follows that S = tr(B R)A. Hence,
T
(2.70)
Since s = TEN22(aij bkl)r, it follows that TEN 22( aij bkl ) = C1 (A, B), as
shown in Equation 2.68.
T
T
b.) Suppose that sij = aik bjl rkl. However, aik bjl rkl = aik rkl b lj, thus S = ARB . Now
s = VEC(ARBT )
= I AVEC(RBT )
= I AB Ir
= B Ar
= C 2 (B, A)r,
(2.71)
(2.72)
40
( a)
cijkl = cijlk
(b) ,
cijkl = cklij
(c )
(2.73)
( a)
(b) .
TEN22(C)Un2 = TEN22(C)
(c )
(2.74)
(2.75)
1
1
Note that TEN22(C) Un2 = TEN22(C) implies that Un2 TEN22(C ) = TEN22(C ),
1
1
while Un2 TEN22(C) = TEN22(C) implies that TEN22(C ) Un2 = TEN22(C ).
Finally, we prove the following: for a nonsingular n n tensor G,
T
(2.76)
(2.77)
41
(2.78)
(2.79)
G T B G = C 1G 1 A G.
(2.80)
2.6.9 DIFFERENTIALS
TENSOR INVARIANTS
OF
Let A be a symmetric 3 3 tensor, with invariants I1(A), I2(A), and I3(A). For a
scalar-valued function f(A),
df (A) =
f
f
da = tr
dA ,
A
aij ij
f
f
.
=
A ij aij
(2.81)
f
da.
a
(2.82)
= I1i T a T
(2.83)
42
and
dI3 = tr(A 2 dA) I1tr(A dA) + I2 dA
= tr(A 1dA / I3 )
(2.84)
so that
I3
= VEC(A 1 ) / I3
a
(2.85)
2.7 EXERCISES
1. Given a symmetric n n tensor , prove that
tr( tr( ) In /n) = 0.
2. Prove that if is a symmetric tensor with entries ij,
ijk jk = 0,
i = 1, 2, 3.
Introduction to
Variational and
Numerical Methods
(3.1)
(3.2)
F =
F
F
F
ev + tr
ev ,
u
u
(3.3)
F=
F
F
u + tr
u .
u
(3.4)
( )dS = ( )dS.
(3.5)
43
44
(qr ) = q (r ) + (q)r.
(3.6)
( fu) = fu.
(3.7)
5. Other than for number 2, the variation is arbitrary. For example, for two
T
vectors v and w, v d w = 0 implies that v and w are orthogonal to each
T
other. However, v w implies that v = 0, since only the zero vector can
be orthogonal to an arbitrary vector.
As a simple example, Figure 3.1 depicts a rod of length L, cross-sectional area
A, and elastic modulus E. At x = 0, the rod is built in, while at x = L, the tensile
force P is applied. Inertia is neglected. The governing equations are in terms of
displacement u, stress S, and (linear) strain E:
du
dx
strain-displacement
E=
stress-strain
S = EE
equilibrium
d
=0
dx
(3.8)
d 2u
= 0.
dx 2
(3.9)
The following steps serve to derive a variational equation that is equivalent to the
differential equation and endpoint conditions (boundary conditions and constraints).
E,A
P
L
45
u EA
d 2u
Adx = 0.
dx 2
(3.10)
d
dx
uEA du du EA du dx = 0
dx dx
dx
(3.11)
du
du
du
dx EA dx dx = uEA dx .
0
(3.12)
Step 3: Identify the primary and secondary variables. The primary variable is
present in the endpoint terms (rhs) under the variational symbol, l, and is
u. The conjugate secondary variable is EA du
.
dx
Step 4: Satisfy the constraints and boundary conditions. At x = 0, u is prescribed, thus u = 0. At x = L, the load P = EA du
is prescribed. Also, note
dx
du = ( 1 EA( du )2 ) .
that ( du
)
E
A
2
dx
dx
dx
Step 5: Form the variational equation; the equations and boundary conditions
are consolidated into one integral equation, F = 0, where
F=
1 du
EA
dx Pu( L).
2 dx
(3.13)
th
(3.14)
2 F = { u T
u
u T}H
,
u
T
F
u u
H=
T
u u F
F
u u
,
T
F
u u
(3.15)
46
(3.16)
in which V again denotes the volume of a domain and S denotes its surface area. In
addition, h is a prescribed (known) function on S. G is called a functional since it
generates a number for every function u(x). We first concentrate on a three-dimensional,
rectangular coordinate system and suppose that G = 0, as in the Principle of
Stationary Potential Energy in elasticity. Note that
F
F
u = tr
u +
F u.
u
x u
x u
(3.17)
The first and last terms in Equation 3.17 can be recognized as divergences of
vectors. We now invoke the divergence theorem to obtain
0 = G
F
u u + tr u u dV + h (x)u(x) dS
u x u u dV + n
F
udS + h T ( x ) u( x ) dS.
u
(3.18)
= 0 T.
u x u
u( x ) prescribed
T F
T
T
n u + h1 ( x ) = 0 on S
(3.19)
x on S1
x on S S1
Let D > 0 denote a second-order tensor, and let denote a vector that is a
nonlinear function of a second vector u, which is subject to variation. The function
F = 12 T D satisfies
F = uT
T
D
u T
2 F = uT
T
T
D
u + u T T uD .
T
u
u
u u
(3.20)
Despite the fact that D > 0, in the current nonlinear example, the specific vector
47
df
x ( j +1) = x ( j )
f ( x ( j ) ).
dx x ( j )
(3.21)
Let n+1,j denote the increment xn( +j +11) xn( +j )1. Then, to first-order in the Taylor series
1
df 1
df
n +1,j n +1,j1 = f(x(j) )
f(x(j1) )
dx x(j1)
dx x(j)
1
df
f(x(j) ) f(x(j1) )
dx x(j)
1
df
df
n +1,j1 + 0 2
(j)
dx
dx
x x(j)
n +1,j1 + 0 2
(3.22)
u T [(u) v] = 0,
(3.23)
n +1,j =
u u(nj+)1
[ ( u ) v ] ,
( j)
n +1
j+1
(3.24)
48
in which, for example, the initial iterate is un. One can avoid the use of an explicit
matrix inverse by solving the linear system
( j)
u ( j ) n+1, j = u n+1 v j +1
un +1
AND THE
(3.25)
ARC-LENGTH METHOD
(u, ) = 2 [ n ] + v T (u u n ) 2 = 0,
(3.26)
(u) v 0
= .
(3.27)
( )
(
u ( j ) ( j ) v
u (nj++11) u (nj+)1
n +1
n +1
,
J
=
( j)
( j +1) ( j )
u
,
n+1
n +1
n +1
J
J =
v T
v
.
2
(3.28)
v / I
T
v /
0
.
(3.29)
2
2
). Ideally, is chosen to maximize
The determinant of J is now det(J + v v /
det (J).
49
3.3 EXERCISES
1. Directly apply variational calculus to F, given by
F=
1
du
EA dx Pu( L )
dx
2
d 2u
=0
dx 2
EI
d 4w
=0
dx 4
d 2w
dx 2
V = EI
d 3w
dx 3
M ( L) = 0, V( L) = V0 .
neutral axis
v0
V
E,I
x
L
FIGURE 3.2 Cantilevered beam.
Kinematics
of Deformation
The current chapter provides a review of the mathematics for describing deformation
of continua. A more complete account is given, for example, in Chandrasekharaiah
and Debnath (1994).
4.1 KINEMATICS
4.1.1 DISPLACEMENT
In finite-element analysis for finite deformation, it is necessary to carefully distinguish between the current (or deformed) configuration (i.e., at the current time or
load step) and a reference configuration, which is usually considered strain-free.
Here, both configurations are referred to the same orthogonal coordinate system
characterized by the base vectors e1, e2, e3 (see Figure 1.1 in Chapter 1). Consider a
body with volume V and surface S in the current configuration. The particle P
occupies a position represented by the position vector x, and experiences (empirical)
temperature T. In the corresponding undeformed configuration, the position of P is
described by X, and the temperature has the value T0 independent of X. It is now
assumed that x is a function of X and t and that T is also a function of X and t. The
relations are written as x(X, t) and T(X, t), and it is assumed that x and T are
continuously differentiable in X and t through whatever order needed in the subsequent development.
deformed
x
e2
X
undeformed
e1
FIGURE 4.1 Position vectors in deformed and undeformed configurations.
51
52
Q'
ds
P'
Q *
P *
dS
(4.1)
Now consider two close points, P and Q, in the undeformed configuration. The
vector difference XP XQ is represented as a differential d X with squared length
2
T
dS = d X d X. The corresponding quantity in the deformed configuration is dx, with
2
T
dS = dx dx.
F=
x
X
(4.2)
(4.3)
in which U and V are orthogonal and is a positive definite diagonal tensor whose
Kinematics of Deformation
53
= 0
2
0
(4.4)
4.2 STRAIN
The deformation-induced change in squared length is given by
ds2 dS2 = d X T 2 Ed X
1
E = [FT F I],
2
(4.5)
in which E denotes the Lagrangian strain tensor. Also of interest is the Right CauchyT
Green strain C = F F = 2E + I. Note that F = I + u / X. If quadratic terms in
u / X are neglected, the linear-strain tensor EL is recovered as
EL =
T
1 u u
+
2 X X
(4.6)
(4.7)
4.2.1 F, E, EL
AND
IN
ORTHOGONAL COORDINATES
Let Y1, Y2, and Y3 be orthogonal coordinates of a point in an undeformed configuration, with y1, y2, y3 orthogonal coordinates in the deformed configuration. The
2,
3 and 1,2,3.
corresponding orthonormal base vectors are 1,
4.2.1.1 Deformation Gradient and Lagrangian Strain Tensors
Recalling relations introduced in Chapter 1 for orthogonal coordinates, the differential
position vectors are expressed as
dR =
dY H
dr =
dy h
(4.8)
54
dr =
dy h
dy h (
dy h q
h dy
H dY
H dY
h dy
( ) H dY ,
H dY
(4.9)
in which denotes the base vector in the curvilinear system used for the undeformed
configuration.
This can be written as
dr = Q T F dR,
T
[Q T ] = q
[F ] =
h y
,
H Y
(4.10)
h 2 y y
H H Y Y
ij .
i j
i
j
(4.11)
Displacement Vector
The position vectors can be written in the form R = Zii, r = z jj. The displacement
vector referred to the undeformed base vectors is
u = [z j q ji Z i ] i ,
q ji = j i .
(4.12)
Cylindrical Coordinates
In cylindrical coordinates,
u = [r cos( ) R] e R + r sin( )e + ( z Z ) e Z .
(4.13)
Kinematics of Deformation
55
2
dz
1 dz
dz
Rd +
dZ
+ dR +
R d
dZ
dR
Rd
= {dR
dR
dZ} C Rd ,
dZ
(4.14)
in which
dr
d
dz
cRR = + r +
dR dR dR
2
eRR =
1
(c 1)
2 RR
e =
1
(c 1)
2
eZZ =
1
(c 1)
2 ZZ
dr 1 dr d r d dz 1 dz
+ r
+
cR =
dR R d dR R d dR R d
eR =
1
c
2 R
1 dr dr r d d 1 dz dz
+
+
cZ =
r
R d dZ R d dZ R d dZ
eZ =
1
c
2 Z
dr dr
d
d
dz dz
cZR = + r r +
dZ dR dZ dR dZ dR
eZR =
1
c .
2 ZR
1 dr r d 1 dz
+
c =
+
R d R d R d
2
dr
d
dz
cZZ = + r +
dZ dZ dZ
2
(4.15)
4.2.1.2 Linear-Strain Tensor in Cylindrical Coordinates
If quadratic terms in the displacements and their derivatives are neglected, then
uR r R
du
dr
1+ R
dR
dR
1 dr
1 du R
R d R d
dr du R
dZ
dZ
u
R
uZ z Z ,
u
d
d u du
R =
dR
dR R
dR
R
R + uR
u
1 du
1 du
r d
=
1+
1+ R +
R d
R R d
R R d
d du
r
dZ
dZ
r
(4.16)
dz duZ
dR
dR
1 dz
1 duZ
R d R d
du
dz
1+ Z
dZ
dZ
56
dR
du
u
1
1 u R
EL = +
2 dR
R
R R
du
1 du Z
+ R
dZ
2 dR
1
2
du
dR
uR
1 u R
R
R R
1 du
R
R d
1 du Z
1 du
+
2 dZ
1 du Z
2 dR
1 du
2
dZ +
du R
dZ
1 du Z
. (4.17)
R d
du Z
dZ
duR uR 1 du duZ
+
+
+
,
dR R R d dZ
(4.18)
dv
dx
dv dX
dX dx
1 .
= FF
(4.19)
(4.20)
can be regarded as a strain rate referred to the current configuration. The corresponding strain rate referred to the undeformed configuration is the Lagrangian strain rate:
1
E = [F T F + F T F]
2
1 1
= F T [FF
+ F T F T ]F
2
= F T DF.
(4.21)
Kinematics of Deformation
57
(4.22)
Q T (t )Q(t ) = I.
(4.23)
(4.24)
T + QQ
T = QQ
T + (QQ
T )T .
which is antisymmetric since 0 = I = [QQ T ] = QQ
T
dr
=
dt
v = h
dy
.
dt
(4.25)
dv
1 v j
[L] = =
j + v j c j .
dr h y
c j =
1
(1 )
h
(4.26)
2 x y
= h
yk y j x k
j
1
dr
d
dz
e +r
e + e
dt r
dt dt z
= vr e r + v e + vz e z .
(4.27)
58
Observe that
dv = dvr e r + dv e + dvz e z + vr de r + v de
= [dvr v d ]e r + [dv + vr d ]e + dvz e z .
(4.28)
dr +
rd + r dz rd
dr
r d
dz
r
dv
dv
dv
v
1
dv = dr + rd + dz + r rd
r d
dz
r
dr
dv z
dv z
1 dv z
dr +
rd +
dz
dr
r d
dz
dr
L rd ,
dz
dvr
dr
dv
L=
dr
dv z
dr
1 dv r
r d
1 dv
v
r
vr
r d
r
1 dv z
r d
dz
dv
.
dz
dv z
dz
dv r
(4.29)
dr
d
d
e r + r cos
e + r
e
dt
dt
dt
= vr e r + v e + v e
e r = cos (cos e1 + sin e 2 ) + sin e 3
(4.30)
e = sin e1 + cos e 2
e = sin (cos e1 + sin e 2 ) + cos e 3 .
Next,
v = Qv,
vr
v = v ,
v
cos cos
Q = sin
sin cos
v referred to e1, e2 , e3
(4.31)
cos sin
cos
sin sin
sin
cos
Kinematics of Deformation
59
dv = QQT dv * + dQQT v
dvr
dv* = dv referred to e r , e , e
dv
= dv * + dQQT v,
(4.32)
Recall that
0
dQ( ) T
Q ( ) = cos
dt
cos
0
0
d
sin
+ 0
dt
1
0
0
sin
0
0
0
1
d
.
0
dt
0
(4.33)
cos
0
0
1
sin r cos d + 0
r
1
0
0
sin
0
0
0
0 rd
0
(4.34)
and
cos v d + v d
sin v d vr d
0
1
0
=
r
0
v
vr + tan v
tan v
v
dr
0 r cos d .
vr r d
(4.35)
dr
d
dv
r cos d
dv rd
(4.36)
Finally,
dvr
dvr dr
dv
dv* = dv =
dr
dv dv
dr
dv r
1 dv r
r cos d
dv
1
r
1
r cos d
dv
1
r
1
r cos d
60
and
dvr
dr
dv
L=
dr
dv
dr
dvr
dr
dv
=
dr
dv
dr
dv r
r cos d
dv
1
r
1
r cos d
dv
1
r
1
r cos d
1
1
dv 1
+ 0
d r
dv
0
1 dv r
dv r
r cos d
vr + tan v
tan v
d
r
1 dv
.
r d
dv
vr
d
r
1 dv r
r cos d
r
v r tan v
dv
r cos d
dv
1
r
tan v
vr
(4.37)
dvr
1 dv vr tan v 1 dv
+
+
,
dr r cos d
r
r d
(4.38)
d X 2 = dX2 e 2
dx j
dx i
d X 3 = dX3 e 3 .
(4.39)
dV = dx1 dx 2 dx 3
1
= JdV0 ,
(4.40)
and J is called the Jacobian. To obtain J for small strain, we invoke invariance and
J = det(C ) to find
1
(4.41)
Kinematics of Deformation
61
in which EI, EII, EIII are the eigenvalues of EL, assumed to be much less that unity.
The linear-volume strain follows as
1
(4.42)
J
)
tr(C 1C
2
J
tr(F 1 F T [F T F + F T F])
2
J
tr(F 1 F + F 1 F T F T F)
2
J
[tr(F 1 F ) + tr(F 1 F T F T F)]
2
F 1 F + F T F T
= J tr
= J tr(D).
(4.43)
(4.44)
n=
F Tn0
n T0 C 1 n 0
(4.45)
62
n0
dx2
dS0
dX2
dS
dX1
dx1
FIGURE 4.3 Surface patches in undeformed and deformed configurations.
During deformation, the surface normal changes direction, a fact which is important, for example, in contact problems. In incremental variational methods, we
consider the differential dn and d(ndS):
dt
d
dJ T
d F T
[n dS] =
F n 0 dS0 + J
n 0 dS0 .
dt
dt
dt
(4.46)
(4.47)
dF T
dF T T
F
= F T
dt
dt
= LT F T .
(4.48)
d[ndS]
= [tr(D)I LT ]ndS.
dt
(4.49)
Finally, we have
dn dF
=
dt
dt
n0
n T0 C 1 n 0
F n0
n T0
dC
dt
T
0
n0
n T0 C 1 n 0 n C n 0
(4.50)
Kinematics of Deformation
63
du
dX
dX
= [ EL + ]d X,
(4.51)
2 X X
(4.52)
x = sin
0
2
1 2
sin
cos
0
0X
0 X,
(4.53)
thus,
2
2
u= 0
2
2
EL = 0
0
0
0 X +
0
0
0 ,
0
0
0X
0
0
0 .
(4.54)
(4.55)
Evidently, the normal strains do not vanish, but are second-order in , while
is first-order in . Under the assumption of small deformation, nonlinear terms are
neglected so that EL is regarded as vanishing.
64
L
FIGURE 4.4 Element in undeformed and deformed configurations.
Consider as a second example the following derivation in which the sides of the
unit square rotate toward each other by 2.
The deformation can be described by the relations
2
x = (1 cos ) X + sin Y 1 X + Y
2
(4.56)
2
y = sin X + (1 cos )Y X + 1 Y ,
2
EL =
0 .
(4.57)
Upon neglecting quadratic terms, we conclude that linear-shear strain is a measure of how much the axes rotate toward each other, while the rotation tensor is a
measure of how much the axes rotate in the same sense.
Kinematics of Deformation
65
du =
= [ EL + ]d X
(4.58)
x1x2 2 x2
x12
(4.59)
X ( *)
X ( *)
= u(0) +
du
dX
dX
E(X( *))dX +
X ( *)
(X)dX.
(4.60)
The term u(0) can be interpreted as the rigid-body translation. The first integral
can be evaluated since E(X) and X() are given functions. The second integral can
be rewritten using an elementary transformation as
X ( *)
(X)dX =
X ( *)
(X * X)d(X * X).
(4.61)
66
d(X * X)
d ( X * X ) .
= (X)d (X * X) (X * X)T
d (X * X)
(4.62)
Consequently, integration by parts furnishes
X ( *)
X ( * ) X ( 0 )
(X * X) T
d(X * X)
d (X * X) . (4.63)
d (X * X)
(X * X)
d(X * X)
d (X * X) = 0 T .
d (X * X)
(4.64)
(X * X)
d j (X * X)
d (X * X)
d (X * X) = 0,
j = 1, 2, 3.
(4.65)
dX = 0 over
For a suitable differential function (X), the condition for
an arbitrary contour is that the curl of vanishes, from which we express the
compatibility conditions as
d j (X)
(X * X)T
= 0,
(
X * X)
d
j = 1, 2, 3.
(4.66)
Kinematics of Deformation
67
y = X + Y + XY ,
b = W
e = H
H + f = H
At ( X , Y ) = (0, H ) :
At ( X , Y ) = (W , H ) : W + c = H + H + WH
H + d = W + H + WH
= 1+
e
= 0.2
H
W + c (W + a ) e
=
= 0.4
WH
b
= 0.1
W
H + d b (H + f )
=
= 0.
WH
c
e
H
H
f
b
W
undeformed plate
W
a
deformed plate
68
+ X 1.1 + 0.4Y
=
+ X 0.1
+ Y
F=
+ Y
0.2 + 0.4 X
1.2
.
E=
1 1.1 + 0.4Y
2 0.2 + 0.4 X
1 [FTF
2
I] is
1.2 0.1
0.2 + 0.4 X 1 1
1.2
2 0
d
c
g
h
1
e
X
1
element at time t
X
b
a
element at time t+dt
Kinematics of Deformation
69
Solution: First, represent the deformed position vectors in terms of the undeformed position vectors using eight coefficients determined using the given
geometry. In particular,
x = + X + Y + XY
y = + X + Y + XY .
= 0.1dt
= 0.05dt
= 1 + 0.2 dt
= 0.1dt
= 0.2 dt
= 1 0.1dt
= 0.5dt
= 0.05dt.
xX
dt
and vy
yY
,
dt
from which
0.2 0.5 X
0.1 0.05 X
0.2 0.5Y
D=
0.15 0.25 X 0.025Y
0
W=
0.4 + 0.25 X 0.025Y
0.1 0.05 X
4.8 EXERCISES
1. Consider a one-dimensional deformation in which x = (1 + )X. What
value of is the linear-strain L error by 5% relative to the Lagrangian
strain E? Use the error measure
error =
E EL
.
E
70
0.05
.
0.1
3. Verify that the expressions in the text for F and E in cylindrical coordinates
are consistent with the equation
F = Q F ,
T
[Q T ] = q
[F ] =
h y
,
H Y
[ E]ij =
h2 y y
H H Y Y
ij .
i j i
j
r = R, = , z = Z
(b) Torsion:
r = R, = + Z , z = Z
vr = f (r ),
v = 0,
vz = 0
vr = 0,
v = 0,
vz = f (r )
vr = 0,
v = f (r ),
vz = 0
vr = 0,
v = f ( z ),
vz = 0
v = 0,
v = 0
Kinematics of Deformation
71
10. For linear strain in rectilinear coordinates and 2-D, the compatibility
relation is
2 E12
2 E22
1 2 E
= 211 +
.
x1x2 2 x2
x12
Find the implications of this relation for a linear-strain field assumed to
be given by
E11 = a1 X 2 + a2 XY + a3Y 2
E22 = b1 X 2 + b2 XY + b3Y 2
E12 = c1 X 2 + c2 XY + c3Y 2 .
11. Consider a square L L plate (undeformed configuration) with linear
strains
E11 = a1 + a2 X + a3Y
E22 = b1 + b2 X + b3Y
E12 = c1 + c2 X + c3Y .
Assuming that the origin does not move, find the deformed position of
(X,Y) = (L,L).
Mechanical Equilibrium
and the Principle
of Virtual Work
dP .
i
j
(5.1)
dP
,
dS
dPj( i )
dPj( i ) dSi
dSi dS
(5.2)
from which
j =
dS
= Tij ni .
(5.3)
73
74
dF
n
dF
(2)
dS
(2)
dS
dS
dF
(1)
dF (1)
dS
(3)
(3)
1
FIGURE 5.1 Equilibrium of a tetrahedron.
with
Tij =
dPj( i )
dSi
(5.4)
It is readily seen that Tij can be interpreted as the intensity of the force acting
in the j direction on the facet pointing in the i direction, and is recognized as the
th
ij entry of the Cauchy stress T. In matrix-vector notation, the stress-traction relation
is written as
= T T n.
(5.5)
The next section will show that T is symmetric by virtue of the balance of angular
T
momentum. Equation 5.5 implies that T is a tensor, thus, it follows that T is a
tensor. To visualize T, consider a differential cube. Positive stresses are shown on
faces pointing in positive directions, as shown in Figure 5.2.
In traditional depictions, the stresses on the back faces are represented by arrows
pointing in negative directions. However, this depiction can be confusingthe
arrows actually represent the directions of the traction components. Consider the
one-dimensional bar in Figure 5.3. The traction vector te1 acts at x = L, while the
traction vector te1 acts at x = 0. At x = L, the corresponding stress is t11 = te1 e1 = t.
At x = 0, the stress is given by (te1) (e1) = t. Clearly, the stress at both ends, and
in fact throughout the bar, is positive (tensile).
We will see later that the stress tensor is symmetric by virtue of the balance of
angular momentum.
75
T33
T32
T31
T23
T13
T11
T21
T22
T12
1
FIGURE 5.2 Illustration of the stress tensor.
Z
FIGURE 5.3 Tractions on a bar experiencing uniaxial tension.
S = JF 1T.
(5.6)
76
(5.7)
Over the surface S, shifting to tensor-indicial notation and invoking the divergence
theorem, we find
W =
=
=
u dS
T
T n u dS
ij i
u j
Tij dV + u j
Tij
xi
W =
u j
Tij
x i
Tij dV .
= 0, which enables
(5.9)
=
W
(5.8)
dV .
u j
x i
= [L]ji, then
tr(TL )dV
T
tr[T(D W)]dV ,
tr[TD]dV
(5.10)
since the trace vanishes for the product of a symmetric and antisymmetric tensor.
77
tr(TD)dV
tr( JTF
tr(SE )dV,
E F T )dV0
(5.11)
1
tr( JF TF E )dV0
S = JF T TF 1 .
(5.12)
(5.13)
It turns out that the matrix of time derivatives of the Cauchy stress, T , is not
objective, while the deformation rate tensor, D, is. Thus, if is a fourth-order tensor,
= D would be senseless. Instead, the time
a constitutive equation of the form T
derivative is replaced with an objective stress flux, as explained in the following.
First, note that
F2 = VF1
(5.14)
L 2 = F 2 F21
T VF + VF ]F 1 V T
= [VV
1
1
1
= + VL1 V T ,
T.
= VV
T
The tensor is antisymmetric since dl/dt = 0 = + .
78
We seek a stress flux affording the simplest conversion from deformed to undeformed coordinates. Note that
dS d
= [JF T TF 1 ]
dt dt
= Jtr(D)F T TF 1 + JF T TF 1 + JF T TF 1 + JF T TF 1 .
(5.15)
1 and F T = F T F T F T . Now,
However, (F 1 F). = 0 so that F 1 = F 1 FF
dS
= JF T T F 1 ,
dt
(5.16a)
o
T = T + tr( D)T LT TLT ,
(5.16b)
in which
T 2 = T2 + T2 tr(D 2 ) L 2 T2 T2 LT2
= V T 1 VT .
(5.16c)
The choice of stress flux is not unique. For example, the stress flux given by
T = T Ttr(D)
= T LT T LT
(5.17)
T = T + WT T W,
W=
1
(L LT ).
2
(5.18)
79
OF
MASS
Balance of mass requires that the total mass of an isolated body not change. For
example,
d
dt
dV = 0,
(5.19)
d
( J )
dt
( J ) + ( J )v( x, t ),
t
x
v ( x, t ) =
x
.
t
(5.20)
w(x, t)dV =
V
V0
0 w( x, t )dV0 .
(5.21)
5.3.3 BALANCE
OF
(5.22)
LINEAR MOMENTUM
dS = dt dt dV .
d
du
(5.23)
dS =
d 2u
dV .
dt 2
(5.24)
80
In current coordinates, application of the divergence theorem furnishes the equilibrium equation
dS = T n dS
T
= [ T T T ]T dV .
(5.25)
T T
d 2uT
T
dV = 0 T .
dt 2
(5.26)
Since this equation applies not only to the whole body, but also to arbitrary
subdomains of the body, the argument of the integral in Equation 5.26 must vanish
pointwise:
TT T =
d 2 uT
.
dt 2
(5.27)
S T n 0 dS0 =
d 2uT
dV0 ,
dt 2
(5.28)
d 2uT
,
dt 2
(5.29)
5.3.4 BALANCE
OF
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Assuming that only surface forces are present, relative to the origin, the total moment
of the traction is equal to the rate of change of angular momentum:
x dS = dt x x dV.
d
(5.30)
81
x dS =
ijk
x j k dS
ijk
x j Tlk nl dS
x (
ijk
x j Tlk )dV
ijk
jl Tlk dV + ijk x j
ijk
Tjk dV + ijk x j
T dV
xl lk
T dV .
xl lk
(5.31)
Continuing,
d
dt
x x dV = x x dV + x x dV
=
x x dV
ijk
x j
x k dV .
(5.32)
0=
ijk
Tjk dV + ijk x j
Tlk
x k dV .
xl
(5.33)
The second term vanishes by virtue of balance of linear momentum (see Equation
5.27), leaving
ijk Tjk = 0 ,
(5.34)
82
T uk = 0 ,
xl kl
(5.35)
and Tlk = Tkl by virtue of the balance of angular momentum. We have tacitly assumed
that x = uk , which is to say that deformed positions are referred to a coordinate
system that does not translate or rotate. A variational principle is sought from
u x T
k
kl
uk dV = 0 ,
(5.36)
(5.37a)
u k = [N T ( x )]kl l ( t ).
(5.37b)
then
x l
k lk
lk
x [u T ]dV = n [u T ]dS
k lk
k lk
= uk k dS,
(5.38)
which can be interpreted as the virtual work of the tractions on the exterior boundary.
Next, since T is symmetric,
uk
T dV = 3kl Tlk dV
xl lk
u
1 u
3kl = k + l ,
2 xl x k
(5.39)
83
and we call 3kl the Eulerian strain. The term 3kl Tlk dV can be called the virtual
work of the stresses. Next, to evaluate uk k dS, we suppose that the exterior
boundary consists of three zones: S = S1 + S2 + S3 . On S1, the displacement uk is
prescribed, causing the integral over S1 to vanish. On S2, suppose that the traction is
prescribed as k (s). The contribution is S uk k (s)dS . Finally, on S3, suppose that tk =
2
k (s) [A(s)]kl ul (s), thus furnishing S3 uk k (s)dS S3 uk [A(s)]kl ul (s)dS. The various contributions are consolidated into the Principle of Virtual Work (Zienkiewicz
and Taylor, 1989) as
k k
S2
s3
k k
s3
kl
(5.40)
Now consider the case in which, as in classical elasticity,
Tlk = d lkmn 3mn
T = D3,
(5.41)
(5.42)
in which
M=
N(x)N (x)dV
H=
N(x)AN (x)dV
S3
K=
f (t ) =
BDB dV
S2 + S3
(5.43)
N(s) k (s)dS
84
u u dV u u dV
k
S2
uk k (s)dS +
S3
0 k
uk k (s)dS
S20
uk k0 (s0 )dS0 +
S30
(5.44)
uk k0 (s0 )dS0 ,
= J n T0 C 1 n 0 .
k0 = k
(5.45)
Next,
kl
S3
kl l
(5.46)
1 u u
+
2 x x
T
1 u X u X
+
2 X x X x
1
[FF 1 + F T F T ]
2
1
= F T [F T F + F T F] F 1
2
= F T EF 1 .
(5.47)
Now
T dV =
kl lk
tr( 3T)dV
tr(F
tr( EJ F
tr( ES)dV
E F 1 T) JdV0
1
T F T )dV0
= E ji Sij dV0 .
(5.48)
85
E S dV + u u dV =
ji ij
0 k
S20
uk k0 (s0 )dS0 +
S30
S30
uk k0 (s0 )dS0
(5.49)
= 0[ ex + ey ]
x
L
H
x
A
B
L
Solution: The reactions are denoted as RAx , RAy , RBx , and RBy and are all
assumed to be positive. Clearly, RBx = 0. Force equilibrium requires that
RAx tW
RAy + RBy tW
x
tW
dx = 0 RAx =
2L
L
x
tW
.
dx = 0 RAy + RBy =
2L
L
5 tW
6 L
x2
tW
.
dx = 0 RBy =
3L
L
86
T = T21
T12
0
0
0 .
On diagonal AB, find the total transverse force and moment about A.
y
B
x
A
Solution: The axes are rotated through 45 degrees so that the x-axis coincides
with the diagonal (x-axis). Now,
Tx x =
Txx
+ T xy
2
Tyy =
Txx
T xy
2
Fy = xx T xy 2 WL.
2
2
LFy .
2
Tx y =
Txx
.
2
87
3. The plate illustrated has thickness W, width dx, and height dy. The stresses
Txz, Tyz, and Tzz vanish. Find the equations resulting from balancing forces
and moments. In particular, prove that
Txy = Tyx .
Tyy + dTyy
Tyx + dTyx
Txy + dTxy
Txx + dTxx
dy
Txx
Txy
dx
Tyx
Tyy
FIGURE 5.6 Moment balance on a plate element under nonuniform stress.
W Txy +
dx Txy dy + W Tyy +
dy Tyy dx = 0
+
= 0.
dx
dy
dx
dy
dy
W Txx + xx dx Txx dy
W Tyx +
dy dxdy
dx
dy
dTxy
dTyy
dx
dx dydx + W Tyy +
dy Tyy dx
= 0.
+ W Txy +
dx
dy
2
88
1
[e + e 2 + e 3 ]
3 1
1 =
1
[6e 1 + 9e 2 + 15e 3 ]
3
n2 =
1
[e + e 2 e 3 ]
3 1
2 =
1
[0e 1 + 1e 2 + 3e 3 ]
3
n3 =
1
[e e 2 e 3 ]
3 1
3 =
1
[4e 1 + 5e 2 + 7e 3 ].
3
T12
T22
T32
T13
1
1
T23
1
3
T33
1
Similarly,
1
2
T11 + T12 = 3
3 T11
5 = T21
7 T31
( 4)
(7)
T22
T32
T21 + T22 = 5
4 T11
1
5 = T
3 21
6 T31
T11 T12 T13 = 4
T12
T12
T22
T32
T13
1
1
T23
1
2
T33
0
T31 + T32 = 7
(5)
(6)
T13
1
1
T23
1
3
T33
1
(8)
(9)
89
The solution is straightforward. For example, adding (1) and (7) furnishes T11 =
1, from which (4) implies T12 = 2.
Solving the equations furnishes us with
1
T = 2
4 .
2
3
4
= Q. It is immediate that S =
5.6 EXERCISES
1. In classical linear elasticity, introduce the isotropic stress and isotropic
linear strain as
s = tr( S)
e = tr( EL ),
1
ed = e esi.
3
iTed = 0
sd = 2 ed
s = (2 + 3 )e .
2. Find the reaction forces in the following problem. There is a frictionless
roller support at B.
90
H
x
A
B
L
3. Find the net force and moment about A (thickness = W) on the diagonal
in the following plate, given the Cauchy stresses
x
T = y
0
y
xy
0
0
0 .
0
y
B
A
L
FIGURE 5.8 Plate element experiencing stress.
1
[e + e 2 + e 3 ]
3 1
1 =
n2 =
1
[e + e 2 ]
2 1
2 =
n3 =
1
[e e 2 e 3 ]
3 1
3 =
1
[2e 1 5e 2 + 6e 3 ]
3
1
[e e 2 + e 3 ]
2 1
1
[6e 1 1e 2 + 2e 3 ].
3
nd
5. Given the Cauchy stress tensor T, find the 1 and 2 Piola-Kirchhoff stress
(t)X, in which
tensors if x(t) = Q(t)
1 + at
(t ) = 0
0
1 + bt
0
0 .
1 + ct
T = T12
T12
T22
0
0 .
Now suppose the 1-2 axes are rotated through + degrees around the
z-axis, to furnish 1 2 axes.
Prove that
T1 1 =
T22 =
T1 2 =
T11 T22
sin 2 + T12 cos 2
2
7. Verify that
Eij( L ) =
Tij
Tkk ij
2
2 + 3
w
= 21n1 + 2 2 n 2 pI3 n 3 .
e
91
92
x
z
13. Write out the proof of the Principle of Virtual Work in deformed coordinates.
14. Write out the conversion of the Principle of Virtual Work to undeformed
coordinates.
15. Write out the steps whereby the Principle of Virtual Work leads to
M
+ [K + H] = f (t ) .
16. Suppose that u = N (x) (t) and assume two dimensions. In 2-D, find B
T
in terms of the derivatives of N (x), in which
T
311
321
T
= B ( x ) (t ),
312
322
1
N T (x) =
0
u1
T
= N ( x ) (t )
u2
y 0
93
0
.
(6.1)
in which cijkl are constants and are the entries of a 3 3 3 3 fourth-order tensor,
C. If T and EL were not symmetrical, C might have as many as 81 distinct entries.
However, due to the symmetry of T and EL there are no more than 36 distinct entries.
Thermodynamic arguments in subsequent sections will provide a rationale for the
Maxwell relations:
Tij
Ekl
Tkl
.
Eij
(6.2)
It follows that cijkl = cklij, which implies that there are, at most, 21 distinct coefficients. There are no further arguments from general principles for fewer coefficients.
Instead, the number of distinct coefficients is specific to a material, and reflects the
degree of symmetry in the material. The smallest number of distinct coefficients is
achieved in the case of isotropy, which can be explained physically as follows.
Suppose a thin plate of elastic material is tested such that thin strips are removed
at several angles and then subjected to uniaxial tension. If the measured stress-strain
curves are the same and independent of the orientation at which they are cut, the
material is isotropic. Otherwise, it exhibits anisotropy, but may still exhibit limited
types of symmetry, such as transverse isotropy or orthotropy. The notion of isotropy
is illustrated in Figure 6.1.
In isotropic, linear-elastic materials (which implies linear strain), the number of
distinct coefficients can be reduced to two, m and l, as illustrated by Lames equation,
Tij = 2 Eij( L ) + Ekk( L ) ij .
(6.3)
95
96
T
34
1
2
3
4
E
FIGURE 6.1 Illustration of isotropy.
T
T .
2 ij 2 + 3 kk ij
(6.4)
The classical elastic modulus E0 and Poissons ratio n represent response under
uniaxial tension only, provided that T11 = T, Tij = 0. Otherwise,
E=
T11
E11( L )
( L)
E( L)
E22
= 33
.
( L)
E11
E11( L )
(6.5)
=
,
E 2 2 + 3
(6.6)
E 2 2 + 3
from which it is immediate that
1 1+
=
,
2
E
(6.7)
Leaving the case of uniaxial tension for the normal (diagonal) stresses and
strains, we can write
E11( L ) =
=
1
1
1
T
(T + T )
2 2 + 3 11 2 2 + 3 22 33
1
[T (T22 + T33 )],
E 11
( L)
E22
=
1
[T (T33 + T11 )],
E 22
(6.8)
(6.9)
97
and
1
[T (T11 + T22 )],
E 33
( L)
E33
=
(6.10)
1+
T
E 12
( L)
E23
=
1+
T
E 23
( L)
E31
=
1+
T .
E 31
(6.11)
(6.12)
In linear isotropic elasticity, the stress-strain relations are written in the Lames
form as
T = 2 EL + tr( EL )I.
(6.13)
(6.14)
(6.15)
dw
dw
=2
dE
dC
s = VEC( S)
sT =
dw
dw
=2
de
dc
e = VEC( E)
(a)
(6.16)
c = VEC( C ).
(b)
98
Now,
s = 2i ni ,
i =
w
,
I i
niT =
I i
.
c
(6.17)
From Chapter 2,
n1 = i
n2 = I1i c
n3 = VEC(C1 ) I3 .
(6.18)
(6.19)
and now
TEN 22( Do ) = 4ij ni nTj + 4i A i ,
Ai =
dni
.
dc
(6.20)
Finally,
A1 =
di
= 0T
dc
A2 =
d
I
dc 2
d
[ I i c]
dc 1
= iiT I 9
A3 =
=
(a)
(b)
(6.21)
d
[VEC(C 1 ) I3 ]
dc
d
[ I i I1c + VEC(C 2 )]
dc 2
= inT2 ciT + C C
= I1[iiT I 9 ] [ic T + ciT ] + C C
(c)
99
6.3.1 INCOMPRESSIBILITY
The constraint of incompressibility is expressed by the relation J = 1. Now,
J = det F
= det 2 (F)
= det(F) det(F T )
= det 2 (F T F)
= I3 ,
(6.22)
and consequently,
I3 = 1.
(6.23)
1
p( I3 1),
2
I1 =
I1
,
I31/ 3
I2 =
I2
,
I32 / 3
(6.24)
in which w is interpreted as the conventional strain-energy function, but with dependence on I3 (=1) removed. I1 and I2 are called the deviatoric invariants. For reasons
to be explained in a later chapter presenting variational principles, this form serves
100
w
e
= 21n1 + 2 2 n 2 pI 3 n 3
1 =
w
I1
2 =
w
I2
(6.25)
I
n1 = 1
c
I
n 2 = 2 .
c
1
(6.26)
(6.27)
as D using
ds
de
T
TEN 22( D ) =
ds
dp
ds
dp
ds
= 4[1A1 + 2 A 2 + 11
n1 (n1 ) T + 12
n1 (n 2 ) T
de
(6.28)
+ 21
n 2 (n1 ) T + 22
n 2 (n 2 ) T ]
ds
= I3 n3 .
dp
Example: Uniaxial Tension
Consider the Neo-Hookean elastomer satisfying
w = [I1 3]
and subject to
I3 = 1.
(6.29)
101
We seek the relation between s1 and e1, which will be obtained twice: once by
enforcing the incompressibility constraint a priori, and the second by enforcing the
constraint a posteriori.
a priori: Assume for the sake of brevity that e2 = e3. I3 = 1 implies that
c2 = 1/ c1 . The strain-energy function now is w = [c1 + 2c 3]. The stress, s1, is
1
now found as
s1 = 2
dw
1
= 2 1 3/2 .
dc1
c1
(6.30)
p
[ I 1].
2 3
(6.31)
Now
s1 = 2
dw
= 2 p/c1
dc1
0 = s2 = 2
dw
= 2 p/c2
dc 2
(6.32)
dw
= 2 p/c3
0 = s3 = 2
dc3
0=
dw
= 0 I 3 = 1.
dp
c2
p / c2
c1
c
= 2 1 2
c1
1
= 2 1 3/ 2 .
c1
(6.33)
102
w = I1 I31/ 3 3
s1 = 2
p
[ I 1]
2 3
(a)
1
I3
dw
1 I1 I3
= 2 1 3
p
43
dc1
I
3
I
c
c
3
1
1
3
(b)
(6.34)
1
I3
dw
1 I1 I3
0 = s2 = 2
= 2 1 3
p
43
dc2
I
3
I
c
c
3
2
2
3
(c)
1
I3
dw
1 I1 I3
= 2 1 3
p
43
dc3
3 I3 c3
c3
I3
(d)
0 = s3 = 2
(6.34e)
= ,
3 c2 c2
(6.35)
1
s1 = 2 1 3/ 2 ,
c1
(6.36)
as in the a priori case and in the first a posteriori case. Now, the Lagrange multiplier
p can be interpreted as the pressure referred to current coordinates.
6.3.2 NEAR-INCOMPRESSIBILITY
As will be seen in Chapter 18, the augmented strain-energy function
w = w( I1, I2 )
1
p2
p[ I3 1]
2
2
(6.37)
(6.38)
p = I3 1 .
103
Here, k is the bulk modulus, and it is assumed to be quite large compared to,
for example, the small strain-shear modulus. The tangent-modulus tensor is now
ds
de
T
=
ds
dp
( )
TEN 22 D *
ds
dp
.
1
(6.39)
T = DD,
(6.40)
(6.41)
= JF DF E F 1F T .
If s = VEC(S) and e = VEC(E), then
s = JI F 1VEC( DF T E F 1F T )
= JI F 1F 1 ITEN 22( D)VEC(F T E F 1 )
= JF 1 F 1TEN 22( D)(F T I)(I F T )VEC( E )
= JF 1 F 1TEN 22( D)F T F T e
= TEN 22( Do )e .
(6.42)
(6.43)
(6.44)
in which
104
Suppose instead that the Jaumann stress flux is used and that
T = DD.
(6.45)
Now
(6.46)
For this flux, there does not appear to be any way that S can be written in the
form of Equation 6.42, i.e., is determined by E . To see this, consider
VEC( S ) = TEN 22( D )VEC( E ) TEN 22( D )VEC(L + W)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(6.47)
1
1
VEC(L + LT ) = (I + U 9 )VEC(L).
2
2
(6.48)
(6.49)
and we see that if the Jaumann stress flux is used, S is determined by E and the
spin W. Recall that the spin does not vanish under rigid-body rotation.
6.5 EXERCISES
1. In classical linear elasticity, introduce the isotropic stress and isotropic
linear strain as
s = tr( S)
e = tr( EL ),
105
1
ed = e ei.
3
Verify that
iTsd = 0
iTed = 0
sd = 2 ed
s = (2 + 3 )e.
2. Verify that Equation 6.3 can be inverted to furnish
e=
t
(i T t )i,
2 (2 + 3 )
t = VEC(T )
11
11
22
= 33 ,
11
11
11 0
ij = 0
ij 11 .
Prove that
1
1
=
1
E 2 (2 + 3 )
2( + )
E
.
2(1 + )
vr = f (r ),
v = 0,
vz = 0
vr = 0,
v = 0,
vz = f (r )
vr = 0,
v = f (r ),
vz = 0
vr = 0,
v = f ( z ),
vz = 0
nd
6. In undeformed coordinates, the 2 Piola-Kirchhoff stress for an incompressible, hyperelastic material is given by
s=
w
= 21n1 + 2 2 n2 pI3n3 .
e
106
x
z
Thermal and
Thermomechanical
Response
OF
ENERGY
The total energy increase in a body, including internal energy and kinetic energy, is
equal to the corresponding work done on the body and the heat added to the body.
In rate form,
K + = W + Q ,
(7.1)
in which:
is the internal energy with density
=
dV;
(7.2a)
u dS,
T
(7.2b)
Q is the rate of heat input, with heat production h and heat flux q, satisfying
Q =
(7.2c)
u T
du
dV .
dt
(7.2d)
It has been tacitly assumed that all work is done on S, and that body forces do
no work.
107
108
du
+ u dt T tr(T D) h + qdV = 0.
T
(7.3)
The inner bracketed term inside the integrand vanishes by virtue of the balance
of linear momentum. The relation holds for arbitrary volumes, from which the local
form of balance of energy, referred to undeformed coordinates, is obtained as
= tr(TD) T q + h.
(7.4)
n qdS = q J F
T
n 0 dS0
q n dS
T
0
q 0 = J F 1q.
(7.5)
[ tr(SE) h + q ] dV
0
T
0
= 0,
(7.6a)
0 tr( SE ) 0 h + T0 q 0 = 0.
(7.6b)
dV
h
dV
T
nTq
dS,
T
(7.7a)
in which H is the total entropy, is the specific entropy per unit mass, and T is the
absolute temperature. This relation provides a framework for describing the irreversible nature of dissipative processes, such as heat flow and plastic deformation.
We apply the divergence theorem to the surface integral and obtain the local form
of the entropy production inequality:
T h T q + q T T/T.
(7.7b)
109
0 T h T0 q 0 + q T0 0 T/ T.
(7.7c)
(7.8)
(We shall consider several irreversible effects, such as plasticity, viscosity, and heat
conduction.) In undeformed coordinates, the balance of energy for reversible processes can be written as
+ T .
0 = tr( SE)
0
(7.9)
0 g = 0 tr( SE) 0 T,
(7.10a)
0 g = tr( ES ) 0T .
(7.10b)
from which
110
In solid continua, the stress is often more difficult to measure than the strain.
Accordingly, for solids, the Helmholtz Free Energy (density) f is introduced using
0 f = 0 0 T,
(7.11a)
0 f = tr( SE ) 0T .
(7.11b)
furnishing
0 h = tr( ES ) + 0 T .
(7.12)
(7.13)
,
T
(7.14)
0 = tr(TE ) T
(7.15)
111
T
.
=
E T T E
(7.16)
E +
= tr
E
E
= tr
+
E +
T.
E E T
E T E
E
(7.17)
T=
T=
,
E
(7.18a)
thus
= tr
+
E +
T
E E T
E T E
E
T
= tr T T
T.
E + T
T E
T E
(7.18b)
= tr T T
E + ce T.
(7.19)
From Equation 7.13, upon approximating T as T0, T0 TT = T0 I. From Fouriers Law, q = kT. Thus, the thermal-field equation now can be written as
) + c T .
k2 T = T0tr(E
e
(7.20)
112
The balance of linear momentum, together with the stress-strain and straindisplacement relations of linear isotropic thermoelasticity, imply that
x j
1 u u
u
u
2 i + j + k (T T0 ) ij = 2i ,
x
x
t
2
j
i
k
(7.21)
2 u + ( + )tr( E) T =
u
.
t 2
(7.22)
The thermal-field equation depends on the mechanical field through the term
T0 tr( E ). Consequently, if E is static, there is no coupling. Similarly, the mechanical field depends on the thermal field through T, which often is quite small in,
for example, metals, if the assumption of reversibility is a reasonable approximation.
We next derive the entropy. Since ce = T is constant, we conclude that it
E
has the form
= 0 + c e ln(T/T0 ) + * ( E),
(7.23)
(7.24)
Now consider f, for which the fundamental relation in Equation 7.11b implies
f
=
T E
f
= T.
E T
(7.25)
(7.26)
f = tr( E 2 ) +
2
tr (E) tr( E)(T T0 ) + f ** (T),
2
(7.27)
113
**
in which f (T) also remains to be determined. However, reconciling the two forms
furnishes (taking f0 = 0)
f = tr(E2 ) +
2
tr (E) tr(E)T ce [T ln(T/T0 ) 1].
2
(7.28)
(7.29)
We now construct a thermal counterpart of the principle of virtual work. Multiplying by T and using integration by parts, we obtain
Tk TdV + Tc T dV = Tn qdS
T
(7.30)
Tn qdS =
T
SII
Tn T q 0 dS +
SIII
Tn T q 0 dS
SIII
Tn T h(T T0 )dS.
(7.31)
T ~ N TT ( x ) (t ),
(7.32)
T ~ BTT ( x ) (t ),
(7.33)
114
(7.34)
in which
K T = K T1 + K T 2
K T1 =
B (x)k B (x)dV
Conductance Matrix
K T2 =
MT =
fT =
SIII
T
T
N T ( x )n T hN TT ( x )dS
N (x)c N (x)dV
T
SII
T
T
N T ( x )n T q 0 dS +
SIII
N T ( x )n T q 0 dS
(7.35)
Following the same steps used for conductive heat transfer furnishes the variational principle
(7.36)
(7.37)
(7.38)
115
(7.39)
tr( E) = b T ( x ) (t ).
(7.40)
It follows that
K (t ) + M
(t ) T (t ) = f .
(7.41)
B (x)DB(x)dV
Stiffness Matrix
M=
N(x)N (x)dV
Mass Matrix
(7.42)
N(x)dS
For the thermal field, assuming that the heat flux q is specified as q0 on the
surface, variational methods, together with the interpolation models, furnish the
equation
1
1
1
K T (t ) +
M T (t ) + (t ) =
f ,
T0
T0
T0 T
fT =
N (x)n q dS.
T
(7.43)
The combined equations for a thermoelastic medium are now written in state
(first-order) form as
(t )
(t ) f (t )
d
W1 (t ) + W2 (t ) = 0
dt
(t )
(t ) T10 fT (t )
W1 = 0
0
K
0
0 ,
1
MT
T0
W2 = K
K
0
0
0 .
1
MT
T0
(7.44)
116
Note that W1 is positive-definite and symmetric, while 12 (W2 + W2T ) is positivesemidefinite, implying that coupled linear thermoelasticity is at least marginally
stable, whereas a strictly elastic system is strictly marginally stable. Thus, thermal
conduction has a stabilizing effect, which can be shown to be analogous to viscous
dissipation.
7.4 EXERCISES
1. Express the thermal equilibrium equation in:
(a) cylindrical coordinates
(b) spherical coordinates
2. Derive the specific heat at constant stress, rather than at constant strain.
3. Write down the coupled thermal and elastic equations for a one-dimensional
member.
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In thermomechanical members and structures, finite-element analysis (FEA) is typically invoked to compute displacement and temperature fields from known applied
loads and heat fluxes. FEA has emerged in recent years as an essential resource for
mechanical and structural designers. Its use is often mandated by standards such as
the ASME Pressure Vessel Code, by insurance requirements, and even by law. Its
acceptance has benefited from rapid progress in related computer hardware and software, especially computer-aided design (CAD) systems. Today, a number of highly
developed, user-friendly finite-element codes are available commercially. The purpose
of this chapter is to introduce finite-element theory and practice. The next three chapters
focus on linear elasticity and thermal response, both static and dynamic, of basic
structural members. After that, nonlinear thermomechanical response is considered.
In FEA practice, a design file developed using CAD is often imported into finiteelement codes, from which point little or no additional effort is required to develop
the finite-element model and perform sophisticated thermomechanical analysis and
simulation. CAD integrated with an analysis tool, such as FEA, is an example of
computer-aided engineering (CAE). CAE is a powerful resource with the potential of
identifying design problems much more efficiently and rapidly than by trial and error.
A major FEM application is the determination of stresses and temperatures in
a component or member in locations where failure is thought most likely. If the
stresses or temperatures exceed allowable or safe values, the product can be redesigned and then reanalyzed. Analysis can be diagnostic, supporting interpretation of
product-failure data. Analysis also can be used to assess performance, for example,
by determining whether the design-stiffness coefficient for a rubber spring is attained.
118
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
in terms of their nodal values, which now become the unknowns in the
finite-element model.
The strain-displacement relation and its thermal analog are applied to the
approximations for u and T to furnish approximations for the (Lagrangian)
strain and the thermal gradient.
The stress-strain relation and its thermal analog (Fouriers Law) are
applied to obtain approximations to stress S and heat flux q in terms of
the nodal values of u and T.
Equilibrium principles in variational form are applied using the various approximations within each element, leading to element equilibrium equations.
The element equilibrium equations are assembled to provide a global
equilibrium equation.
Prescribed kinematic and temperature conditions on the boundaries (constraints) are applied to the global equilibrium equations, thereby reducing
the number of degrees of freedom and eliminating rigid-body modes.
The resulting global equilibrium equations are then solved using computer
algorithms.
In problems without severe stress concentrations, much of the mesh data can be
developed conveniently using automatic-mesh generation. With the input file developed, the analysis processor is activated and raw output files are generated. The
postprocessor module typically contains (interfaces to) graphical utilities, thus facilitating display of output in the form chosen by the analyst, for example, contours of
the Von Mises stress. Two problems arise at this stage: validation and interpretation.
119
The analyst can use benchmark solutions, special cases, or experimental data to
validate the analysis. With validation, the analyst gains confidence in, for example,
the mesh. He or she still may face problems of interpretation, particularly if the
output is voluminous. Fortunately, current graphical-display systems make interpretation easier and more reliable, such as by displaying high stress regions in vivid
colors. Postprocessors often allow the analyst to zoom in on regions of high
interest, for example, where rubber is highly confined. More recent methods based
on virtual-reality technology enable the analyst to fly through and otherwise become
immersed in the model.
The goal of mesh design is to select the number and location of finite-element
nodes and element types so that the associated analyses are sufficiently accurate.
Several methods include automatic-mesh generation with adaptive capabilities,
which serve to produce and iteratively refine the mesh based on a user-selected error
tolerance. Even so, satisfactory meshes are not necessarily obtained, so that model
editing by the analyst may be necessary. Several practical rules are as follows:
1. Nodes should be located where concentrated loads and heat fluxes are
applied.
2. Nodes should be located where displacements and temperatures are constrained or prescribed in a concentrated manner, for example, where pins
prevent movement.
3. Nodes should be located where concentrated springs and masses and their
thermal analogs are present.
4. Nodes should be located along lines and surface patches, over which
pressures, shear stresses, compliant foundations, distributed heat fluxes,
and surface convection are applied.
5. Nodes should be located at boundary points where the applied tractions
and heat fluxes experience discontinuities.
6. Nodes should be located along lines of symmetry.
7. Nodes should be located along interfaces between different materials or
components.
8. Element-aspect ratios (ratio of largest to smallest element dimensions)
should be no greater than, for example, five.
9. Symmetric configurations should have symmetric meshes.
10. The density of elements should be greater in domains with higher gradients.
11. Interior angles in elements should not be excessively acute or obtuse, for
example, less than 45 or greater than 135.
12. Element-density variations should be gradual rather than abrupt.
13. Meshes should be uniform in subdomains with low gradients.
14. Element orientations should be staggered to prevent bias.
In modeling a configuration, a good practice is initially to develop the mesh locally
in domains expected to have high gradients, and thereafter to develop the mesh
in the intervening low-gradient domains, thereby reconciling the high-gradient
domains.
120
This chapter presents interpolation models in physical coordinates for the most part,
for the sake of simplicity and brevity. However, in finite-element codes, the physical
coordinates are replaced by natural coordinates using relations similar to interpolation models. Natural coordinates allow use of Gaussian quadrature for integration
and, to some extent, reduce the sensitivity of the elements to geometric details in
the physical mesh. Several examples of the use of natural coordinates are given.
EA
2u
2u
=
A
,
x 2
t 2
(9.1)
in which u(x, t) denotes the radial displacement, E, and are constants, x is the
spatial coordinate, and t denotes time. Since the displacement is governed by a
second-order differential equation, in the spatial domain, it requires two (timedependent) constants of integration. Applied to an element, the two constants can
be supplied implicitly using two nodal displacements as functions of time. We now
approximate u(x, t) using its values at xe and xe+1, as shown in Figure 9.1.
The lowest-order interpolation model consistent with two integration constants
is linear, in the form
u( x, t ) = Tm1 ( x )m1 m1 (t ),
ue (t )
m1 (t ) =
,
ue+1 (t )
Tm1 ( x ) = (1
x ).
(9.2)
xe )m1 m1 (t ),
ue+1 (t ) = (1
xe+1 )m1 m1 (t ).
(9.3)
121
122
ue
ue+1
x
xe
xe+1
wet
wet +1
we
we+1
x
xe
xe+1
xe
,
1
xe
1 xe+1
=
le 1
xe+1
le = xe+1 xe .
(9.4)
9.1.1.2 Beams
The equation for a beam, following Euler-Bernoulli theory, is:
EI
4w
2u
+ A 2 = 0,
4
x
t
(9.5)
in which w(x, t) denotes the transverse displacement of the beams neutral axis, and
I is a constant. In the spatial domain, there are four constants of integration. In an
element, they can be supplied implicitly by the values of w and w = w/x at each
of the two element nodes. Referring to Figure 9.2, we introduce the interpolation
model for w(x, t):
w( x, t ) = b1 ( x )b1 b1 (t ),
b1 ( x ) = 1
x2
x3 ,
we
we
m1 (t ) =
. (9.6)
we+1
we+1
123
0
b1 =
1
xe
x e2
2 x e
x e+1
x e2+1
2 x e+1
x e3
3 x e2
.
x e3+1
2
3 x e+1
(9.7)
w( x )
,
x
(9.8)
in which u0(x) represents the stretching of the neutral axis. It is necessary to know
u0(x), w(x) and w(xx ) at xe and xe+1. The interpolation model is now
u( x, z, t ) = (1
x )m1 m1 z(1
ue (t )
ml =
,
ue+1 (t )
x 3 )b1 b1,
x2
(9.9)
we
we
bl =
,
we+1
we+1
and
m1 =
1
le
x e+1
0
b1=
1
xe
,
1
xe
x e2
2 x e
x e+1
x e2+1
2 x e+1
x e3
3 x e2
.
x e3+1
3 x e2+1
2 T
T
= Ace
.
2
x
t
(9.10)
124
z
Xe+2,Ye+2
Y
Xe+1,Ye+1
Xe,Ye
middle surface
FIGURE 9.3 Triangular plate element.
This equation is formally the same as for a rod equation (see Equation 9.1),
furnishing the interpolation model for the element as
T( x, t ) T0 = Tm1 ( x )m11 (t ),
Te (t ) T0
1 (t ) =
.
Te+1 (t ) T0
(9.11)
u( x, y, t ) m 2
v( x, y, t ) 0 T
ue (t )
u (t ) = ue+1 (t ) ,
ue+2 (t )
0 T m2
m 2 0 T
ve (t )
v (t ) = ve+1 (t ) ,
ve+2 (t )
m2
1
= x ,
y
0 T u (t )
m2 v (t )
m 2
= 1
(9.12)
xe
xe+1
xe + 2
ye
ye+1 .
ye+2
u( x, y, z, t ) = z
w
w
, v( x, y, z, t ) = z
,
x
y
(9.13)
125
Tb 2 (t ) = we
b21 = 0
x2
( )
w
x
w
y
e +1
y2
xy
w
y
w e+2
(9.14)
1 2
( x y + y2 x)
2
x3
we +1
( )
w
x
e+2
w
x
( )
e +1
w
y
e+2
xe ye ( xe + ye )
xe
ye
xe2
xe ye
ye2
xe3
2 xe
ye
3 xe2
( xe ye + 12 ye2 )
xe
2 xe
( 12 xe2 + xe ye )
xe +1
ye +1
xe2+1
xe +1 ye +1
ye2+1
xe3+1
2 xe +1
ye +1
xe +1
2 ye +1
xe + 2
ye + 2
xe2+ 2
xe + 2 ye + 2
ye2+ 2
xe3+ 2
2 xe + 2
ye + 2
xe + 2
2 ye + 2
3 x
3 x
1
2
xe +1 ye +1 ( xe +1 + ye +1 )
( xe +1 ye +1 + 12 ye2+1 )
2
e +1
2
e+2
1
2
( 12 xe2+1 + xe +1 ye +1 )
1
2
y3
xe + 2 ye + 2 ( xe + 2 + ye + 2 )
( xe + 2 ye + 2 + 12 ye2+ 2 )
( 12 xe2+ 2 + xe + 2 ye + 2 )
ye3
3ye2
ye3+1
0 .
3ye2+1
ye3+ 2
3ye2+ 2
It follows that
z b 2
u(x, y, z, t)
x
v(x, y, z, t) = z b 2 ( t ).
b2 b2
y
w(x, y, z, t) b 2
(9.15)
w
,
x
v( x, y, z, t ) = v0 ( x, y, z, t ) z
w
y
(9.16)
126
and w is a function only of x, y, and t(not z). Here, z = 0 at the middle surface, while
u0 and v0 represent the in-plane displacements. Using the nodal values of u0, v0, and
w0, a combined interpolation model is obtained as
z b 2
u( x, y, z, t ) u0 ( x, y, t )
x
v( x, y, z, t ) = v ( x, y, t ) + z b 2 (t )
0
b2 b2
w( x, y, z, t ) w0 ( x, y, t ) b 2
m2
= 0T
T
0
z xb 2 m 2
b 2
z y 0
b 2 0
0T
m 2
0T
0
m 2
0
0 u (t )
0 v (t ) .
b 2 w (t )
(9.17)
2 = (Te T0
Te+1 T0
Te+2 T0 ).
(9.18)
127
Ta1 0 T
T
u(r, z, t ) a1
=
w(r, z, t ) 0 T
Ta1 = (1
z ),
a1 = 1
0 T ua1 (t )
.
aT1 wa1 (t )
ze
ze+1 ,
ze+2
re
re+1
re+2
ua1
ue
= ue+1 ,
ue+2
(9.19)
wa1
we
= we+1
we + 2
Now suppose that there are nodes on the axis, and note that the radial displacements are constrained to vanish on the axis. For reasons shown later, it is necessary
to enforce the symmetry constraints a priori in the formulation of the displacement
model. In particular, suppose that node e is on the axis, with nodes e + 1 and e + 2
defined counterclockwise at the other vertices. The linear interpolation model is now
0 T aT2
Ta 2 0 T
T
u(r, z, t ) a 2
=
w(r, z, t ) 0 T
T
a2
= (r
0 T ua 2 (t )
aT2 wa 2 (t )
re+1
a 2 =
re+2
z ze ),
(9.20)
ze+1 ze
.
ze+2 ze
A similar formulation can be used if two nodes are on the axis of symmetry so
that the u displacement in the element is modeled using only one nodal displacement,
with a coefficient vanishing at each of the nodes on the axis of revolution.
1
3T =
1
z)
xe
ye
xe+1
ye+1
xe + 2
ye+2
xe + 3
ye+3
3TT = {Te To
(9.21)
Te+1 To
ze
ze+1
ze+2
ze+3
Te+2 To
Te+3 To}
128
z
e+3
e+2
e+1
T
v( x, y, z, t ) = 0
w( x, y, z, t ) 0T
ue (t )
ue+1 (t )
u (t ) =
,
ue+2 (t )
ue+3 (t )
0T
3T
0T
0T 3
0T 0
3T 0
ve ( t )
ve+1 (t )
v (t ) =
,
ve+2 (t )
ve+3 (t )
0
3
0
0 u (t )
0 v (t )
3 w (t )
(9.22)
we (t )
we+1 (t )
w (t ) =
we+2 (t )
we+3 (t )
( x, t ) = Tm1 ( x )m1 m1 ( t ),
(9.23)
129
Tm1 =
d Tm1
= (0
dx
1)
( x , z, t ) = z
w
,
x
(9.24)
( x, z, t ) = z Tb1 ( x )b1 b1 ( t ),
Tb1 =
d Tb1
= (0
dx
(9.25)
3x 2 )
2x
Tmb1 = Tm1
m1
z Tb1
0
(9.26)
0 m1 (t )
mb1 b1 (t )
Exy
=
Eyy 12
u
x
u + v
y x
1 u + v
2 y x
v
y
).
(9.27)
We will see later the two important cases of plane stress and plane strain. In the
latter case, Ezz vanishes and szz is not needed to achieve a solution. In the former
case, szz vanishes and Ezz is not needed for solution.
In traditional finite-element notation, we obtain [cf. (Zienkiewicz and Taylor, 1989)]
Exx
u2
= Eyy = Tm 2
m2
v2
E
xy
(9.28)
130
m 2
m 2
,
y
1 m 2
2 x
m 2
x
= 0
1
ym 2
2
= m2
m2
0
m 2
The prime in e is introduced temporarily to call attention to the fact that it does
not equal VEC(EL). Hereafter, the prime will not be displayed.
For a plate with bending stresses only,
2w
x 2
2
e ( x, y, z, t ) = z w2 ,
y
2w
xy
(9.29)
from which
e ( x, y, z, t ) = z Tb 2 ( x )b 2 b 2 (t ),
b2
2Tb 2
x 2
2T
b2
=
.
2
y
2Tb 2
xy
(9.30)
For a plate experiencing both membrane and bending stresses, the relations can
be combined to furnish
e ( x, y, z, t ) = Tmb 2 ( x, y, z )mb 2 mb 2 (t )
Tmb 2 = Tm 2
m 2
zTb 2 , mb 2 =
0
ON
AXIS
OF
(9.31)
0
m 2 ( t )
, mb 2 ( t ) =
b 2
b2 (t )
REVOLUTION
For the toroidal element with a triangular cross section, it is necessary to consider
two cases. If there are no nodes on the axis of revolution, then
e(r, z, t ) =
1
2
u
r
u
r
w
z
a1
= Ta1
( uz + wr )
0 ua1 (t )
a1 wa1 (t )
(9.32)
12
Ta1 =
0
131
z
r
1
2
1
2
in which the prime is no longer displayed. If element e is now located on the axis
of revolution, we obtain
a 2
e(r, z, t ) = baT2
0
Ta 2
1
=
0
IN
0 ua 2 (t )
a1 wa1 (t )
z ze
r
1
2
1
2
(9.33)
TWO DIMENSIONS
T = TT 2 T 2 2 ,
1
0
0
.
1
(9.34)
u
x
v
y
(
(
w
z
u + v
y x
v + w
z
y
= 3T 0
)
)
( wx + uz )
0
3
0
0 u 3
0 v 3
3 w 3
(9.35)
132
IN
THREE DIMENSIONS
Again referring to the tetrahedral element, the relation for the temperature gradient is
T = 3TT 3T 3 ,
3TT
= 0
0 0 .
0 1
(9.36)
0
(9.37)
in which I is the identity tensor. The Lames coefficients are denoted by and ,
and are given in terms of the familiar elastic modulus E and Poisson ratio as
E
,
2(1 + )
E
.
(1 2 )(1 + )
(9.38)
Letting s = VEC(S) and e = VEC(EL), the stress-strain relations are written using
Kronecker product operators as
s = De,
D = 2 I 9 + ii T ,
(9.39)
(9.40)
The cases of a rod and a beam are recovered by setting m1 or b1 equal to zero
vectors, respectively.
133
1
[ S ( Syy + Szz )]
E xx
Eyy =
1
[ S ( Syy + Szz )]
E yy
Ezz =
1
[ S ( Sxx + Syy )]
E zz
(9.41)
1+
Exy =
S
E xy
Eyz =
1+
S
E yz
Ezx =
1+
S
E zx
Under plane stress, Sxz = Syz = Szz = 0. Now, Ezz 0, but we will see that it is
not of present interest since it does not influence the solution process. Later on, for
reasons such as tolerances, we may wish to calculate it, but this is a postprocessing
issue. Consequently, in plane stress, the stress-strain relations reduce to
Exx =
1
( S Syy )
E xx
Eyy =
1
( S Sxx )
E yy
Exy =
1+
S
E xy
(9.42)
(9.43)
in which
Dm21
= E
1
0
1 +
1
E
=
12
0
1
0
1 +
(9.44)
134
can be called the tangent-modulus matrix under plane stress (note that, unlike the
previous definition, it is not based on the VEC operator and is not a tensor).
Under plane strain, Exz = Eyz = Ezz = 0. Now, Szz 0. However, this stress is not
of great interest since its value is not needed for attaining a solution. The quantity
may be of interest later, e.g., to check whether yield conditions in plasticity are met,
but it can be obtained at that point by a postprocessing procedure. The equations of
plane strain are
Sxx
E xx
Syy = Dm22 E yy ,
S
E
xy
xy
Dm22 =
E
1 *2
*
1
0
(9.45)
0 , E * =
, * =
2
1
1 + *
1
1
Sij Eij = ( Sxx
2
2
Syy
Szz )0
0
1
0
0 Exx
0 Eyy .
2 Exy
(9.46)
Dm21
1
E
=
12
0
1
0
2(1 + )
0
(9.47)
and similarly for plane strain. (This peculiarity is an artifact of traditional finiteelement notation and does not appear if VEC notation is used.) The stresses are now
given in terms of nodal displacements by
Sxx (x, y, t)
Exx
u2
2
S (x, y, t)
E
xy
xy
1
i=
2
plane stress
(9.48)
plane strain
135
Sxx
Exx
(t ).
Syy = Dm 21 Eyy z Dm 21 Tb 2
b2 b2
S
E
xy
xy
(9.49)
Sxx
Exx
(t ).
Syy = Dm 21 Eyy = Dm 21Tmb 2 ( x, y, z )
mb 2 mb 2
S
E
xy
xy
(9.50)
Srr
Err
S
E
a1
T
= Da = Da a1
0
Szz
Ezz
S
E
rz
rz
1
Da = E
0 ua1 (t )
,
wa1 (t )
a1
1 +
(9.51)
136
0
Da = E
0
0 1
2 0
1 +
0
. (9.52)
0
Szz
Ezz
T
= D3 = D33 0
Sxy
Exy
0
Syz
Eyz
S
E
zx
zx
1
D3 = E
0
0 u 3
0 v 3
3 w 3
3
0
1+
1+
1+
1+
1 +
(9.53)
D3 = EJ 6
0
0
J6
0
1 +
(9.54)
0
J6 =
0
9.3.7 ELEMENTS
FOR
137
Assuming the isotropic version of Fouriers Law, the heat-flux vector, which can be
considered the thermal analog of the stress, satisfies
T 1T 11
q = k T 2 T 2 2
T 3 T 3 3
1 D
2D
(9.55)
3 D.
9.4 EXERCISES
1. Modify the rod element to replace the physical coordinate x with the
natural coordinate in which
= ax + b,
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
( x e ) = 1,
( x e+1 ) = +1.
138
1
0
0 Sxx
0 Syy
1 + Sxy
*
1
0
0 Sxx
0 Syy ,
1 + * Sxy
where
E* = E /(1 2 ), * = /(1 ) .
8. If
Exx 1 1 2
=
Eyy E (1 + )
(1 + ) Sxx
,
1 2 Syy
10
E S dV + u u dV = u dS.
ij ij
(10.1)
i i
E = T ( x ) ( t ),
S = DE,
(10.2)
u dS =
T
i i
T ( x ) 0 dS
T ( x )A T ( x )dS (t )
T ( x )B T ( x )dS
(t ).
SIII
(10.3)
SIV
139
140
E S dV = K (t),
K=
M=
ij ij
ui u i dV = M ( t ),
T
(x)D (x) dV
T
(10.4)
in which K is called the stiffness matrix and M is called the mass matrix. Canceling
the arbitrary variation and bringing terms with unknowns to the left side furnishes
the equation as follows:
(K + K S ) (t ) + (M + M S )
(t ) = f
f=
KS =
( x )A ( x )dS
MS =
T ( x )B T ( x )dS.
SII +SIII
T ( x ) 0 dS
(10.5)
T
SIII
SIV
E,A,L,
141
z
y
V0
M0
m
x
E,I,A,L,
kT
k
FIGURE 10.2 Beam with translational and rotational inertial and compliant boundary conditions.
The shear force V0 and the moment M0 act at L. The interpolation model, incorporating the constraints w(0, t) = w (0, t) = 0 a priori, is
L2
w( x , t ) = ( x x )
2 L
2 3
L3 w( L, t )
.
3 L2 w ( L, t )
(10.6)
The stiffness and mass matrices, due to the domain, are readily shown to be
K=
EI 12
L3 6 L
6L
,
4 L2
13
35
M = AL
11
210
L
L
.
2
1
105 L
11
210
(10.7)
The stiffness and mass contributions from the boundary conditions are
k
KS =
0
0
,
kT
m
MS =
0
0
.
mr 2
2
(10.8)
(10.9)
T
.
t
(10.10)
142
TkTdV + Tc
T
T
dV = Tn T qdS.
t
(10.11)
Now suppose that the interpolation models for temperature in the current element
furnish a relation of the form
T T0 = TT ( x )T (t ),
T = TT ( x )T (t ),
q = kTT ( x )T (t ) .
(10.12)
T
Tce
dV T (t )MT (t ),
t
K T = kTTT TTT dV
(10.13)
c dV.
MT =
T
T
T
T
KT and MT can be called the thermal stiffness (or conductance) matrix and thermal
mass (or capacitance) matrix, respectively.
Suppose that the boundary S has four zones: S = SI + SII + SIII + SIV . On SI, the
temperature is prescribed as T1, from which we conclude that T = 0. On SII, the
T
T
T
heat flux is prescribed as n q1. On SIII, the heat flux satisfies n q = n q1 h1 (T
T
T
T0), while on SIV , n q = n q1 h2 d T/dt. The governing finite-element equation is
now
[M T + M TS ] (t ) + [K T + K TS ]( t) = fT (t )
M TS =
fT (t ) =
n q dS,
SIV
TT T h2 TT T dS,
T
T
K TS =
SIII
(10.14)
TT T h1 TT T dS
143
Pn+2
Pn
e+1
n+1
a. forces in global system
P1(e)
P1(e+1)
e+1
P2 (e+1)
P2 (e)
level) and local (element level) systems of notation. The global system of forces is
shown in (a), while the local system is shown in (b). At the center node,
P1( e ) P2( e+1) = 0
(e)
2
(e+1)
(10.15)
( e +1)
1
= Pn and P
1 un P2( e )
=
1 un+1 P1( e )
1 un+1 P2( e+1)
=
1 un+2 P1( e+1)
(10.16)
(i)
k ( e ) un + k ( e )un+1 = P1( e )
(ii)
(iii)
= Pn+2.
(10.17)
(iv)
144
(i)
(ii + iii)
(10.18)
(iv)
k ( e )
k (e)
k ( e ) + k ( e+1)
k ( e+1)
un Pn
k ( e+1) un+1 = 0
(10.19)
(5)
k22 +k11
K(N2)
K(N1)
K(N)
145
Now, the equations of the individual elements are written in the global system as
( e ) , K ( e+1) K
( e+1)
K (e) K
(e)
K
= k ( e ) 1
0 ,
1
0
( e+1)
K
= k ( e+1) 0
0
1
1
1 .
(10.20)
(g)
The global stiffness matrix (the assembled stiffness matrix K of the two-element
(e) + K
( e+1) .
member) is the direct sum of the element stiffness matrices: K ( g ) = K
(g)
(
e
)
. In this notation, the strain energy in the two elements
Generally, K = e K
can be written in the form
V( e ) =
V( e+1) =
1 ( e ) ( e ) ( e )
K
2
1 ( e ) ( e+1) ( e )
K
2
( e ) = (un
un+1
(10.21)
un+2 ).
1
2
1
un Pn
0 = R ,
un+2 Pn+1
(10.22)
in which R is a reaction force that arises to enforce physical symmetry in the presence
of numerically generated asymmetry. The equation corresponding to the second
equation is useless in predicting the unknowns un and un+2 since it introduces the
146
new unknown R. The first and third equations are now rewritten as
0 un P + n
,
=
1 un+1 P + n+1
EA 1
L 0
(10.23)
un = [ P + n ]
un+2 = [ P + n+1 ]
EA
.
L
(10.24)
n + n+1
( ELA )
(10.25)
The reaction force is given by R = [n + n+1], and, in this case, it can be considered
as a measure of computational error.
Note that Equation 10.23 can be obtained from Equation 10.22 by simply striking
out the second row of the matrices and vectors and the second column of the matrix.
The same assembly arguments apply to the inertial forces as to the elastic forces.
Omitting the details, the kinetic energies T of the two elements are
T=
1 ( e )T ( e ) ( e+1) ( e )
[M + M ]
2
1
( e ) = m( e )
M
1/ 2
1
m( e ) = Al
3
( e ) = {ue
(10.26)
1/ 2
(e)
ue+1
ue+2}
10.3.2 BEAMS
A similar argument applies for beams. The potential energy and stiffness matrix of
th
the e element can be written as
V (e) =
(e)
1 T (e)
K b
2 b
(e)
K11
=
( e )T
K 21
(e)
K12
(e)
K 22
(10.27)
147
(g)
(e)
K 11
( e )T
= K 21
0
K
.
(e)
K 12
( e +1)
K + K 11
K (21e+1)T
( e +1)
12
( e +1)
22
(e)
22
(g)
(g)
=V
(e)
(10.28)
(e)
= e K .
e+3,3
e+2,4
e+3
e+3,1
e+2
e+3,2
e+2,2
e+2
5
e
e+2,1
e+3
e,4
e+2,3
e+1
e,3
e+1,3
e+1,4
e,1
e+1
e,2
e+1,1
e+1,2
148
In the local systems, the force on the center node induces displacements according to
fe,3 = k3(,e1)ue,1 + k3(,e2)ue,2 + k3(,e3)ue,3 + k3(,e4)ue,4
fe+1,4 = k4( e,1+1)ue+1,1 + k4( e,2+1)ue+1,2 + k4( e,3+1)ue+1,3 + k4( e,4+1)ue+1,4
fe+2,1 = k1(,e1+2 )ue+2,1 + k1(,e2+2 )ue+2,2 + k1(,e3+2 )ue+2,3 + k1(,e4+2 )ue+2,4
(10.29)
ue,2 u2
ue,3 u5
ue,4 u6
ue+1,1 u2
ue+1,2 u3
ue+1,3 u4
ue+1,4 u5
ue+2,1 u5
ue+2,2 u4
ue+2,3 u9
ue+2,4 u8
ue+3,1 u6
ue+3,2 u5
ue+3,3 u8
ue+3,4 u7
(10.30)
[
]u + [k
(e)
3,4
+ k2( e,1+3) u6
(10.31)
Taking advantage of the symmetry of the stiffness matrix, this implies that the
fifth row of the stiffness matrix is
5T = k3(,e1)
[k
(e)
3,3
[k
(e)
3,2
+ k4( e,1+1)
k4( e,2+1)
[k
( e +1)
4 ,3
+ k1(,e2+2 )
]
(10.32)
Finally, for later use, we consider damping, which generates a stress proportional
to the strain rate. In linear problems, it leads to a vector-matrix equation of the form
M
+ D + K = f (t ).
(10.33)
At the element level, the counterpart of the kinetic energy and the strain energy
(e)
is the Rayleigh Damping Function, D , given by D ( e ) = 12 ( e ) T D ( e ) ( e ) , and the conth
sistent damping force on the e element is
fd( e ) (t ) = D( e ) = D( e ) ( e ) .
(10.34)
149
(e)
(10.35)
It should be evident that the global stiffness, mass, and damping matrices have
the same bandwidth; the force on one given node depends on the displacements
(velocities and accelerations) of the nodes of the elements connected at the given
node, thus determining the bandwidth.
10.3 EXERCISES
1. The equation of static equilibrium in the presence of body forces, such
as gravity, is expressed by
Sij
X j
= bi .
Without the body forces, the dynamic Principle of Virtual Work is derived as
Eij Sij dV + ui
2ui
dV = ui i dS.
t 2
d 6q
= 0,
dx 6
Q a constant.
150
L/2
K (3)
K (1)
K (2)
1 du
Pu( L)
.
dx
E
2 dx
u( x e , t )
x}
.
u( xe+1, t )
For an element xe < x < xe+1, find the matrix Ke such that
u( xe , t ) fe
Ke
= .
u( xe+1, t ) fe+1
6. Redo this derivation for Ke in the previous exercise, using the natural
coordinate , whereby = ax + b, in which a and b are such that 1 =
axe + b, +1 = axe+1 + b.
7. Next, regard the nodal-displacement vector as a function of t. Find the
matrix Me such that
u( x e , t )
u( xe , t ) fe
+
Me
K
= ,
e
u( xe+1, t )
u( xe+1, t ) fe+1
151
in which is the mass density. Derive Me using both physical and natural
coordinates.
8. Show that, for the rod under gravity, a two-element model gives the exact
answer at x = 1, as well as a much better approximation to the exact displacement distribution.
E
A
g
L
E1
A1
L1
1
g
E2
A2
2
L2
11
Solution Methods
for Linear Problems
l21
l31
l
n1
l22
l32
l33
ln 2
0 z1 f1
. z 2 f2
. z3 f3
= .
. . .
0 . .
lnn zn fn
(11.1)
Assuming that the diagonal entries are not too small, this equation can be solved,
starting from the upper-left entry, using simple arithmetic: z1 = f1/l11, z2 = [ f2 l21z1]/
l22, z3 = [ f3 l31z1 l32z2]/l33, .
T
Next, the equation L = z can be solved using backward substitution. The
equation is expanded as
l11
l12
l22
ln2,n2
ln2,n1
ln1,n1
l1n 1 f1
. 2 .
. 3 .
=
.
ln2,n . fn2
ln1,n . fn1
lnn n fn
(11.2)
153
154
Starting from the lower-right entry, solution can be achieved using simple arithmetic as n = fn/lnn,
SOLUTION
AND
k j L j 1
=
k jj Tj
0 LTj 1
l jj 0 T
j
,
l jj
(11.3)
k j = L j 1 j
(11.4)
l jj = k jj Tj j
A 3 = 12
13
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
4 .
1
5
1
3
(11.5)
0 1
l22 0
2 1
=
l22 12
,
1
3
1
2
(11.6)
155
0
.
1/ 12
(11.7)
12
13
1
2
1
3
1
4
T
1
4 = L3L3
1
5
1
3
= 12
l31
0 1
0 0
l33 0
0
1/ 12
l32
= 12
l31
1
2
1
2
1/ 12
0
l31
l32
l33
l31 / 2 + l32 / 12
2
2
2
l31
+ l32
+ l33
l31
1
3
l31 / 2 + l32 / 12
2
We conclude that l31 = 1/3, l32 = 1/ 12 , l33
= 1/5 1/9 1/12 =
11.1.3 TRIANGULARIZATION
(11.8)
1
180
ASYMMETRIC MATRICES
OF
Asymmetric stiffness matrices arise in a number of finite-element problems, including problems with unsteady rotation and thermomechanical coupling. If the matrix
is still nonsingular, it can be decomposed into the product of a lower-triangular and
an upper-triangular matrix:
K = LU.
(11.9)
th
k1 j L j 1
=
k jj Tj
L j 1U j 1
= T
j U j 1
0 U j 1
l jj 0 T
Tj u j + u jj l jj
uj
u jj
L j 1u j
(11.10)
in which it is assumed that the ( j 1) block has been decomposed in the previous
step. Now, uj is obtained by forward substitution using Lj1uj = k1j, and j can be
obtained by forward substitution using U Tj 1 j = k 2 j . Finally, u jj l jj = k jj Tj u j , for
th
156
which purpose ujj can be arbitrarily set to unity. An equation of the form Kx = f can
now be solved by forward substitution applied to Lz = f, followed by backward
substitution applied to Ux = z.
(11.11)
in which is complex. If Re() > 0, for the initial value y(0) = y0, y(t) = y0 exp(t),
then clearly y(t) 0. The system is called asymptotically stable in this case.
We now consider whether numerical-integration schemes to integrate Equation
11.11 have stability properties corresponding to asymptotic stability. For this purpose, we apply the trapezoidal rule, the properties of which will be discussed in a
subsequent section. Consider time steps of duration h, and suppose that the solution
th
has been calculated through the n time step, and we seek to compute the solution at
st
the (n + 1) time step. The trapezoidal rule is given by
dy yn+1 yn
,
dt
h
yn+1 =
1 h/2
y
1 + h/2 n
[ y + yn ].
2 n+1
(11.12)
Consequently,
1 h/2
=
y0
1 + h/2
(11.13)
Clearly, yn+1 0 if 11 + hh//22 < 1, and yn+1 if 11 + hh//22 > 1, in which || implies
the magnitude. If the first inequality is satisfied, the numerical method is called A-stable
(see Dahlquist and Bjork, 1974). We next write = r + ii, and now A-stability
requires that
ih
ih
1 r h
2
1 + r h
2
< 1.
(11.14)
A-stability implies that r > 0, which is precisely the condition for asymptotic
stability.
Consider the matrix-vector system arising in the finite-element method:
M
+ D + K = 0,
(0) = 0 ,
(0) = 0 ,
(11.15)
157
1 T M + 1 T K = T D < 0.
2
(11.16)
0 p
D
+
I
I
K p f
= .
0 0
(11.17)
0 h (p n+1 p n ) D
I 1 ( n+1 n ) I
h
1
1
K 2 (p n+1 + p n )
= 2 (fn+1 + fn ) .
0 1 ( n+1 + n )
0
(11.18)
From the equation in the lower row, pn+1 = 2h [n+1 n] pn. Eliminating pn+1
in the upper row furnishes a formula underlying the classical Newmark method:
h
h2
K D = M + D +
K
2
4
K D n+1 = rn+1 ,
rn+1
(11.19)
h
h2
h
h
h2
(f + f )
= M + D
K yn + M + D p n +
2
4
2 2
4 n+1 n
and KD can be called the dynamic stiffness matrix. Equation 11.19 can be solved
by triangularization of KD, followed by forward and backward substitution.
(11.20)
yn+1 + yn + h[ fn+1 + fn ] = 0.
(11.21)
158
We now use the Taylor series to express yn+1 and fn+1 in terms of yn and fn. Noting
that yn = fn and yn = fn, we obtain
0 = [ yn + yn h + ynh 2 /2] + yn + h [ yn + ynh] + hyn .
(11.22)
+ =0
+ + = 0
/2 + = 0.
(11.23)
(11.24)
(11.25)
from which
f ( )d = 2 1 + 0 +
2
2
+ 0 + 5 + 0 + L.
3 3
5
(11.26)
159
(11.27)
Assume that n integration (Gauss) points i and n weights are used as follows:
g( )d =
g( )w = w + w + L + w
i
i =1
i =1
2 n 1
i i
2n
i =1
(11.28)
i =1
wi = 1,
i =1
i =1
wi = 0,
wii2 = 2/3, K,
i =1
wii2 n2 =
i =1
2
,
2n 1
2 n 1
i i
= 0.
i =1
(11.29)
It is necessary to solve for n integration points, i, and n weights, wi. These are
2ni
universal quantities. To integrate a given function, g(), exactly through , it is
necessary to perform n function evaluations, namely to compute g(i).
As an example, we seek two Gauss points and two weights. For n = 2,
w1 + w2 = 2
(i),
w11 + w22 = 0
(ii)
2
3
(iii),
w113 + w223 = 0
(iv)
w112 + w222 =
(11.30)
From (ii) and (iv), w11[12 22 ] = 0, leading to 2 = 1. From (i) and (iii), it
follows that 2 = 1 = 1/ 3. The normalization w1 = 1 implies that w2 = 1.
(0) = 0 ,
(0) = 0 .
(11.31)
(11.32)
The j eigenvalue, j, is obtained by solving det(K + 2j M) = 0, and a corresponding eigenvector vector, j, can also be computed (see Sample Problem 2).
th
160
For the sake of generality, suppose that j and j are complex. Let Hj denote the
complex conjugate (Hermitian) transpose of j. Now, 2j satisfies
2j =
Hj K j
Hj M j
Since M and K are real and positive-definite, it follows that j is pure imaginary:
j = ij. Without loss of generality, we can take j to be real and orthonormal.
Sample Problem 1
As an example, consider
k12
.
k22
(11.33)
(11.34)
1
M=
0
k11
K=
k12
[
1
= [[k
2
2+, =
1
[k11 + k22 ] [k11 + k22 ]2 4[k11k22 + k122 ]
2
11
]
(11.35)
so that both 2+ and 2 are negative (since k11 and k22 are positive).
th
th
We now consider eigenvectors. The eigenvalue equations for the i and j
eigenvectors are written as
[K + 2j M]g j = 0
[K + k2 M]g k = 0
(11.36)
It is easily seen that the eigenvectors have arbitrary magnitudes, and for convenience, we assume that they have unit magnitude Tj j = 1. Simple manipulation
furnishes that
Tk K j Tj K k [ 2j Tk M j k2 Tj M k ] = 0.
(11.37)
161
[ 2j Tk M j k2 Tj M k ] = ( 2j k2 ) Tk M j = 0.
(11.38)
Assuming for convenience that the eigenvalues are all distinct, it follows that
Tj M k = 0,
Tj K k = 0,
j k.
(11.39)
The eigenvectors are thus said to be orthogonal with respect to M and K. The
th
th
quantities j = Tj M j and j = Tj K j are called the ( j ) modal mass and ( j )
modal stiffness.
Sample Problem 2
Consider
0 1
1 2
k 2
m 1
1 1 0
= .
1 2 0
(11.40)
2
2
2
2
Let = j / 0 , 0 = k/m. For the determinant to vanish, 1 2 = 1/ 2 .
Using 1 2 = 1/ 2 , the first eigenvector satisfies
(1)
1 1 0
=
,
(1)
1/ 2 2 0
[ ] + [ ]
(1) 2
1
(1) 2
2
= 1,
(11.41)
implying that 1(1) = 1/ 3 , 2(1) = 2 / 3 . The corresponding procedures for the second eigenvalue furnish that 1( 2 ) = 1/ 3 , 2( 2 ) = 2 / 3 . It is readily verified that
T
1 = 4/3,
1 =
( 2 ) M (1) = (1) M ( 2 ) = 0,
( 2 ) K (1) = (1) K ( 2 ) = 0,
2 = 4/3,
4
[1 1/ 2 ],
3
2 =
4
[1 + 1/ 2 ]
3
(11.42)
n ].
(11.43)
162
X T MX = .
X T KX = .
. . (11.44)
= X 1 ,
g = XTf,
(11.45)
j j + j j = g j (t ).
(11.46)
Suppose that gj(t) = gj0 sin ( t). Neglecting transients, the steady-state solution
th
for the j mode is
j =
gj0
j 2 j
sin( t ).
(11.47)
11.5.2 COMPUTATION
OF
EIGENVECTORS
AND
EIGENVALUES
163
M (j +1) =
M ( )
K ( )
1
j
j
+
T
2
(
)
2 ( ) T M 2 ( )
K ( )
j
j
j
j
(j +1) = (j +1)
T
(j +1) M2 (j +1) .
(11.48)
Alternatively, note that
C( j ) =
Tj K
M j
Tj K 2 j
Tj M 2 j
(11.49)
is the cosine of the angle between two unit vectors, and as such it assumes the
maximum value of unity when the vectors coincide. A search can be executed on
the hypersphere in the vicinity of the current point, seeking the path along which C(j)
increases until the maximum is attained.
Once the eigenvector j is found, the corresponding eigenvalue is found from
2
j = ( Tj K j )/( Tj M j ). Now, an efficient scheme is needed to deflate the system
so that 12 ,and 1 no longer are part of the eigenstructure in order to ensure that the
solution scheme does not converge to values that have already been calculated.
Given 1 and 12 , we can construct a vector p2 that is M-orthogonal to 1 by
using an intermediate vector p 2 : p2 = p 2 1T Mp 2 1. Clearly, 1T Mp2 = 1T Mp 2
1T Mp 2 1T M 1 = 0 assuming 1 = 1. However, p2 is also clearly orthogonal to K1
since it is collinear with M1. A similar procedure leads to vectors pj, which are orthogonal to each other and to M1 and K1. For example, with p2 set to unit magnitude,
p 3 = p 3 p T2 p 3p 2 1T Mp 3 1 . Now, p T2 p 3 = 0 and 1T Mp 3 = 0.
th
Introduce the matrix X1 as follows: X1 = [1 p2 p3 pn]. For the k eigenvalue, we can write
[X KX
T
1
2k X1TMX1 X11 k = 0,
(11.50)
which decomposes to
12
0T
0
1
k2
0 T
K
n 1
0 0 0
.
=
0
M
n 1
n 1
(11.51)
(11.52)
The eigenvalues of the deflated system are also eigenvalues of the original system.
The eigenvector n1 can be used to compute the eigenvectors of the original system
164
using transformations involving the matrix X1. The eigenvalues and eigenvectors of
the deflated system can be computed by, for example, the hypercircle method
described previously.
11.6 EXERCISES
1. Verify that the triangular factors L3 and LT3 for A3 in Equation 11.5 are correct.
2. Using A3 in Equation 11.5, use forward substitution followed by backward
substitution to solve
1
A 3 = 1 .
1
3. Triangularize the matrix
36
K = 30
18
30
41
23
18
23.
14
K D n+1 = rn+1 .
7. For the linear system
36
30
24
30
41
32
24 1 1
32 2 = 2
27 3 3
165
8. (a) Find the modal masses 1, 2 and the modal stiffnesses 1 and 2 of
the system
1
3
0
0 1
1
+ 27
2 2
1
1 1 10
= sin(10t ).
2 2 20
0
4 AL/Y 2
2 A/ L
2 A/ L .
10. Put the following equations in state form, apply the trapezoidal rule, and
triangularize the ensuing dynamic stiffness matrix:
M
+ K = f ,
T = 0.
12
(12.1)
(.)
where = t and t imply differentiation with the coordinate system instantaneously fixed. The rightmost four terms in (12.1) are called the translational, Coriolis,
centrifugal, and angular accelerations, respectively.
2
Applied to the Principle of Virtual Work, the inertial term becomes u T d 2
dt
[u + X]dV . Assuming that u = T (X) (t ),
u T
d 2
d
d 2 u
T
dV
=
+ G1
+ (G 2 + A )
2
2
dt
dt
dt
G1 = T T d V,
= T T d V.
M = T T d V,
G2 = T 2 T d V,
(12.2)
The matrix M is the conventional positive-definite and symmetric mass matrix; the
Coriolis matrix G1 is antisymmetric; the centrifugal matrix G2 is negative-definite; and
= QQ
T, A =
.
the angular acceleration matrix A is antisymmetric. Also,
167
168
r
E,A,L,
f0 sin t
u T
d2
Xd V = T frot ,
dt 2
frot = T [2 + A]Xd V.
(12.3)
d2
d
+ G1
+ [K + G 2 + A] = f frot .
dt 2
dt
(12.4)
d 2u
= 2 [r + u].
dr 2
(12.5)
=
=
2 AL2
3
r
rdr
L
(12.6)
12.2
169
Consider the response of an elastic body that has no fixed points, as in spacecraft.
It is assumed that the tractions are prescribed on the undeformed surface. The
response is referred to the body axes corresponding to axes embedded in the
corresponding rigid body, for example, the principal axes of the moment of inertia
tensor. The position vector r of a point in the body can be decomposed as follows:
r = rc + + u ,
(12.7)
in which rc is the position vector to the center of mass; is the relative positionvector from the center of the mass to the undeformed position of the current point,
referred to rotating axes; and u is the displacement from the undeformed to the
deformed position in the rotating system (see Figure 12.2).
The balance of linear momentum becomes
Sij
j
= [
rci + i + ui ].
(12.8)
r
ci
rci + i + ui ] dV = 0.
[
(12.9)
z
u(,t)
(t)
rc(t)
y
x
FIGURE 12.2 3-D unconstrained 3-D element.
170
ci
dV = rci
Sij
dV
= rci Sij n j dS
= rci i dS
= rci Pi
(12.10)
i ij [
rci + i + ui ] dV = 0.
j
(12.11)
First,
r dV = r dV,
i
ci
ci
(12.12)
u d V = [ ] u dV = udV.
T
(12.13)
dV = [ + ]dV
T
= T [ + ]dV
= T [ J + J ]
(12.14)
171
dV =
( S )dV S dV
i ij
ij
= (i Sij ni )dS
= iti dS
= T m,
m = t dS
(12.15)
(12.16)
Equations 12.10 and 12.16 can be solved separately from the finite-element
equation for the displacements, to be presented next, to determine the origin and
orientation of the body axes.
Now consider the variation u:
ij
u
i
[
rci + i + ui ] dV = 0.
(12.17)
First, note that uidVrci = 0 since uidV = 0. The remaining terms are exactly
the same as for a body with a fixed point, and consequently it reduces to
M
d2
d
+ G1
+ [K + G 2 + A] = f frot
dt 2
dt
G2 = T 2 T dV,
frot = T [2 + A]XdV
G1 = T T dV,
A = T A T dV,
(12.18)
12.3 EXERCISES
1. Consider a one-element model for a steadily rotating rod (see Figure 12.1)
to which is applied an oscillatory force, as shown. Find the steady-state
solution.
2. Find the exact solution for u(r) in Exercise 1. Does it agree with the oneelement solution? Try two elements. Is the solution better? By how much?
172
b
a
then
F = mr0
M = J + J.
13
Thermal, Thermoelastic,
and Incompressible Media
(13.1)
K T = TT T k TT T dV ,
MT = TT T ceTT TT dV
(13.2)
This equation is parabolic (first-order in the time rates), and implies that the
temperature changes occur immediately at all points in the domain, but at smaller
initial rates away from where the heat is added. This contrasts with the hyperbolic
(second-order time rates) solid-mechanics equations, in which information propagates into the medium as finite velocity waves, and in which oscillatory response
occurs in response to a perturbation.
BY THE
TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
Equation 13.1 is already in state form since it is first-order, and the trapezoidal rule
can be applied directly:
MT
q + qn
n+1 n
+ n
+ K T n+1
= n+1
,
h
2
2
(13.3)
from which
K DT n+1 = rn+1
K DT = MT +
(13.4)
h
h
h
K r = MT n K T n (q n+1 + q n )
2 T n+1
2
2
173
174
For the assumed conditions, the dynamic thermal stiffness matrix is positivedefinite, and for the current time step, the equation can be solved in the same manner
as in the static counterpart, namely forward substitution followed by backward
substitution.
= K T < 0.
dt 2
(13.5)
T
Clearly, the product MT decreases continuously. However, it only vanishes if
vanishes.
To examine the modes, assume a solution of the form (t) = 0j exp(jt). The
eigenvectors 0j satisfy
j =k
,
T0 j MT 0 k = Tj
jk
0
j = k
T0 j K T 0 k = Tj
jk
0
(13.6)
and we call Tj and Tj the j modal thermal mass and j modal thermal stiffness,
01 0n ], and again
respectively. We can also form the modal matrix = [
th
Tj
TMT = .
th
Tj
. ,
Tj
TK T = .
Tj
. .
.
(13.7)
1
T
T
Let = and g(t) = q(t). Pre- and postmultiplying Equation 13.2 with
and , respectively, furnishes the decoupled equation
Tj j + Tj j = g j .
(13.8)
175
t +
exp Tj (t T ) gj d ,
0
Tj
(13.9)
illustrating the monotonically decreasing nature of the response. Now there are n
uncoupled single degrees of freedom.
(13.10)
E [2E + E ] dV + u dV E (T T )
ij
ij
kk ij
ij
ij
dVo = u j t j dSo .
(13.11)
E ij E = BT ( x ) (t ),
T T0 = v T ( x ) (t ), T = BTT ( x ) (t ),
(13.12)
= B T dVo .
(13.13)
The quantity is the thermomechanical stiffness matrix. If there are nm displacement degrees of freedom and nt thermal degrees of freedom, the quantities appearing
in the equation are
M, K: nm nm ,
(t ), f (t ): nm 1,
: nm nt ,
(t ): nt 1.
176
We next address the thermal field. The energy-balance equation (from Equation
7.35), including mechanical effects, is given by
k 2 T = ce T + T0 tr( E ).
(13.14)
K T (t ) + MT (t ) + T0 T (t ) = q,
q=
n qdS.
(13.15)
Case 1:
Suppose that T is constant. At the global level, (t ) = T0 K T1 T (t ) + T0 K T1 q. Thus,
the thermal field is eliminated at the global level, giving the new governing equation
as
(t ) + T0 K T1 T (t ) + K (t ) = f (t ).
M
(13.16)
Q1 = 0
Q 2 = K
0
K
0
K
0
0
M T / T0
0
K T / T0
(13.17)
z =
f
f = 0
q / T0
Clearly, Equation 13.17 can be integrated numerically using the trapezoidal rule:
Q + h Q z = Q h Q z + h [f + f ].
1 2 2 n+1 1 2 2 n 2 n+1 n
(13.18)
177
dt 2
= z T
1
Q + Q 2T z
2 2
= T K T
(13.19)
and z must be real. Assuming that 0, it follows that z 0, and hence the system
is asymptotically stable.
13.2.2 THERMOELASTICITY
IN A
ROD
Consider a rod that is built into a large, rigid, nonconducting temperature reservoir
at x = 0. The force, f0, and heat flux, q0, are prescribed at x = L. A single element
models the rod. Now,
u( x, t ) = x (t )/ L,
E( x, t ) = (t )/ L,
T T0 = x (t )/ L,
dT
= (t )/ L.
dx
(13.20)
1
AL EA
+
A = f0
2
3
L
1
1 ce AL 1 kA
+
+ A = q 0
2
T0 3
T0 L
(13.21)
E
(1 + )
Syy =
(1 + )(1 2 )
0
Szz
(1 + )
12
0
0 Exx
0 Eyy .
1 2 Ezz
(13.22)
178
tr( E) p.
(13.23)
(13.24)
together with the incompressibility constraint Eijij = 0. There now are two independent principal strains and the pressure with which to determine the three principal
stresses.
w
In a compressible elastic material, the strain-energy function w satisfies Sij = Eij ,
and the domain term in the Principle of Virtual Work can be rewritten as EijSijdV =
wdV. The elastic-strain energy is given by w = Ei j Ei j + 2 Ekk2. For reasons
explained shortly, we introduce the augmented strain-energy function
w = Eij Eij pEkk
(13.25)
wdV + u u dV = u dS .
T
(13.26)
179
Now, considering u and p to vary independently, the integrand of the first term
becomes w = Eij[2Eij pij ] pEkk , furnishing two variational relations:
E S dV + u u dV = u dS
T
ij ij
(a)
(13.27)
pE dV = 0
kk
(b)
The first relation is recognized as the Principle of Virtual Work, and the second
equation serves to enforce the internal constraint of incompressibility.
We now introduce the interpolation models:
u = N T ( x ) g (t )
Ekk = bT ( x ) g(t )
e = BT ( x ) g ( t )
p( x ) = x T ( x ) p(t )
(13.28)
= b T dVo ,
(13.29)
T (t ) = 0
Assuming that these equations apply at the global level, use of state form
furnishes
M
0 T
0
K
0T
0 (t ) 0
d
0 (t ) + K
dt
0 (t ) T
K
0
0T
(t ) f (t )
0 (t ) = 0 .
0 (t ) 0
(13.30)
d 1 T
( (t )
dt 2
T (t )
T (t )) 0
0 T
0
K
0T
0 (t )
0 (t ) = 0
0 (t )
(13.31)
180
13.5 EXERCISES
1. Find the exact solution for a circular rod of length L, radius r, mass density
, specific heat ce , conductivity k, and cross-sectional area A = r2. The
initial temperature is T0, and the rod is built into a large wall at fixed
temperature T0 (see figure below). However, at time t = 0, the temperature
T1 is imposed at x = L. Compare the exact solution to the one- and twoelement solutions. Note that for a one-element model,
c AL
kA
( L, t ) + e ( L, t ) = q( L).
3
L
L
r
T0
T1,t>0
2. State the equations of a thermoelastic rod, and put the equations for the
thermoelastic behavior of a rod in state form.
3. Put the following equations in state form, apply the trapezoidal rule, and
triangularize the ensuing dynamic stiffness matrix, assuming that the triangular factors of M and K are known.
+ K = f,
M
T = 0.
0
4 AL / Y 2
2 AL / Y
u( L) f
2 AL / Y v(Y ) = 0
0 p 0
14
z
T
0
r0
section after twist
x
z
y
x
FIGURE 14.1 Twist of a prismatic rod.
181
182
v = X .
(14.1)
It is also assumed that torsion does not increase the length of the member, which
is attained by requiring that axial displacement w only depends on X and Y. The
quantity w(X, Y) is called the warping function.
It is readily verified that all strains vanish except Exz and Eyz, for which
Exz =
1 w
y ,
2 x
z
1 w
+ x .
2 y
z
Eyz =
(14.2)
(14.3)
,
y
Syz =
.
x
(14.4)
We must satisfy the compatibility condition to ensure that the strain field arises
from a displacement field that is unique to within a rigid-body translation and
rotation. (Compatibility is automatically satisfied if the displacements are considered
the unknowns and are approximated by a continuous interpolation model. Here, the
stresses are the unknowns.) From the stress-strain relation,
Exz =
1
1
Sxz =
,
2
2 y
Eyz =
1
1
Syz =
.
2
2 x
2 w
xy
2 w ,
yx
furnishing
1 1 d 1 1 d
+ y
+
x
= 0,
y 2 y 2 dz x 2 x 2 dz
(14.5)
(14.6)
183
n
ds
dy
d z
n x = cos = dy/ds
n y = sin = dx/ds
dx
(14.7)
For boundary conditions, assume that the lateral boundaries of the member are
unloaded. The stress-traction relation already implies that x = 0 and y = 0 on the
lateral boundary S. For traction z to vanish, we require that
z = n x Sxz + ny Syz = 0 on S.
(14.8)
Upon examining Figure 14.2, it can be seen that nx = dy/ds and ny = dx/ds, in
which s is the arc length along the boundary at z. Consequently,
z =
dy
dx
S
S
ds xz ds yz
dy dx
+
ds y ds x
d
ds
(14.9)
(14.10)
184
dy
dx
sxz
syz
y
x
x
FIGURE 14.3 Evaluation of twisting moment.
Integration furnishes
d
d
T = x
dxdy
+y
dy
dx
d ( x ) d ( y )
dx dy
=
+
dx + dy dxdy
dx
dy
x
= dxdy + 2 dxdy
y
(14.11)
Application of the divergence theorem to the first term leads to [xnx + yny]ds,
which vanishes since y vanishes on S. Finally,
T = 2 dxdy.
(14.12)
We apply variational methods to the Poisson Equation, considering the stresspotential function y to be the unknown. Now,
[ + 2 ]dxdy = 0.
2003 by CRC CRC Press LLC
(14.13)
185
( ) dxdy = 2 dxdy.
(14.14)
th
The integrals are evaluated over a set of small elements. In the e element,
approximate as TT ( x, y) e e , in which T is a vector with dimension (number of
rows) equal to the number of nodal values of . The gradient has a corresponding
interpolation model = TT ( x, y) e e , in which T is a matrix. The finite-element
counterpart of the Poisson Equation at the element level is written as
K (Te ) e = 2 fT( e )
K (Te ) = eT T TT dxdy e
(14.15)
fT( e ) = eT T ( x, y)dxdy
and the stiffness matrix should be nonsingular, since the constraint y = 0 on S has
1
already been used. It follows that, globally, g = 2 K (Tg ) fT( g ) . The torque satisfies
T = 2 dxdy
= 2 Tg fT( g )
1
(14.16)
OF
BEAM COLUMNS
186
Q0
E,I,A,L,
M0
For the beam shown in Figure 14.4, the classical Euler buckling equation is
= 0,
EIw iv + Pw + Aw
(14.17)
and P is the axial compressive force. The interpolation model for w(x) is recalled
T
. Following the usual variational procedures (integration by parts)
as w(x) = (x)
furnishes
wAw dx M ,
T
w[EIw
iv
M = T ( x )A T ( x )dV
(14.18)
+ Pw ]dx = w EIw dx w Pw dx
[( w )( Pw EIw )]0L [( w )( EIw )]0L
At x = 0, both w and w vanish, while the shear force V and the bending
moment M are identified as V = EIw and M = EIw. The effective shear force
Q is defined as Q = Pw EIw.
For the specific case illustrated in Figure 14.3, for a one-element model, we can
use the interpolation formula
w( x ) = ( x
L2
x )
2 L
3
L3
(t ),
3 L2
w( L )
(t ) =
.
w ( L)
(14.19)
M = ALK 0 ,
13
35
K0 =
11
210 L
L
.
1 L2
105
11
210
(14.20)
187
Similarly,
w Pw dx = T
wEIwdx =
P
K ,
L 1
65
K1 =
1
10
L
EI
K ,
L3 2
12
K2 =
6 L
2 2
15 L
1
10
(14.21)
6L
4 L2
Q0
f = .
M0
(14.22)
In a static problem,
= 0, the solution has the form
2
PL
cof K2
K1
EI
f,
=
2
PL
det K2
K1
EI
(14.23)
PL2
EI
which render
(14.24)
(14.25)
1
Clearly, 02 is an eigenvalue of the matrix AL
K 01 / 2 [ EL3I K 2 PL K1 ]K 01 / 2 . The
2
resonance frequency 0 is reduced by the presence of P and vanishes precisely at
the critical value of P.
188
V0
P
M0
L
65
K1 =
1
10
L
P
w Pw dx =
K ,
L 1
T
wEIwdx =
EI
K ,
L3 2
12
K2 =
6 L
2 L2
15
1
10
(14.26)
6L
4 L2
6 L P 65
1 L
4 L2 L 10
V1
f = ,
M1
L
= f
2 2
15 L
1
10
(14.27)
w( L )
=
w ( L)
Consider the symmetric case in which M0 = 0, with the implication that w(L) = 0.
The equation reduces to
12 EI 6 P w( L) = V ,
1
L3 5 L
(14.28)
189
Next, consider the antisymmetric case in which V0 = 0 and w(L) = 0. The counterpart of Equation 14.28 is now
4 EI 2 PL ( w ( L)) = M ,
1
L 15
(14.29)
and P2 = 30EI/L .
If neither the constraint of symmetry nor axisymmetry is applicable, there are two
critical buckling loads, to be obtained in Exercise 2 as 27.8 EI2 and 8.9 EI2 . These values
L
L
are close enough to the symmetric and antisymmetric cases to suggest an interpretation
of the two buckling loads as corresponding to the two pure buckling modes.
Compare the obtained values with the exact solution, assuming static conditions. Consider the symmetric case. Let w(x) = wc(x) + wp(x), in which wc(x) is
the characteristic solution and wp(x) is the particular solution reflecting the perturbation. From the Euler buckling equation demonstrated in Equation 14.17, wc(x)
has a general solution of the form wc(x) = + x + cos x + sin x, in which
= PL2 / EI . Now, w = w = 0 at x = 0, w(L) = 0, and EIw(L) = V1, expressed
as the conditions
2
1 + 0 + 1 + 0 = w p (0)
0 + 1 + 0 + = w p (0)
(14.30)
0 + L sin L + cosL = w p ( L)
0 + 0 + 3 sin L 3 cosL = EIw
p ( L ) + V1
or otherwise stated
w p (0)
w p (0)
Bz =
,
w p ( L)
EIw ( L) + V
p
1
0
B=
0
sin L
3 sin L
,
cosL
3 cosL
0
z=
(14.31)
For the solution to blow up, it is necessary for the matrix B to be singular,
which it is if the corresponding homogeneous problem has a solution. Accordingly,
we seek conditions under which there exists a nonvanishing vector z, for which Bz = 0.
Direct elimination of and furnishes = and = . The remaining
coefficients must satisfy
sin L
sin L
cosL L 0
= .
cosL 0
(14.32)
190
(14.33)
d2
d2
d2
d2
d2
d2
w .
I
w
P
w
I
w
P
E
+
=
E
+
0
dx 2
dx 2 0
dx 2
dx 2
dx 2
dx 2
(14.34)
or equivalently,
OF
PLATES
(14.35)
(see Wang 1953), in which the loads are illustrated as shown in Figure 14.6. The usual
z
y
Pxy
Pyx
Px
FIGURE 14.6 Plate element with in-plane compressive loads.
Py
191
(14.36)
in which W = w (a matrix!). In addition,
T
2 w
2 w
2 w
w Px 2 + Py 2 + Pxy
dA = dw(nx
y
xy
x
ny )p dS
{ wx
wx
wy}P dA,
wy
[
[
P w + 1 P
x x
2 xy
p=
1 P w + P
y
2 xy x
w
y
w
y
] ,
]
Px
P=
12 Pxy
1
2
(14.37)
Pxy
Py
VEC(W) = T2 b 2 b 2 b 2 .
(14.38)
are prescribed on S.
w
w
1
[ Pxy
+
P
]
y y
2
x
These conditions serve to obtain
2
[K b 21 K b 22 ] b 2 = f
K b 21 =
(14.39)
Eh 2
T T dAb 2
12(1 2 ) b 2 2 b 2 2 b 2
192
Pxy
Py
Px
FIGURE 14.7 Loading space for plate buckling.
emanating from the origin represents a proportional loading path. Let the load
intensity, , denote the distance to a given point on this line. By analogy with
spherical coordinates, there exist two angles, and , such that
Px = cos cos ,
Py = sin cos ,
Pxy = sin
(14.40)
Now,
( , )
K b 22 = K
b 22
( , ) = T P ( , )T dV
K
b 22
b2
b2
1b 2
1b 2
cos cos
P ( , ) =
sin
(14.41)
sin
sin cos
For each pair (q, f), buckling occurs at a critical load intensity, crit(, ),
satisfying
] = 0.
det[K b 21 crit ( , )K
b 22
(14.42)
A surface of critical load intensities, crit(, ), can be drawn in the loading space
shown in Figure 14.7 by evaluating crit(, ) over all values of (q, f) and discarding
values that are negative.
193
14.3 EXERCISES
1. Consider the triangular member shown to be modeled as one finite element. Assume that
( x, y) = (1
y)1
x1
x2
x3
y1
y2
y3
1
2 .
3
(2,3)
(3,2)
(1,1)
2. Find the torsional constant for a unit square cross section using two
triangular elements.
3. Derive the matrices K0, K1, and K2 in Equations 14.20 and 14.21.
4. Compute the two critical values in Equation 14.23.
5. Use the four-element model shown in Figure 14.5, and determine how much
improvement, if any, occurs in the symmetric and antisymmetric cases.
6. Consider a two-element model and a four-element model of the simplesimple case shown in the following figure. Compare Pcrit in the symmetric
and antisymmetric cases with exact values.
V0
P
M0
L
194
EI
d 4w
d 2w
+ P 2 = 0.
4
dx
dx
w EIw dx = T
EI 12
L3 6 L
6L
,
4 L2
w Pw dx = T
P 12
L 6 L
6L
.
4 L2
15
Introduction to Contact
Problems
<g
2 k
kc =
3k
(15.1)
g.
From the viewpoint of the finite-element method, Figure 15.1 poses the following
difficulty. If a node is set at the lowest point on spring B and at the point directly
P
contactor
A
k
k
g
target
195
196
contactor
A
k
k
kg
target
below it on the target, these nodes are not initially connected, but are later connected
in the physical problem. Furthermore, it is necessary to satisfy the nonpenetration
constraint whereby the middle spring does not move through the target. If the nodes
are considered unconnected in the finite-element model, there is nothing to enforce
the nonpenetration constraint. If, however, the nodes are considered connected, the
stiffness is artificially high.
This difficulty is overcome in an approximate sense by a bilinear contact element.
In particular, we introduce a new spring, kg, as shown in Figure 15.2.
The stiffness of the middle spring (B in series with the contact spring) is now
denoted as km, and
1
1 1
km = + .
k kg
(15.2)
It is desirable for the middle spring to be soft when the gap is open (g > ) and
to be stiff when the gap is closed (g ):
k /100 g >
kg =
100 k g .
(15.3)
g>
g .
(15.4)
Consequently, the model with the contact is too stiff by 0.5% when the gap
is open, and too soft by 0.33% when the gap is closed (contact). One conclusion
that can be drawn from this example is that the stiffness of the gap element should
be related to the stiffnesses of the contactor and target in the vicinity of the contact
point.
197
ij < gij
(15.5)
ij gij ,
in which ij = uij + uji is the relative displacement. The force in the spring connecting
th
th
the i contactor node and j target node is fij = kij(gij)ij. The total normal force
th
experienced by the i contactor node is fi = j fij cos(ij).
c2
c3
31
k(g31)
t1
t2
dSt
t3
198
As an example of how the spring stiffness might depend upon the gap, consider
the function
kij ( gij ij )
(15.6)
where , , and are positive parameters selected as follows. When gij ij > 0,
kij attains the lower-shelf value, k0, and we assume that << 1. If gij ij < 0, kij
approaches the upper-shelf value, k0 (1 ). We choose to be a small value to
attain a narrow transition range from the lower- to the upper-shelf values. In the
range 0 < gij ij < , there is a rapid but continuous transition from the lower-shelf
(soft) value to the upper-shelf (stiff) value. If we now choose such that = 1,
kij becomes k0 /2, when the gap closes (gij = ij). The spring characteristic is illustrated
in Figure 15.4.
The total normal force on a contactor node is the sum of the individual contactelement forces, namely
Nc
ftj =
k (g
ij
ij
ij ) ij cos( ij ).
(15.7)
Clearly, significant forces are exerted only by the contact elements that are
closed.
k ij
k 0
k0
k 0 /2
k 0
ij gij
199
t2
t3
c2
dSc
c1
c3
15.4 EXERCISES
1. Consider a finite-element model for a set of springs, illustrated in the
following figure. A load moves the plate on the left toward the fixed plate
on the right.
What is the load-deflection curve of the configuration?
For a finite-element model, an additional bilinear spring is supplied, as
shown. What is the load-deflection curve of the finite-element model?
Identify a kg value for which the load-deflection behavior of the finiteelement model is close to the actual configuration.
Why is the new spring needed in the finite-element model?
200
k
k
k
k
H
L
16
Introduction to
Nonlinear FEA
16.1 OVERVIEW
The previous section addressed finite-element methods for linear problems. Applications that linear methods serve to analyze include structures under mild loads,
disks and rotors spinning at modest angular velocities, and heated plates. However,
a large number of problems are nonlinear. Plasticity is a nonlinear materials theory
suited for metals in metal forming, vehicle crash, and ballistics applications. In
problems with high levels of heat input, mechanical properties, such as the elastic
modulus, and thermal properties, such as the coefficient of specific heat, can be
strongly temperature-dependent. Rubber seals and gaskets commonly experience
strains exceeding 50%. Soft biological tissues typically are modeled as rubberlike.
Many problems involve variable contact, for example, meshing gear teeth. Heat
conducted across electrical contacts can be strongly dependent on normal pressures.
Fortunately, much of the linear finite-element method can be adapted to nonlinear
problems, as explained in this chapter. The next chapter focuses on isothermal
problems. The extension to thermomechanical problems will be presented in a
subsequent chapter.
202
(16.1)
1 + = P .
L
L
(16.2)
Suppose the load is applied in increments, jP, and that the load at the n load
th
step is Pn. Suppose further that the solution n is known at the n load. We now
consider the steps necessary to determine the solution n+1 for Pn+1. We introduce the
th
increment n = g n+1 n. Subtracting Equation 16.2 at the n step from the equation
st
th
at the (n + 1) step, the incremental equilibrium equation for the n increment is now
th
AE 0
+ n
1 + 2 n+1
= nP .
n
L
L
(16.3)
(16.4)
x +1 = x
x 0 = / .
(16.5)
203
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1
The efficiency of this scheme is addressed as follows. Consider = 1, = 12, and
= 1. The correct solution is x = 0.0828. Starting with the initial value x = 0, the
1
first two iterates are, approximately, 121 = 0.833, and 121 (1 144
) = 0.0828 . This illustrates the rapid quadratic convergence of Newton iteration.
NT =
1
{x x
le e
x x e},
(16.6)
in which a eT = {ue
ue+1}. Now, u(Xe) = ue and u(Xe+1) = ue+1 are viewed as the
unknowns to be determined using the finite-element method. The Lagrangian strain
Pe
xe,ue
g
xe+1,ue+1
Pe+1
204
E = Exx is given by
E=
u 1 u
+
x 2 x
ue+1 ue 1 ue+1 ue
+
2 le
le
1
{1
le
1} a e +
1
1 T 1
ae 2
2 le 1
1
ae .
1
(16.7)
Note that
dE = BT da e ,
BL =
1 1
le 1
B = B L + B NL a e
B NL =
1
le2
(16.8)
1
.
1
The vector BL and the matrix BNL are the strain-displacement matrices.
The following sections illustrate two different approaches to formulating a finiteelement model for the rubber rod. One is based on satisfying the incompressibility
constraint a priori. The second is based on satisfying the constraint a posteriori,
which is typical of finite-element code practice. In addition, we also include a slight
variant involving a near-incompressibility constraint in an a posteriori manner.
16.4.2 STRESS
AND
The Neohookean strain-energy density function, w, accommodating incompressibility, is expressed in terms of the eigenvalues c1, c2, and c3 of C = 2E + I, as follows:
w=
D
(c + c + c3 3),
2 1 2
subject to c1c2 c3 1 = 0 ,
(16.9)
in which D is the (small-strain) elastic modulus. We can show, with some effort,
that under uniaxial tension, c2 = c3.
We first enforce the incompressibility constraint a priori by using the substitution
c2 = c3 =
1
.
c1
(16.10)
D
[2 E + 1 + 2 /(2 E + 1) 1/ 2 3] .
2
(16.11)
205
nd
w
E
1
D[1 (2 E + 1)3/ 2 ].
3
(16.12)
DT =
= D(2 E + 1)5/ 2 .
(16.13)
D
p
[c + c + c3 3] (c1c2 c3 1) ,
2 1 2
2
(16.14)
in which the Lagrange multiplier, p, is the (true) hydrostatic pressure. The augmented
energy is stationary with respect to p as well as c1, c2, and c3, from which it follows
that c1c2c3 1 = 0 (incompressibility).
The stresses satisfy
S1 =
w*
w* D p c1c2c3
=2
=
2 2 c1
E1
c1
S2 =
w*
w* D p c1c2c3
=2
=
=0
2 2 c2
E2
c2
S3 =
w *
w * D p c1c2c3
=2
=
= 0.
2 2 c3
E3
c3
(16.15)
Xe +1
Xe
BSe AdX P e g
Xe +1
Xe
N T AdX a e = 0,
Pee
Pe =
,
Pe
e+1
(16.16)
206
in which the third term represents the weight of the element, while Pe represents the
forces from the adjacent elements. In an incremental formulation, we can replace
the loads and displacements by their differential forms. In particular,
d Pe =
Xe +1
BdSAe dX +
Xe
Xe +1
Xe
d BSAe dX
= K e da e
= {K1e + K 2 e + K 3e + K 4 e} da e
(16.17)
in which
K1e = Ae
Xe +1
Xe
Xe
B L DT BTL dX
1
DT Ae
le
K 2 e = Ae
Xe +1
DT B L a eTB NL + B NL a e BTL dX
1
DT Ae [ue+1 ue ] 1
2
le
le
1
K 3e = Ae
(16.18a)
Xe +1
Xe
B NL a ea eTBTNL dX
1
2
DT Ae ue+1 ue 1
le le 1
K 4 e = Ae
(16.18b)
Xe +1
Xe
(16.18c)
B L SdX
SAe 1
le 1
(16.18d)
and
DT =
1
le
Xe +1
Xe
DT dX ,
S=
1
le
Xe +1
Xe
SdX.
(16.19)
207
1
,
1
DT Ae
le
l
+ l .
le
e
e
(16.20)
Suppose (ue+1 ue)/le is small compared to unity, with the consequence that E
is also small compared to unity. It follows in this case that DT D, S S. As a
result, Ke reduces to the stiffness matrix for a rod element of linearly elastic material
experiencing small strain:
Ke =
EAe
le
1
.
1
(16.21)
1 0 dPr
=
,
1 du1 dP
(16.22)
in which dPr is an incremental reaction force that is not known a priori (of course,
from equilibrium, dPr = dP). For the only unknown reaction, this last equation
condenses to
kdu1 = dP .
x1
A,
u1
(16.23)
208
For later use, the current shape function degenerates to the expression N N =
X/X1.
The (Lagrangian) strain is given by
2
E(u1 ) =
u1 1 u1
+
,
X1 2 X1
(16.24)
u
1
+ 12 .
X1 X1
(16.25)
nd
2
2
1
1 u
u
S(u1 ) = D1 2 1 + 1 1 .
3 X1 2 X1
BY
(16.26)
NEWTON ITERATION
Equation 16.22 can be solved by Newton iteration, sometimes called load balancing, the reason for which is explained shortly. We introduce the residual function
(u1) = 0 as follows. The Principle of Virtual Work implies that if gravity is considered in Figure 16.2,
(u1 ) =
X1
BSA dX P g
X1
N T A dX a e
2
2
1 u1
1 u1 1 u1
X
= + 2 AX1 D1 2 + 1 P gA 1 u1
2
le le
3 X1 2 X1
= 0.
(16.27)
th
when u1 is the solution. Consider an iteration process in which the j iterate u1j has
been determined. Newton iteration determines the next iterate, u1j +1, using
(u1j ) j u1 = (u1j )
u1j +1 = u1j + j u1.
(16.28)
209
often obtained using an incremental procedure. Suppose that the solution has been
obtained at previous load steps. A starting iterate for the current load step is obtained
by extrapolating from the previous solutions. As an example, suppose the solution
is known at the load P = kP, in which P is a load increment. The load is now
incremented to produce P = (k + 1)P, and the solution u1,k+1 at this load is determined
using Newton iteration. It is frequently satisfactory to start the iteration using
u10,k +1 = u1. This numerical procedure is illustrated more extensively at the end of
this chapter.
Sample Problem 2: Assembled Stiffness Matrix
for a Two-Element Model
Assemblage procedures are used to combine the element-equilibrium relations to
obtain the global equilibrium relation for an assemblage of elements. For elements
e and e + 1, the element-equilibrium relations are expanded as
k11e due + k12e due+1 = dPee
(i)
e
e
k21
due + k22
due+1 = dPee+1
(ii)
(16.29)
(iii)
e +1
e +1
k21
due+1 + k22
due+2 = dPee++21
(iv).
The superscript indicates the element index, and the subscript indicates the node
index. If no external force is applied at xe+1, the interelement force balance is
expressed as
dPee+1 + dPee++11 = 0 .
(16.30)
e
e
k21
due + k22
+ k11e+1 due+1 + k12e+1due+2 = 0 .
(16.31)
e
k21
k12e
e
k22
+ k11e+1
e +1
k21
0 due dPee
k12e+1 due+1 = 0 .
e+1
e +1
k22
due+2 dPe+2
(16.32)
Equation 16.32 illustrates that the (incremental) global stiffness matrix is formed
by overlaying Ke and Ke+1, with the entries added in the intersection.
210
Pee
xe,ue
P,Ae
e
Pe+1
e+1
Pe+1
xe+1,ue+1
P,Ae+1
xe+2,ue+2
e+1
e+2
x
FIGURE 16.3 Two rubber rods under load.
1
2
1
0 du1 dP
1 du2 = 0 .
1 du3 dP
(16.33)
Note that Equation 16.33 has no solution since the global stiffness matrix has
no inverse: the second row is the negative of the sum of the first and last rows. This
suggests that, due to numerical errors in the load increments, the condition for static
equilibrium is not satisfied numerically, and therefore that the body is predicted to
accelerate indefinitely (undergo rigid-body motion). However, we also know that the
configuration under incremental loads is symmetric, implying a constraint du2 = 0.
This constraint permits condensation, that is, reducing Equation 16.33 to a system
with two unknowns by eliminating rows and columns associated with the middle
incremental displacement:
1
1 du1 dP
=
.
1 du3 dP
(16.34)
The condensed matrix is now proportional to the identity matrix, and the system
has a solution. In general, stiffness matrices can easily be singular or nearly singular
211
(with a large condition number) unless constraints are used to suppress rigid-body
modes.
( x ) = 0,
(16.35)
d ( x j )
x j +1 = x j
(x j ) .
dx
(16.36)
d ( x j )
d ( x j 1 )
x j +1 x j = x j x j 1
(xj )
( x j 1 )
dx
dx
1
d ( x *) d 2 ( x *)
(
*)
= x j x j 1
+
x
x
j
dx 2
dx
( x *) +
d ( x *) d 2 ( x *)
d ( x *)
( x j 1 x*)
( x j x*)
+
dx 2
dx
dx
( x *) +
d ( x *)
( x j 1 x*) + L
dx
d ( x *) d ( x *)
( x x j 1 ) + O([ x j x j1 ]2 )
= 1
dx j
dx
(16.37)
212
X
FIGURE 16.4 Illustration of the inverse tangent function.
16.5.1 EXAMPLE
The performance of Newton iteration procedure is illustrated using a simple example
showing convergence problems. Consider
( x) =
2
tan 1 ( x ) y = 0.
(16.38)
The goal is to find the solution of x as y is incremented in the range (0,1). Clearly,
x approaches infinity as y approaches unity, so that the goal is to generate the x(y)
relationship accurately as close as possible to y = 1. The curve appears as shown in
Figure 16.4. As y is incremented by small amounts just below unity, the differences
in x due to the increment are large, so that the solution value is far from the initial
iterate.
th
Suppose that y is incremented such that the n value of y is
yn = ny.
(16.39)
x n++11
x n+1
( )
d x n+1
x n+1 ,
dx
( )
(16.40)
in which x n+1
is the iterate for the solution xn+1.
0
Of course, a starting iterate, x n+1
, is needed. An attractive candidate is xn+1.
However, this may not be good enough when convergence difficulties appear.
Newton iteration was implemented for this example in a simple problem using
increments of 0.001. A stopping criterion of 10 iterations was used. Convergence
was found to fail near y = 0.999.
th
213
16.6 EXERCISES
1. Doing the algebra, make judicious choices of starting iterates, and develop
the first few iterates for the roots of the equations
x 2 + 3x + 2 = 0
x2 1 = 0
( x 1)2 = 0
2. Write a simple program implementing Newton iteration, and apply it to
the examples in Exercise 1.
3. Using Example 5.1, write a simple program using Newton iteration to
compute X(Y ) using increments y = 0.001. Set the stopping criterion as
the first of: (a) 10 iterates or (b) an absolute difference of less than 0.001
in the successive values of x. Note the value of x at which convergence
fails, and compare the values of x with accurate values available from the
formulae and tables in Abramawitz and Stegun (1997).
17
Incremental Principle
of Virtual Work
1
= [I FT + FT IU]VEC( n F)
2
= G n g,
1
GT = [I FT + FT IU]M (X) n g.
2
(17.1)
(17.2)
215
216
= VEC T (F T ) JM n .
(17.3)
(17.4)
d
dS = [tr(D) nT Dn]dS
dt
Using Equation 17.4, we obtain the incremental forms
n [ndS] = dS[nVEC T (F T ) nT F T U]M n
n n = [n(nT F T ) nT nT F T U]M n
(17.5)
n dS = dS[nVEC T (F T ) n(nT F T ) nT ]M n .
(17.6)
For the Cauchy stress, the increment must take into account the rotation of the
underlying coordinate system and thereby be objective. We recall the objective
o
Truesdell stress flux, T / t, introduced in Chapter 5:
o
(17.7)
217
S/t = J F 1 T/tF T .
(17.8)
(17.9)
Furthermore, once VEC( n T ) has been determined, the (nonobjective) increment of the Cauchy stress can be computed using
o
n T = n T + Ttr( n FF 1 ) n FF 1T T F T n F T ,
(17.10)
from which
o
T n dS = u dV.
T
(17.12)
S n dS = u dV ,
T
(17.13)
st
S n
T
dS0 =
u dV .
0
(17.14)
218
(17.15)
tr( E S)dV + FS F dV + u u dV = u dS ,
T
n 0
(17.16)
in which 0 is the traction experienced by dS0. The fourth term describes the virtual
external work of the incremental tractions. The first term describes the virtual internal
work of the incremental stresses. The third term describes the virtual internal work
of the incremental inertial forces. The second term has no counterpart in the previously formulated Principle of Virtual Work in Chapter 5, and arises because of
geometric nonlinearity. We simply call it the geometric stiffness integral. Due to the
importance of this relation, Equation 17.16 is derived in detail in the equations that
follow. It is convenient to perform the derivation using tensor-indicial notation:
u X ( S )dV = X [ u ( S )]dV X [ u ] S dV
n i
n ij
n i
n ij
n i
n ij
(17.17)
The first term on the right is converted using the divergence theorem to
X [ u ( S )]dV = u (n S )dS
n i
n ij
n i
n ij
= n ui 0 j dS0
which is recognized as the fourth term in Equation 17.16.
(17.18)
219
To first-order in increments, the second term on the right is written, using tensor
notation, as
X [ u ] S dV = tr( F S )dV
n i
n ij
(17.19)
tr(F F S)dV = tr 2 [F F + F F] S dV
T
= tr( n T nS)dV0
(17.20)
(17.21)
e = VEC( E),
(17.22)
= TEN22( D).
Also for present purposes, we assume that 0 is prescribed on the boundary S0, a
common but frequently unrealistic assumption that is addressed in a subsequent section.
In VEC notation, and using the interpolation models, Equation 17.16 becomes
n T [(K T + K G ) n + M n n f ] = 0
(17.23)
KT =
M GG M dV
KG =
M S IM dV
M=
dV
n f =
dS
220
KT is now called the tangent modulus matrix, KG is the geometric stiffness matrix,
M is the (incremental) mass matrix, and nf is the incremental force vector.
n1 = i
n2 = I1i c
n3 = I2 i I1c + c2
I9 = I I
A1 = 0
A2 = ii T I9
(17.24)
n T q dS = n T0 q 0 dS0
dS = dS0
= J n C n0 =
T
0
(17.25)
n n n3
T
0
T
0
m T = n T0 n T0 A 3 / 2 .
(17.26)
(17.27)
0 =
=
( ATM u) 2 mT c
(17.28)
221
From the Incremental Principle of Virtual Work, the rhs term is written as
1
u dS = u ( A u)
T
T
M
mT c dS0 .
(17.29)
u dS = f [ K
T
f =
dS ,
1
K BF = NATM N T dS0 ,
BF
+ KBN ]
K BN =
(17.30)
mT G dS0
The first boundary contribution is from the nonlinear elastic foundation coupling
the traction and displacement increments on the boundary. The second arises from
geometric nonlinearity when the traction increment is prescribed on the current
configuration.
222
contactor
n
g
m
y(x)
foundation
the osculating plane of point of interest, are negligible. Suppose that the interface
can be represented by an elastic foundation satisfying the incremental relation
n = k ( g)un .
(17.31)
k ( g) =
kH
arctan( g ) + k ,
r
L
k
2
k H /k L >> 1.
(17.32)
As in Chapter 15, when g is positive, the gap is open and k approaches kL, which
should be chosen as a small number, theoretically zero. When g becomes negative,
the gap is closed and k approaches kH, which should be chosen as a large number,
theoretically infinity to prevent penetration of the rigid body).
Under the assumption that only the normal traction on the contactor surface is
important, it follows that = tnn, from which
= n n + n n.
(17.33)
223
The contact model contributes the matrix Kc to the stiffness matrix as follows
(see Nicholson and Lin, 1997b):
u dS = u
T
n dS0
= T K c
(17.34)
(17.35)
mT u + gmT n
.
mTn
T =
mT N + ghT
,
mTn
hT = [n[(nT F T ) nT ] nT F T ]MT .
(17.36)
tr( ES)dV + u u dV = u dS .
T
(17.37)
e = BTL + BTNL ( )
BTL =
BTNL =
Fu =
1
(I I + I IU)M(X)
2
1
I FuT + Fu IU M(X)
2
u
.
X
(17.38)
224
dVo ,
( , f ) = [(B L + B NL ( )]s dVo + N T u
f = N T o dSo .
(17.39)
()
J=
n+1, fn+1
(17.40)
or as a linear system
(17.41)
(17.42)
so that the incremental stiffness matrix is the same as the Jacobian matrix in Newton
iteration. This, of course, is a satisfying result. The Jacobian matrix can be calculated
by conventional finite-element procedures at the element level followed by conventional assembly procedures. If the incremental equation is only solved once at each
load increment, the solution can be viewed as the first iterate in a Newton iteration
scheme. The one-time incremental solution can potentially be improved by additional
iterations, as shown in Equation 17.41, but at the cost of computing the residual
at each load step.
17.9 BUCKLING
Finite-element equations based on classical buckling equations for beams and plates
were addressed in Chapter 14. In the classical equations, geometrically nonlinear
terms appear through a linear correction term, thereby furnishing linear equations.
Here, in the absence of inertia and nonlinearity in the boundary conditions, we briefly
present a general viewpoint based on the incremental equilibrium equation
(K T + K G ) n+1 = fn+1 .
(17.43)
225
M GG M dV
T
KG =
M S IM dV .
T
(17.44)
S I S12 I
0 I
S12 I
S22 I
0I
0I
0I .
0 I
(17.45)
S I ( S12 )I
0I
( S12 )I
( S22 )I
0I
0I
0 I ,
0 I
(17.46)
in which the circumflex implies a reference value along the stress path at which l = 1,
and the negative signs on the stresses are present since buckling is associated with
compressive stresses. At the element level, the equation now becomes
) = f .
(K T K
G
n +1
n +1
(17.47)
226
At a given load increment, the critical buckling load for the current path, as a
function of two angles determining the path in the stress space illustrated in
) singular.
Chapter 14, is obtained by computing the l value rendering (K T K
G
17.10 EXERCISES
1. Assuming linear interpolation models for u,v in a plane triangular
membrane element with vertices (0,0),(1,0),(0,1), obtain the matrix M,
G, BL, and BNL.
2. Repeat Exercise 1 with linear interpolation models for u, v, and w in a
tetrahedral element with vertices (0,0,0),(1,0,0),(0,1,0),(0,0,1).
18
Tangent-Modulus Tensors
for Thermomechanical
Response of Elastomers
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Within an element, the finite-element method makes use of interpolation models for
the displacement vector u(X, t) and temperature T(X, t) (and pressure p = trace()/3
in incompressible or near-incompressible materials):
u( X , t ) = NT ( X ) (t ),
T( X , t ) T0 = T ( X ) (t ),
p = T ( X ) (t ),
(18.1)
(18.2)
1 T
(F I + I F T U), T = bTT q
2
228
With known as a function of T, I1, I2, and I3, the entropy density per unit
mass and the specific heat ce at constant strain are obtained as
ce = T
T E
.
T
(18.3)
s T = 0
=2
T
n ,
0 i
i =
.
Ii
(18.4)
s
=4
e T
n n + 4 A ,
0 ij
T
j
0 i
ij =
2
.
Ii I j
(18.5)
An expression for DT has been derived by Nicholson and Lin (1997c) for
compressible, incompressible, and near-incompressible elastomers described by
strain-energy functions (Helmholtz free-energy functions) and based on the use of
stretch ratios (singular values of F) rather than invariants.
= d ( J1, J2 , T) ( J , T)/0 ,
J1 = I1/ I31/ 3 ,
J2 = I2 / I32 / 3 ,
(18.6)
where is a material function satisfying the constraint (J, T ) = 0 and J = I31 2 = det(F).
It is easily shown that d depends on the deviatoric Lagrangian strain Ed, due to the
introduction of the deviatoric invariants J2 and J3. The Lagrange multiplier is, in
fact, the (true) pressure p:
p = trace(T )/3 =
.
J T
(18.7)
229
0 = 0d ( J1, J2 , T) p ( J , T) p2 /2 ,
(18.8)
(18.9)
.
=0
J T
J T
(18.10)
Chen et al. (1997) presented sufficient conditions under which near-incompressible models reduce to the incompressible case as . Nicholson and Lin (1996)
formulated the relations
= f 3 (T) 0 .
(18.12)
Equation 18.12 provides a linear pressure-volume relation in which thermomechanical effects are confined to thermal expansion expressed using a constant-volume
coefficient . If the constraint is assumed to be satisfied a priori, the Helmholtz free
energy is recovered as
(18.13)
Alternatively, the latter term results from retaining the lowest nonvanishing term
3
in a Taylor-series representation of about f (T)J 1.
Given Equation 18.13, the entropy now includes a term involving p:
d
+ f 4 (T)/0 ,
T
= p/ f 3 (T).
(18.14)
d
e
f 3 (T)n3T / J
T,
(18.15)
T
s
d
DTP =
= 0
f 3 (T) 2A3 / J n3n3T / J 3
e e
e T,
230
FOR THE
HELMHOLTZ POTENTIAL
= C1 ( I1 3),
I3 = 1
(18.16)
= C1 ( I1 3) + C2 ( I2 3),
I3 = 1,
(18.17)
in which C1 and C2 are material constants. Most finite-element codes with hyperelastic elements support the Mooney-Rivlin model. In principle, Mooney-Rivlin
coefficients C1 and C2 can be determined independently by fitting suitable loaddeflection curves, for example, uniaxial tension. Values for several different rubber
compounds are listed in Nicholson and Nelson (1990).
18.3.1.2 Invariant-Based Models for Compressible Elastomers
under Isothermal Conditions
Two widely studied strain-energy functions are due to Blatz and Ko (1962). Let G0
be the shear modulus and v0 the Poissons ratio, referred to the undeformed configuration. The two models are:
0
1 2 0
1 + 0
1
1 2 0
01 = G0 I1 +
I3 I3
0
0
2
(18.18)
1 I
0 2 = G0 2 + 2 I3 5
2 I3
Let w denote the Helmholtz free energy evaluated at a constant temperature, in which
case it is the strain energy. We note a general expression for w which is implemented
231
C ( J 3) ( J 3) + ( J 1) /D ,
i
ij
Jr = J /(1 + Eth ),
(18.19)
in which Eth is called the thermal expansion strain, while Cij and Dk are material
constants. Several codes also provide software for estimating the model coefficients
from user-supplied data.
Several authors have attempted to uncouple the response into isochoric (incompressible) and volumetric parts even in the compressible range, giving rise to functions of the form = 1(J1, J2) + 2(J). A number of proposed forms for 2 are
discussed in Holzappel (1996).
18.3.1.3 Thermomechanical Behavior under Nonisothermal
Conditions
Now we come to the accommodation of coupled thermomechanical effects. Simple
extensions of, for example, the Mooney-Rivlin material have been proposed by
Dillon (1962), Nicholson and Nelson (1990), and Nicholson (1995) for compressible
elastomers, and in Nicholson and Lin (1996) for incompressible and near-incompressible elastomers. From the latter,
(1 , 2 , 3 , T) = (1 , T) + ( 2 , T) + (3 , T),
T fixed.
(18.21)
0 ( , T) =
1),
T fixed.
(18.22)
232
F(A) =
A .
j
(18.23)
Here, j are constants. A compact expression for the differential dF(A) is presented using Kronecker Product notation.
The reader is referred to Nicholson and Lin (1997c) for the derivation of the
following expression. With f = VEC(F) and a = VEC(A),
df ( a) =
1 T
F Fda + Wd
2
F ( A ) =
j A
j
j 1
df
dF
= ITEN 22
dA
da
(18.24)
1
W = ( F AF/2)T ( F AF/2) + ( AT F F T A)
2
= VEC(d
), in which d
is an antisymmetric tensor representing the
Also, d
rate of rotation of the principal directions. The critical step is to determine a matrix J
= Jda. It is shown in Dahlquist and Bjork that J = [AT A]1W, in
such that Wd
T
I
which [A A] is the Morse-Penrose inverse [(Dahlquist and Bjork(1974)]. Thus,
df /da = F T F/2 [AT A] W.
(18.25)
We now apply the tensor derivative to elastomers modeled using stretch ratios,
especially in the model presented by Ogden (1986). In particular, a strain-energy
function, w, was proposed, which, for compressible elastomers and isothermal
response, is equivalent to the form
w = tr
[C
I ] ,
(18.26)
in which ci are the eigenvalues of C, and i, i are material properties. The tangentmodulus tensor appearing in Chapter 17 for the incremental form of the Principle
233
=4
( 1)C
i 2
i i
C i 2 /2 + 4
Wi =
3 i
2
[A
i i
A] Wi
(18.27)
C i C i +
i 1 i 2
2
[C C C C i ].
2
(18.28)
w = tr
[C
1
I] + ( J 1)2 ,
2
(18.29)
in which is the bulk modulus. The expression for in Equation 18.27 is affected
by these modifications.
To accommodate thermal effects, it is necessary to recognize that w is simply
the Helmholtz free-energy density o under isothermal conditions, in which o is
the mass density in the undeformed configuration. It is assumed that = 0 in the
undeformed configuration. As for invariant-based models, we can obtain a function
with three terms: a purely mechanical term M, a purely thermal term T , and a
mixed term TM. Now, with entropy, , satisfies the relations
s T = o
e T
.
T e
(18.30)
T = ce T [ln(T/T0 ) + 1].
(18.31)
On the assumption that thermal effects in shear (i.e., deviatoric effects) can be
234
M = tr
[C
] .
(18.32)
Of greatest interest is TM. The development of Nicholson and Lin (1996) furnishes
TM =
[ 3 (T) J 1]2
2
(18.33)
TM =
n nT
3 3
2 n3n3T + ( 3 J 1)A3 3 2 3 .
J J
J
(18.34)
235
18.6.1 BALANCE
OF
ENERGY
0 = s T e 0T q 0 + 0 h
= srT e + siT e 0T q 0 + 0 h
(18.35)
where s = VEC(S) and e = VEC(E). Here, is the internal energy per unit mass, q0
is the heat-flux vector, 0 is the divergence operator referred to undeformed coordinates, and h is the heat input per unit mass, for simplicitys sake, assumed independent of temperature. The state variables are thus e and T. The Helmholtz free
energy, r per unit mass, and the entropy, per unit mass, are introduced using
r = T.
(18.36)
T0 q 0 0 h = sTr e + sTi e 0 T 0T 0 r .
(18.37)
Now,
0 T T0 q 0 + 0 h + q0T T/T
0 r sTr e siT e + 0 T + 0T + q T0 T/T
(18.38)
236
0 T i 2 = T0 q0 + 0 h i .
(18.39)
This allows us to say that the viscous dissipation is absorbed as heat. We also
suppose that reversible effects are absorbed as a portion of the heat input as follows:
0 T r = T0 q0 + 0 h r .
(18.40)
r /e = sTr
r /T = r ,
(18.41)
it follows that
sTi e q T0 0 T/T 0i1T .
(18.42)
(a)
q T0 T/T 0
(18.43)
(b).
(a).
T0 T/T = t 0 /q 0 .
(b).
(18.44)
The function is selected such that i and t are positive scalars, in which case
the inequalities in Equations 18.44a and 18.44b require that
(/e ) e 0
(/q 0 )q 0 0.
(18.45)
237
0 t = [q0T q0 ]2 [ t /2].
(18.46)
Now, t represents thermal effects, and we assume for simplicitys sake that t is
a material constant. Inequality in Equation 18.46 implies that
0 T/T = q 0 / t .
(18.47)
i = 1,
(18.48)
(18.49)
FOR
DAMPED ELASTOMERS
0 r = sTr e 0r T.
(18.50)
(18.51)
ce = Tr /T.
(18.52)
T0 q 0 0 h i = sTi e + 0ci T
(18.53)
238
and
0 Ti 2 = 0 T i 2 e + 0 T i 2 T
e
T
(18.54)
and
siT = 0 T
i 2
,
e
ci = T
i 2
.
T
(18.55)
(18.56)
(18.57)
Here, rm represents the purely mechanical response and can be identified as the
conventional, isothermal, strain-energy density function associated, for example,
with the Mooney-Rivlin model. Again, I1, I2, I3 are the principal invariants of the
(right) Cauchy-Green strain tensor. The formulation can easily be adapted to stretch
ratio-based models, such as the Ogden (1986) model. The function rt(T) represents
the purely thermal portion of the Helmholtz free-energy density. Finally, rtm(T, I3)
represents thermomechanical effects, again based on the assumption that the primary
coupling is through volumetric expansion. The quantity ro represents the Helmholtz
free energy in the reference state, and, for simplicitys sake, is assumed to vanish.
The forms of rt and rtm are introduced in the current presentation:
[ f 3 (T) J 1]2
2 0
(18.58)
(18.59)
1
239
and is the volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion. For the sake of illustration,
for rm(I1, I2, I3), we display the classical two-term Mooney-Rivlin model:
rm ( I1, I2 , I3 ) = C1 ( J1 1) + C2 ( J2 1),
I3 = 1,
(18.60)
in which J1 = I1/ I31/ 3 and J2 = I2 / I32 / 3 are the deviatoric invariants of C. The reversible stress is obtained as
sr = 2 j n j
n1 = i,
i = VEC(I)
j = r /I j
n1 = I1i c,
c = VEC(C)
n3 = I3VEC(C1 )
(18.61)
(18.62)
The viscous stress si depends on the shear part of the strain rate as well as the
temperature. However, since the elastomers of interest are nearly incompressible, to
good approximation si can be taken as a function of the (total) Lagrangian strain rate.
The current framework admits several possible expressions for i, of which an
example was already given in Section 6.3. Here, taking a more general viewpoint,
we seek expressions of the form i = 12 e T Dv (e, T)e , in which Dv is called the
viscosity tensor; it is symmetric and positive-definite. (Of course, the correct expression is determined by experiments.) The simplest example was furnished in Section
18.6.3. As a second example, to ensure isotropy, suppose that i is a function of J1
and J2 : i ( J1 , J2 ), and note that
I
J1 = m1T e, m1T = 2 iT 1 I1 n3T I31 3
3 3
I
J2 = mT2 e, mT2 = 2 nT2 23 I2 n3T I32 3 .
(18.63)
For an expression reminiscent of the two-term Mooney-Rivlin strain-energy function, let us consider the specific form
(18.64)
in which C1v and C2v are positive material coefficients. We obtain the viscosity tensor,
(18.65)
240
tensor D, in particular, i = (T)tr(D )/2, which has the advantage in that the
deformation rate tensor D is in the observed (current) configuration. With d =
VEC(D),
2
d = F T F T e
Dv = (T)(2 + I )1 (2 + I )1,
(18.66)
which is positive-definite.
(18.67)
in which 0 denotes the traction vector on the undeformed surface S0. As illustrated
in the examples in the previous section, we expect that the dissipation potential has
the form i = 12 e T Dv(e, T) e , from which
si = Dv e ,
(18.68)
in which Dv is again the viscosity tensor, and it will be taken as symmetric and
positive-definite. (It is positive-definite since siTe 0 for all e .) Equation 18.67 is
thus rewritten as
e D edV = u t dS e s dV .
T
(18.69)
0 ( r + i 2 ) = T0 q0 + 0 h / T,
(18.70)
and note that it is in rate form, in contrast to the equation of mechanical equilibrium
(see Equation 18.69). For the sake of a unified rate formulation, we first introduce
the integrated form of this relation. The current value of r + i2, assuming that the
initial values of the entropies vanish, is now given by
0 (r + i 2 ) =
[[ q + h]/ T]dt.
T
0 0
(18.71)
241
T ( +
0
i2
[[ q + h]/ T]dt dV .
)dV0 = T
T
0 0
(18.72)
T
i
T
0
] ]
+ 0 h / T dV0 .
(18.73)
(The motivation behind writing Equations 18.71 and 18.72 is simply to establish
how a rate principle is obtained in the thermal field as the counterpart of the rate
(incremental) principle for the mechanical field.) Upon approximating T in the
denominator by T0 and letting k denote the thermal conductivity, we can obtain the
thermal-equilibrium equation in the form
T[s /Te s e (c + c )T ]/ T dV
T
r
T
i
(18.74)
18.9 EXERCISES
1. Derive explicit forms of the stress and tangent-modulus tensors using the
Helmoltz potential in Equation 18.20.
2. Derive the quantities m1 and m2 in Equation 18.63.
3. Verify Equation 18.58 by recovering ce upon differentiating twice with
respect to T.
4. Substitute the required interpolation models in Equations 18.69 and 18.74
to obtain an element-level finite-element equation for the mechanical and
thermal fields.
19
Inelastic and
Thermoinelastic Materials
19.1 PLASTICITY
Plasticity and thermoplasticity are topics central to the analysis of important applications, such as metal forming, ballistics, and welding. The main goal of this section
is to present a model of plasticity and thermoplasticity, along with variational and
finite-element statements, accommodating the challenging problems of finite strain
and kinematic hardening.
19.1.1 KINEMATICS
Elastic and plastic deformation satisfies the additive decomposition
D = D r + Di ,
(19.1)
Ddt
r =
D dt
r
i =
D dt.
i
(19.2)
Er = F T D r Fdt
Ei = F T D i Fdt.
(19.3)
19.1.2 PLASTICITY
We will present a constitutive equation for plasticity to illustrate how the tangent
modulus is stated. The ideas leading to the equation will be presented subsequently
in the section on thermoplasticity. With e = ITEN22(De) and De denoting the
243
244
C
S11
A
E
E
D
E
B
Ei
E11
tangent-modulus tensor relating the elastic-strain rate to the stress rate (assuming
a linear relation), the constitutive equation of interest is
e i = Ci s,
e e = Ces,
T
i
Ci = i
H,
s s
Ce = e ,
k = Ke i
T
H = i + i K i .
k s
ei
(19.4)
245
Sll
Sl
Slll
Sll
Sl
Slll
FIGURE 19.2(b) Illustration of yield-surface motion under kinematic hardening.
A reference point interior to the yield surface, sometimes called the back stress,
must be identified to serve as the point at which the elastic strain vanishes. Combined isotropic and kinematic hardening are shown in Figure 19.2(c). However, the
yield surface contracts, which is closer to actual observations (e.g., Ellyin [1997]).
246
Sll
Sl
Slll
FIGURE 19.2(c) Illustration of combined kinematic and isotropic hardening.
The rate of movement must exceed the rate of contraction for the material to remain
stable with a positive tangent modulus.
Combining the elastic and inelastic portions furnishes the tangent-modulus tensor:
= e1 + Ci
= [I + eCi ]1 e .
(19.5)
Suppose that in uniaxial tension, the elastic modulus is Ee and the inelastic
modulus-relating stress and inelastic strain increments are Ei, and Ei << Ee. The total
Ei
uniaxial modulus is then
.
(1 + E i / E e )
19.2 THERMOPLASTICITY
As in Chapter 18, two potential functions are introduced to provide a systematic
way to describe irreversible and dissipative effects. The first is interpreted as the
Helmholtz free-energy density, and the second is for dissipative effects. To accommodate kinematic hardening, we also assume an extension of the Green and Naghdi
(G-N) (1965) formulation, in which the Helmholtz free energy decomposes into
reversible and irreversible parts, with the irreversible part depending on the plastic
strain. Here, it also depends on the temperature and a workless internal state variable.
19.2.1 BALANCE
OF
ENERGY
The conventional equation for energy balance is augmented using a vector-valued, workless internal variable, 0, regarded as representing microstructural rearrangements:
o 0 = sT e r + sT e i T0 q0 + o h + T0 0 ,
(19.6)
247
where o is the internal energy per unit mass in the undeformed configuration and
s = VEC(S), e = VEC(E), and 0 is the flux per unit mass associated with 0. However,
r. Also, c is the internal energy per unit mass, q0 is the
note that = 0, thus i =
heat-flux vector referred to undeformed coordinates, and h is the heat input per unit
mass, for simplicitys sake, assumed independent of temperature. The state variables
are Er , Ei , T, and 0.
The next few paragraphs will go over some of the same ground as for damped
elastomers in Chapter 18, except for two major points. In that chapter, the stress
was assumed to decompose into reversible and irreversible portions in the spirit of
elementary Voigt models. In the current context, the strain shows the decomposition
in the spirit of the classical Maxwell model. In addition, as seen in the following,
it proves beneficial to introduce a workless internal variable to give the model the
flexibility to accommodate phenomena such as kinematic hardening.
The Helmholtz free energy, , per unit mass and the entropy, , per unit mass
are introduced using
= T.
(19.7)
T0 q0 0 h = sT e r + sT e i 0 T 0T 0 + T0 0 .
(19.8)
Now,
0 T T0 q0 + 0 h + q0T T/ T
0 sT e r sT e i + 0 T + 0T + q0TT/ T T0 0 .
(19.9)
r / T = 0r
r / 0 = T0 r .
(19.10)
s*T = 0 i / ei
i = i / T
0 i / 0 = T0 i .
(19.11)
(19.12)
248
(a)
q0T 0 T/ T 0
(b).
(19.13)
(i)
T0 T / T = t 0 i / q 0
(ii)
= s s* (iii),
(19.14a)
0 i ( / ) + 0 t ( / q 0 )q 0 > 0.
(19.14b)
On the expectation that properties governing heat transfer are not affected by
strain, we introduce the decomposition into inelastic and thermal portions:
= i + t
0 t =
t
q T0 q 0 ,
2
(19.15a)
(19.15b)
249
(19.16)
(19.17a)
(19.17b)
During thermoplastic deformation, the stress and temperature satisfy a thermoplastic yield condition of the form
i (, ei , k, T, i 2 ) = 0,
(19.18)
and i is called the yield function. Here, the vector k is introduced to represent the
effect of the history of inelastic strain, e i , such as work hardening. It is assumed to
be given by a relation of the form
k = K (ei , k, T)e i .
(19.19)
(19.20)
(a)
d i
i = i
di
(b).
(19.21)
250
Equation 19.14a suggests that the yield function may be identified as the dissipation potential: i = 0i. Standard manipulation furnishes
e i = Ci + ai T
T
i
Ci = i
H
ci = i
T
i 2 = biT + ci T
T
i
ai = bi = i
H
T
(19.22)
T
i
i
H = i + i K i +
k
i 2 T
ei
and H must be positive for i to be positive. Note that, in the current formulation,
the dependence of the yield function on temperature accounts for ci. The thermodynamic inequality shown in Equation 19.13a is now satisfied if H > 0.
T
Next, note that s* depends on ei , T, and 0 since s* = 0i /ei. For simplicitys
sake, we neglect dependence on 0 and assume that a relation of the following form
can be measured for s*:
T
s* = e i + T
ei ei I
T = 2 i / ei T.
(19.23)
(19.24a)
(19.24b)
19.3.1 EXAMPLE
We now provide a simple example using the Helmholtz free-energy density function
and the dissipation-potential function to derive constitutive relations. The following
expression involves a Von Mises yield function, linear kinematic hardening, linear
work hardening, and linear thermal softening.
251
= r + i
0i = k3eiT ei
(19.25)
(19.26)
Finally,
cr = T
2 r
= c
T 2
(19.27)
0 t =
t
q T0 q 0
2
i = T [k0 + k1k k2 (T T0 )] = 0
(19.28)
k =T e i
(19.29)
T
H
T
ci = k22 H
ai = bi =
k2
T
(19.30)
(19.31)
252
Sll
T3
T1
T2
T0
T4
T0
T0
T0
T0
Sl
T0
Slll
FIGURE 19.3 Effect of load and temperature on yield surface.
Unfortunately, accurate finite-element computations in plasticity and thermoplasticity often require close attention to the location of the front of the yielded
zone. This front will occur within elements, essentially reducing the continuity order
of the fields (discontinuity in strain gradients). Special procedures have been developed in some codes to address this difficulty.
The shrinkage of the yield surface with temperature provides an element of
the explanation of the phenomenon of adiabatic shear banding, which is commonly
encountered in some materials during impact or metal forming. In rapid processes,
plastic work is mostly converted into heat and on into high temperatures. There
is not enough time for the heat to flow away from the spot experiencing high
deformation. However, the process is unstable while the stress level is maintained.
Namely, as the material gets hotter, the rate of plastic work accelerates, thanks to
the softening evident in Figure 19.3. The instability is manifested in small, periodically spaced bands, in the center of which the material is melted and resolidified,
usually in a much more brittle form than before. These bands can nucleate brittle
failure.
253
ei =< 1
k
>
i
i
i
<1
1 k ,
k
>= i
i
0,
k
0
i
otherwise,
if
(19.32)
and i(, ei, k, T, i) is a loading surface function. The elastic response is still
considered linear in the form
e r = r1s + r T.
(19.33)
ei ei i
s* = e i + T
T = 2 i /ei T.
(19.34)
stress point
Sl
Slll
FIGURE 19.4 Illustration of reference surface in viscoplasticity.
254
It should be evident that viscoplasticity and thermoviscoplasticity can be formulated to accommodate phenomena such as kinematic hardening and thermal
shrinkage of the reference-yield surface.
The tangent-modulus matrix now reduces to elastic relations, and viscoplastic
effects can be treated as an initial force (after canceling the variation) since
k
s = r e + r r T r < 1
>
i
v
i
i
(19.35)
In particular, the Incremental Principle of Virtual Work is now stated, to first order, as
k
= uT dSo + eT r < 1
>
v
i
i
i
dVo
(19.36)
(19.37)
255
S11
Ep1
Sy1
Ep3
Ep2
Sy3
Sy2
E2
E3
E1
E11
FIGURE 19.5 Illustration of effect of damage on elastic-plastic properties.
for which several specific forms have been proposed. To this point, a nominal stress
is used in the sense that the reduced ability of material to support stress is not
accommodated.
The second school of thought is more empirical in nature and is not dependent
on a specific mechanism. It uses the parameter D, which is interpreted as the fraction
of damaged area Ad to total area Ao that the stress (traction) acts on. Consider a uniaxial
tensile specimen with damage, but experiencing elastic behavior. Suppose that damaged area Ad can no longer support a load (is damaged). For a given load P, the true
stress at a point in the undamaged zone is S = A P A = 1 1 D AP = 1 1 D S . Here, S
o
D
o
is a nominal stress, but is also the measured stress. If E is the elastic modulus
measured in an undamaged specimen, the modulus measured in the current specimen
will be E = E(1 D), demonstrating that damage is manifest in small changes in
properties.
As an illustration of damage, suppose specimens are loaded into the plastic
range, unloaded, and then loaded again. Without damage, the stress-strain curve
should return to its original path. However, due to the damage, there are slight
changes in the elastic slope, in the yield stress, and in the slope after yield (exaggerated in Figure 19.5).
From the standpoint of thermodynamics, damage is a dissipative internal variable.
In reality, the amount of mechanical or thermal energy absorbed by damage is probably
small, so that its role in the energy-balance equation can be neglected. At the risk of
being slightly conservative, in dynamic (adiabatic) problems, the plastic work can be
assumed to be completely converted into heat. Even so, for the sake of a consistent
framework for treating dissipation, a dissipation potential, d, can be introduced for
damage, as has been done, for example, by Bonora (1997). The contribution to the
irreversible entropy production can be introduced in the form D D 0, in which D
is the force associated with flux D . Positive dissipation is assured if we assume
d
,
D
d =
1
(e , T, k ) D 2 ,
2 d i
d (ei , T, k ) > 0.
(19.38)
256
19.6 EXERCISES
1. In isothermal plasticity, assuming the following yield function, find the
uniaxial stress-strain curve:
i = (s k1ei )T (s k1ei ) ko + k2
e i T e i dt .
Assume small strain and that the plastic strain is incompressible: tr(Ei ) = 0.
2. Regard the expression in Exercise 1 as defining the reference-yield surface
in viscoplasticity, with viscosity hv. Find the stress-strain curve under
uniaxial tension if a constant strain rate is imposed.
20
Advanced Numerical
Methods
258
(20.1)
(20.2)
Unfortunately, in a typical nonlinear problem involving incremental loading, especially in systems with decreasing stiffness, it will eventually be necessary to update
the triangular factors frequently.
20.1.2 NOTATION
AND
BACKGROUND
(20.3)
1
diag(A),
2
upper(A) = Au +
1
diag(A).
2
(20.4)
Note that: (a) the product of two lower-triangular matrices is also lower-triangular,
and (b) the inverse of a nonsingular, lower-triangular matrix is also lower-triangular.
Likewise, the product of two upper-triangular matrices is upper-triangular, and the
inverse of a nonsingular, upper-triangular matrix is upper-triangular. In proof of (a),
(1)
(2)
th
let L and L be two n n lower-triangular matrices. The ij entry of the product
(1)
(1) ( 2 )
matrix is given by k =1,n lik lkj . Since L is lower-triangular, lik(1) vanishes unless
k i. Similarly, lkj( 2 ) vanishes unless k j. Clearly, all entries of k =1,n lik(1)lkj( 2 ) vanish
(1) (2)
unless i j, which is to say that L L is lower-triangular.
In proof of (b), let A denote the inverse of a lower-triangular matrix L. We multiply
th
T
the j column of A by L and set it equal to the vector ej (ej = {0.. 1..0} with
th
unity in the j position): now,
l11a1 j
=0
l21a1 j + l22 a2 j
=0
=0
M
l j1a1 j + l j 2 a2 j + l j 3a3 j + L + l jj a jj = 1
(20.5)
259
1
(20.6)
(20.7)
(20.8)
from which
(20.9)
The factor of 1/2 in the definition of the lower and upper matrix functions is
motivated by the fact that the diagonal entries of L01 L and LT L0T are the same.
Furthermore, for banded matrices, if L and L0 have the same semibandwidth,
b, it follows that, for the correct value of L, L01 KL0T L01 LLT L0T is also
banded, with a bandwidth no greater than b. Unfortunately, it is not yet clear how
to take advantage of this behavior.
An iteration scheme based on Equation 20.9 is introduced as
(20.10)
Explicit formation of the fully populated inverses L01 and L0T can be avoided
by using forward and backward substitution. In particular, L01 K = [L01 k1
L01 k 2 K L01 k n ], where k1 is the first column of K. We can now solve for
b j = L01k j by solving the system L0 bj = kj.
(20.11)
260
in which (A) is the solution (converged iterate) for A. Consider the iteration
scheme
A ( j +1) = K 2A 1 ( A) ( A)( j ) .
(20.12)
(20.13)
1
min (A),
2 k k
(20.14)
0
,
c
ab
.
b 2 + c 2
a2
K0 =
ab
(20.15)
0
,
c + d
a2
K0 =
ab
b 2 + (c + d )2
ab
(20.16)
so that
0
K =
0
.
d (2c + d )
0
(20.17)
261
We are interested in the case in which d/c << 1, for example, d/c = 0.1, ensuring
that the perturbation is small. We also use the fact that
L01 =
1 c
ac b
0
.
a
(20.18)
The correct answer, which should emerge from the iteration scheme, is
0
L =
0
0
.
d
(20.19)
1 d .
d 1+
2 c
0
L =
0
(1)
(20.20)
1 d
d 1 +
d
2 c
=
d
= 5%
(20.21)
0
1
0
=
0
2 c
0
d 1
d
2
c
1 d3
8 c
3
(20.22)
d2
c2
1 + 1
8
d
c
1
= 0.011 +
80
Clearly, this is a significant improvement over the initial iterate.
(20.23)
262
K MP d dfM
= =
.
0 d 0
(20.24)
If KMM is singular, it can be replaced with KMM = KMM + KMP K MP , and can be
chosen to render KMM positive-definite (see Zienkiewicz, 1989).
The presence of zeroes on the diagonal poses computational difficulties, which
have received considerable attention. Here, we discuss a modification of the Ozawa
method discussed by Zienkiewicz and Taylor (1989). In particular, Equation 20.24
is replaced with the iteration scheme
T
K MM
K TMP
K MP d
I / a d
j +1
dfM
= j
,
d / a
(20.25)
th
(20.26)
K TMP
K MP L1
=
I / a K TMP L1T
0 LT1
L2 0T
L11K MP
.
LT2
(20.27)
Forward and backward substitution can now be exploited to solve the linear
system arising in the incremental finite-element method.
263
20.3 EXERCISES
1. Examine the first two iterates for the matrices
a
K = b
d
a
K + K = b
d
a2
= ab
ad
0 a
0 0
f 0
0
c
e
0
c
e+g
d a2
e = ab
f ad
b
c
0
0 a
0 0
f 0
ab
ab
b2 + c2
bd + ce
bd + ce
d 2 + e 2 + f 2
ad
e + g
b
c
0
bd + c(e + g) .
d 2 + (e + g) 2 + f 2
ad
b2 + c2
bd + c(e + g)
2. Verify that the product and inverse of lower-triangular matrices are lowertriangular using
a
L1 =
b
0
,
c
d
L2 =
e
0
.
f
A = 1
1
2
1
1.
265
267
268
Tvergaard, V., Influence of voids on shear band instabilities under plane strain conditions,
Int. J. Fracture, 17, 389407, 1981.
Ziegler, H. and Wehrli, C., The derivation of constitutive relations from the free energy and
the dissipation function, Adv. Appl. Mech., 25, 187, 1987.