Scheduling Jan Ellenbeck, Johannes Schmidt, Ulrike Korger, and Christian Hartmann Institute for Communication Networks Technische Universitat Munchen Email: jan.ellenbeck@tum.de AbstractSystem-level simulations of packet-based orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) cellular networks require a proper consideration of the channel-dependent fast fading/scheduling in order to produce meaningful results. However, generating the time and frequency selective fast fading channels and performing detailed channel-adaptive scheduling for each user in a multi-cellular system is computationally too expensive in most system-level simulations. To this end, we propose an efficient mapping technique that allows to accurately characterize the performance of the fast-scheduling system using two parameters: the average effective post-scheduling SINR gain and the ratio of allocated resources, both conditioned on the SINR and the velocity of a user in a scenario defined by the number of co-scheduled users. To derive these parameters for different numbers of users at different velocities and SINR levels, we perform detailed link level simulations including fast scheduling for the downlink of a Long Term Evolution (LTE) system.
I. I NTRODUCTION Performance evaluation by means of computer simulation has always been an important technique during the development and standardization of wireless systems. But as wireless systems have become more and more complex from generation to generation, the computational complexity of simulations has increased tremendously as well. In order to limit the scope of the simulation and the simulation time, typically only certain aspects of a system that are in the focus of the investigation are modeled in detail. Other aspects are then either not modeled at all or only in a highly abstracted way. One aspect of wireless systems that demands high computational complexity is the modeling of the fast fading behavior of the wireless channel. While this computational effort is mandatory to study the performance of, e.g., fast channelaware scheduling schemes, it becomes excessive1 for systemlevel simulations focused on longer-term aspects such as the system behavior under varying traffic load or inter-cell interference coordination. However, if fast fading would not be modeled in a simulation, the performance gain from channelaware scheduling would be neglected. This gain on the one hand results from the transmitters knowledge of the current (estimated) channel conditions which allows link-adaptation. 1 In a scenario consisting of 57 cells each serving 20 mobiles and assuming an LTE system with 5 MHz and SISO links, 57 20 (5 MHz/15 kHz) 14, 000 symbols/s 5 109 channel samples/s would have to be computed.
On the other hand, an additional multi-user scheduling gain is
achieved because different mobiles will have different channel realizations so that for each resource the base station can select the user with the best conditions on that resource (multi-user diversity). In this paper, we therefore propose an abstraction mechanism that yields the average performance of fast scheduling without incurring the computational overhead of generating the fast fading channel in every single simulation run. Most often, system-level simulations are not designed to capture the individual performance in one specific scenario but rather average results from multiple random scenario realizations are derived. Thus, our approach is to first characterize the systems average fast scheduling performance by means of extensive off-line simulations that focus on the fast scheduling behavior in a single-cell. During these detailed simulations, many random scenarios are generated and the channel is modeled using a standard channel model to obtain time-variant and frequency-selective fading. Using these results we are then able to perform efficient system-level simulations that yield valid performance results with low computational complexity. The vastly reduced computational complexity of this abstract model allows the user to extend the simulations scope to, e.g., bigger multi-cell scenarios or more complex protocol stacks. As the paper does not specifically focus on the scheduling algorithm itself (e.g., with respect to fairness), we have selected the popular proportional fair (PF) scheduling algorithm first introduced in [1]. Its fast scheduling performance is characterized by the achieved effective per-user signalto-interference-and-noise-ratio (SINR) gain, compared to the long-time mean SINR, and by the ratio of the resources assigned to a single user vs. the total resources. Using these two key parameters as inputs and a modified PF scheduling metric, we perform system-level simulations with an abstract model. We show that the throughputs achieved using the abstract model with drastically reduced computational complexity match the ones achieved in detailed simulations with small residual error. Despite the PF schedulers popularity, there is only a limited amount of analytical studies published in the literature and in the few existing papers like [2] and [3] simplifying assumptions have to be made. These simplifications usually
Pathloss
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Fig. 1.
Overview of the Fast Scheduling Abstraction Model
limit the study to single channel systems, do not consider a
measurement feedback delay, or employ a PF metric based on the SINR rather than on the realizable data rate. In order to allow for a detailed modeling of the system that yields the necessary effective SINR gains and ratios, we thus resort to extensive simulations. There are a number of publications on simulative performance evaluations of fast scheduling and the achievable multi-user diversity gains in OFDMA systems [4], showing that the achievable gains tend to be higher for low channel quality and grow with the number of users. However, none of them provides the effective gains and ratios as needed for our abstraction concept and we are not aware of prior work introducing an abstraction of the fast scheduling performance for efficient system-level simulations as proposed in this paper. The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. In Section II we introduce the proposed abstraction for the systemlevel simulation. In Section III we discuss our simulation model. In Section IV the simulation results are presented and in Section V the accuracy of the model is shown. The conclusions in Section VI end the paper. II. A BSTRACT S YSTEM L EVEL P ROPORTIONAL FAIR S CHEDULING M ODEL A. Fast Scheduling Preliminaries To perform channel-adaptive fast scheduling in the downlink, the base station (BS) needs timely information about the instantaneous channel conditions of all mobile stations (MSs) across the whole system bandwidth. For this purpose, the MSs transmit channel quality indicators (CQIs) to report the highest bit rate modulation and coding scheme they could successfully receive on a certain subband. The CQIs are based on the SINRs and aggregate the signal attenuation by pathloss, shadowing, and fast fading as well as noise and inter-cell interference, cf. the upper part of Fig. 1. There is always a delay between the CQI measurement and the time instant the resource allocation based on the CQI report takes effect. In the following, we will refer to this as the scheduling delay that is needed for the channel measurement and processing by the MS and the transmission to the BS where the scheduling takes place. The accuracy of the channel estimation decreases with longer scheduling
delays and shorter channel coherence times. The gain from
scheduling with link adaptation is highest for slowly varying channels and diminishes as MSs reach higher speeds. Different users in a cell will have different channel realizations. Using CQI feedback from multiple users the scheduler can allocate a physical resource block (PRB) to a MS which has reported good channel conditions on that part of the spectrum. The resulting multi-user diversity gain grows with the number of MSs to schedule. To summarize, we expect the realizable scheduling gain to grow with either shorter scheduling delays, slower MS movement and thus lower channel variability, or higher number of users. B. Detailed Proportional Fair Scheduling Model For our simulations we use the popular proportional fair scheduler. It aims at exploiting the multi-user diversity while ensuring a certain degree of fairness among the users. According to these goals, it selects for each PRB r the user k to schedule by employing the following metric (1): MI(SINRest,k (t, r)) k = arg max pastTPk (t) user k pastTPk (t) =
R t1
MI(SINRk (, r)) xk (, r)
(1)
(2)
=1 r=1
In every transmission time interval (TTI) t and for each
PRB r, the scheduler picks the user with the best ratio2 of the expected data rate MI(SINRest,k (t, r)) over the amount of already transmitted bits pastTPk (t) as defined by (2). We use a binary variable xk (, r) = 1 to indicate that user k is scheduled on PRB r at t = . Here, we derive the data rate as the average mutual information (MI) transmitted within one PRB during one TTI according to the channel estimate SINRest,k (t, r) (provided by user k in the form of a CQI report) or the actual received SINRk (t, r), respectively. If the CQI reporting is fast enough for the time varying channel, the effect of proportional fair scheduling is that fading dips can be avoided and users realize an effective SINR gain compared to, e.g., a round robin scheduler. Besides achieving an effective post-scheduling SINR gain, PF scheduling also gives more resources to users who suffered low past throughputs so that a different distribution of resource allocation ratios results. These two characteristics of proportional fair fast scheduling will be evaluated in the following. In Fig. 3(b) we show that in our simulations the generic implementation of the PF scheduler yields a distribution of user throughputs that fulfills the 10-50 metric fairness criterion, cf. [5], [6]. C. Abstract Proportional Fair Scheduling Model As motivated in the introduction, the fast fading behavior of the wireless channel is computationally expensive to model due to its short timescale variations and complex modeling. Longer timescale effects like signal attenuation due to pathloss 2 Note that constant factors like the number of symbols per PRB are omitted from the metric as they are identical for all users.
MI(SINRk + k,v,N (SINRk )) k,v,N
. k = arg max pastTPk (t) user k
(4)
D. Applicability for system-level simulations
The results presented in this paper are applicable to systemlevel simulations of the LTE downlink. The approach itself is also valid for arbitrary OFDMA systems with channel dependent proportional fair scheduling. Differentiating the scheduling gain with respect to the postscheduling effective SINReff = SINR + k,v,N (SINR) on the one hand and the different scheduling ratios on the other hand, allows a realistic system-level simulation with packet-based scheduling. The knowledge of the effective post-scheduling
Shannon bound used mapping
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Fig. 2. Link performance model mapping SINR to MI [8] and illustration
how the scheduling gain = SINReff SINR is computed. 1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0
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The two parameters scheduling gain k,v,N (SINRk ) and
scheduling ratio k,v,N (SINRk ) are the key inputs for the proposed abstract scheduling model. In Section III we discuss how we derive them by means of extensive simulations. In Section IV the simulation results are presented and we discuss the dependence of k,v,N (SINRk ) and k,v,N (SINRk ) on the speed of the user v and the total number of users N in the cell. For the abstract system-level scheduling algorithm we again assume a proportional fair scheme. Instead of SINRest,k (t, r) as in metric (1) we now use the long-term average SINRk and apply the effective gain k,v,N (SINRk ) to characterize the post-scheduling improvements. Now the numerator is constant over time T foraRuser k and the denominator (2) can be separated into =1 r=1 xk (, r) times the constant throughput per allocated resource. Hence, the metric would always select the user with the least number of previously allocated resources yielding a round robin behavior. In order to achieve the correct scheduling ratios and thus the correct throughputs, we modify the metric (1) by multiplying with the user specific scheduling ratio k,v,N to obtain the following PF abstract scheduling metric:
P(SINR < abscissa)
and shadowing, however, are easily covered by system-level
simulations. These two effects together with the thermal and receiver noise and the inter-cell interference contribute to the mean SINRk for a user k which can be seen as a long-enough average of the instantaneous SINRk (t, r). The proposed efficient system-level proportional fair scheduling model as depicted in the lower part of Fig. 1 allows for an efficient simulation based on long-term averages SINRk while still taking the benefits of channel-aware fast scheduling into account. This is achieved by modifying the scheduling metric (1) of a user k by two parameters that are pre-computed off-line for different combinations of the number of co-scheduled users N , the velocity v of the user k and its perceived long-term SINRk . These parameters are the effective post-scheduling gain k,v,N (SINRk ) and the scheduling ratio k,v,N (SINRk ), which captures the slight differences in the share of resources that the PF scheduler assigns to different mobiles: T R N =1 r=1 xk (, r) . (3) k,v,N = T R
1 0,8 0,6 0,4 0,2 0
0 1 2 3 MS throughput normalized to average
(a) User geometry resulting from (b) Scheduling fairness criterion (10model and calibration offset 50 metric) [5], [6] Fig. 3.
Calibration of simulations to meet standard evaluation references
SINReff allows using standard packet/block error modeling
techniques as discussed, e.g., in [7]. The knowledge of the scheduling ratios allows determining a realistic number of allocated resources for each user. In order to obtain the appropriate gains and ratios, the system-level simulation needs to employ the correct group size N corresponding to the number of active MSs that currently compete for the resources. With bursty traffic sources the group size N will change over time. III. S IMULATION SETUP To evaluate the performance of proportional fair scheduling in fast fading environments we conduct simulations using the Spatial Channel Model Extended (SCME). The SCME [9], [10] is a geometry-based stochastic spatial channel model. We use the SCME to generate time-varying channel impulse responses with drifting delays for each MS from which we obtain the channel transfer function H(f, t) using the Fourier transform. This gives us random realizations of a time- and frequency-selective fast fading channel including the pathloss. We assume that the cyclic prefix length is sufficient to eliminate any intra-cell interference. In our simulation, only the channel-dependent fading, the pathloss of the link between the
BS and the served MS, and the thermal noise is modeled explicitly. All other effects (e.g., antenna gains, penetration loss, noise figures, and inter-cell interference levels) contributing to the received SINR are summarized in a fixed calibration offset , which we tune to achieve a typical SINR distribution within the cell, cf. Fig 3(a): SINR = PTx + 20 log10 (|H(f, t)|) Nthermal
(5)
From these SINR values, which we compute for each
resource element (RE), we derive the mutual information that can be transmitted per RE from the BS to the MS. The employed mapping (6) is based on Shannons channel capacity and assumes an implementation loss factor = 0.6. It takes into account the modulation and coding schemes as well as the HARQ mechanisms available in LTE [8]:
0 : SINR < 10 dB log2 1 + 10SINRdB /10 : else
4.4 : SINR > 22 dB (6) As the motivation of our abstract scheduling model is to accurately represent the achievable throughputs, we compute a mutual information effective (post-scheduling) SINReff [11]. To derive SINReff we first compute the average amount of bits per resource element MI a user has obtained over the course of the simulation. Using this average mutual information value, we perform a reverse mapping as shown in Fig. 2 to obtain the SINReff value. Finally, we then compute the effective scheduling gain k,v,N = SINReff SINR as the difference of effective and mean SINR. The inverse mapping function (7) is defined for minimum and maximum SINR values between -10 dB and 22 dB, respectively:
SINReff (MI) = 10 log10 2MI/ 1 .
(7) MI(SINR) =
TABLE I R ADIO SIMULATION PARAMETERS Parameter Transmission direction Antenna configuration SCME scenario Center frequency Cell radius Pathloss model Shadowing SCME options System bandwidth BS Tx power Symbols per slot Sub-carrier spacing Noise assumption Calibration offset Scheduling delay MS velocity distribution MS distribution Number of drops Duration per drop
Value Downlink SISO Urban Macro 2 GHz 500 m SCME standard (COST231 based) L = 34.5 + 35 log10 (d/[m]) [dB] No shadowing Drifting delays and angles enabled 5 MHz with R = 25 PRBs PTx = 29 dBm per 180 kHz PRB 7 for normal CP length 15 kHz Nthermal = 121.4 dBm per 180 kHz PRB = 23.5 dB 4 ms from end of measurement to start of Tx Channel Mix (60% at 3 km/h, 30% at 30 km/h, and 10% at 120 km/h) [7] Uniformly distributed over cell area 10,000 randomly generated MS distributions T = 50 TTIs with a duration of 1ms each
IV. S IMULATION R ESULTS
In figures 4, 5, and 6 we present the scheduling gains and scheduling ratios that result for mobiles from the 3 km/h, 30 km/h, and 120 km/h velocity groups of the channel mix, respectively. To evaluate the results, we aggregate the individual effective SINR gains and ratios of all MSs from all 10,000 scenario drops into m = 1 . . . M discrete bins according to their mean SINR. For each bin we compute and plot the average of all effective scheduling gains and ratios falling into that bin. These averaged results serve as the input parameters for the abstract PF scheduling model introduced in Sec. II. The individual gains are distributed around the plotted curves with standard deviations of, e.g., up to 1 dB in Fig. 4(a). At 3 km/h, the scheduling delay of 4 ms is much shorter than the channel coherence time so that the CQI feedback is still accurate. Hence, for users from the slow velocity group a substantial scheduling gain can be realized in most cases, as shown in Fig. 4(a). As expected [4], the achievable gains increase with the number of active users due to the growing multi-user diversity. The marginal gains decrease until almost no further gain is realized at about 20 MSs. At high mean SINRs the gains diminish and become negative for mean SINRs > 22 dB. The reason is that the effective SINR is upper-bounded by this value, cf. Fig. 2. At 30 km/h, Fig. 5(a) shows that due to higher timevariability of the fast fading, almost no scheduling gains can be realized with the assumed scheduling delay of 4 ms. At 120 km/h, the situation is even worse as depicted in Fig. 6(a). Note that with our assumed mobility mix, only 40% (30% at 30 km/h and 10% at 120 km/h) of the MSs will have the respective high velocities while the remaining 60% of the MSs who are assumed to be at v = 3 km/h benefit from the gains shown in Fig. 4(a). Fig. 5 and 6 show mostly negative scheduling gains. These losses are not primarily caused by the attempt to perform fast scheduling but rather are an effect of the employed MI-based effective SINR mapping3 . In the figures 4(b), 5(b), and 6(b) the corresponding scheduling ratios are shown. We need these ratios to reflect the slight differences in the number of resources the PF scheduler allocates to a certain class of MSs. For the vast majority of MSs the scheduling ratios are close to 1 meaning that the MSs receive about the same number of resources. The higher ratios shown for MSs with very low mean SINR in the left parts of Fig. 5(b) and 6(b) represent very rare cases as the velocities are underrepresented in the assumed mix in addition to the low probability of the considered SINR levels, cf. Fig. 3(a). 3 To see this, consider the case of 1 MS. No fast scheduling is performed in this case as the single MS gets all the resources. Still, for all velocities Fig. 4 6 show a significant loss in terms of effective SINR as compared to the mean SINR. The reason for this effect is that the instantaneous SINR levels fluctuate around the mean SINR due to the fast fading. Low instantaneous SINRs then lead to zero throughputs while the benefit of high instantaneous SINRs is limited by the link performance model, cf. Fig. 2.
2 40 MSs 20 MSs 10 MSs 5 MSs 2 MSs 1 MS
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Gains and scheduling ratios experienced by a mobile k with v = 3 km/h for different numbers of total users N 2 40 MSs 20 MSs 10 MSs 5 MSs 2 MSs 1 MS
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Gains and scheduling ratios experienced by a mobile k with v = 30 km/h for different numbers of total users N
V. E VALUATION OF SYSTEM - LEVEL SCHEDULING MODEL
In the previous section we have presented the results for our detailed simulation. Using the resulting average scheduling gains and ratios, we have conducted simulations using our abstract PF scheduling model as introduced in Section II-C. In the abstract simulations we use the mean SINR computed from the pathloss and offset values as in the detailed simulations thus yielding the same SINR CDF as in Fig. 3(a). The PF scheduling is performed according to metric (4). As we are not interested in the performance of a particular MS, we evaluate the average system performance of a typical MS which is characterized by its mean SINR, velocity v, and by the number N of co-scheduled MSs. Thus, we only rely on the average effective gain and scheduling ratios even though the gains of individual MSs vary in the detailed simulations.
For each combination of v and N we compute the mean
throughputs TPdet (m) and TPabs (m) in the detailed and abstract simulation, respectively. To compare the throughputs and derive the modeling error, we again assign each MS to one of m = 1 . . . M discrete SINR bins. In Table II we show the weighted root mean square error (wRMSE) which we compute using (8) with a SINR bin resolution of 1 dB. The weighting factor P (m) represents the probability of the respective SINR bin according to Fig. 3(a):
M TP (m) TP (m) 2 det abs
P (m). (8) wRMSE = TPdet (m) m=1 We observe that the wRMSE is in general small which underlines the applicability and accuracy of our proposed abstract proportional fair scheduling model. Possible error
2 40 MSs 20 MSs 10 MSs 5 MSs 2 MSs 1 MS
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Fig. 6.
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Gains and scheduling ratios experienced by a mobile k with v = 120 km/h for different numbers of total users N
WEIGHTED
Number of MSs N 1 2 5 10 20 40
0.5 5
TABLE II RMSE OF MS THROUGHPUTS
v = 3 km/h
v = 30 km/h
v = 120 km/h
0.05% 2.37% 2.30% 1.69% 1.11% 0.93%
0.06% 1.96% 1.54% 0.23% 1.24% 2.07%
0.03% 2.42% 3.30% 2.48% 1.43% 0.55%
fast channel-dependent scheduling based on MS feedback. We
believe that our concept can be useful for many researchers facing similar challenges when evaluating OFDMA-based networks on a system level. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The authors would like to thank the German Research Foundation DFG for funding part of this work. R EFERENCES
sources include the bin size of 1 dB and the imperfect
emulation of scheduling ratios due to finite simulation times. The small wRMSE values for the 1 MS case underline the accuracy of the employed mutual information-based SINReff mapping. The close match between the values obtained from the proposed abstract model and the detailed simulations is especially remarkable as the abstract simulation only needs a fraction of the simulation time. The CPU time in our simulations was reduced from about 2 weeks to about 2 hours because the time-consuming generation of the fast fading channel using the SCME model accounts for about 99% of the time in the detailed simulation. VI. C ONCLUSION We have proposed an efficient method to very accurately include the effects of fast scheduling into system-level simulations of multicellular OFDMA networks without adding significant computational complexity. This is achieved by detailed off-line single cell fast scheduling simulations from which two parameters are derived that are sufficient to represent the fast scheduling effects in system-level simulations. We have provided and discussed an array of numerical results, demonstrating the feasibility and the benefit of this approach. Our simulations and results assume LTE system parameters but the approach is applicable to any OFDMA system with
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