Chem Preliminary Water

Sec 1 Water is distributed on Earth as a solid, liquid and a gas

Define the terms solute, solvent and solution.

A Solute is the substance (solid) that is placed in a solvent (liquid), and dissolved to produce a solution (a
combination of a dissolved solute and a solvent).

Identify the importance of water as a solvent.

Water is the most widely used solvent used by humans and by nature. In all living matter most of the
chemical reactions responsible for life occur in water solutions or aqueous solutions as they are called. Water
dissolves nutrients from soil and carries them in solution to living cells. Water also carries waste products
away from cells.
Many drinks that humans use are aqueous solutions, as there are many household products such as bleaches,
disinfectants, cleaning agents and some medicines. Industry uses aqueous solutions of acids and alkalies and
often makes or extracts products from aqueous solutions.
Water is an important solvents as it is able to dissolve numerous amounts of solutes. We are made of water
and due to its good nature as a solvent, our bodily functions are performed. Water controls the temperature of
an environments, this is because less temperature variations occur in water than in land.
Furthermore water expands upon freezing. This is when water gets trapped in rocks during the warmer
temperatures but during the colder temperatures the water freezes and thus expands, breaking the rock. This
is due to the large amounts of pressure exerted by water on the rock. Water also causes erosion. At beaches
water erodes rocks. When frozen, in glacier form it erodes as it moves.
Water is a resource for humans. We drink water and it is essential. Most body substances are dissolved in
water for diffusion across cells.

Compare the state percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere.

Zone

State of Water
Liquid
Liquid, solids

Percentage of
Earths water
0.0001%
99.4%

Percentage water
in that zone
60-90%
99%

Biosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Atmosphere

Liquid
Gas, liquid and solid

0.6%
0.001%

10%
0.5-5%

Distribution medium
In living things
Oceans, rivers, icecaps,
glaciers
Water in rocks
Water vapour, rain, hail, snow

outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of

water as:

a constituent of cells and its role as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism

a habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats

an agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and solid

a natural resource for humans and other organisms

Water is a necessity for all living things:

-

Used in chemical reactions that constitute life

Solvent where reactions occur

Transport medium for bringing nutrients to cells

Removing wastes from the body

A regulator for sudden and large temperature variations

Water is a habitat:
-

It is a habitat for life forms such as fish, algae and bacteria the place where they live.

Water bodies have the advantage that they show less temperature fluctuations than do land
and air masses.

Water is a major weathering and eroding agent:

-

Rain and rivers wash loose material to lower altitudes and eventually to the sea.

Glaciers cut a swathe from mountain tops through weaker rocks to the oceans, and

A freeze-thaw mechanism sees liquid water seep into small cracks in rocks, freeze and expand
and so widen the crack until large fragments of rock break away.

Water is a resource for humans to use:

-

For drinking, food preparation, washing and recreation

For irrigation of crops, and watering of livestock

As a working fluid in electricity generating stations and as a coolant in them and in many
industries

For generating electricity directly

In industry as a reactant, solvent and cleaning agent and for waste disposal and settling dust

As a mode of transport (now less used planes and trains are more widely used).

Density

For density prac look in theory book

Density is a relationship between mass and volume.

Note for antifreeze prac look at prac book

Density is calculated using the formula

Density = mass / volume
D

m/V

Units = g/cm^3, where m is in grams

= g/mL, where v is in cm^3/mL
When most liquids freeze, they produce a solid
that is more dense than the liquid.
Water on the other hand is most dense at 4C.
Therefore ice floats on water.
This allows for aquatic organisms to survive, as
the ice acts as an insulating layer for the water
below.

The molecules of liquid water are more compact than in ice. Liquid water has a smaller volume
than ice and therefore the density of the liquid water is higher than in ice.
Sec 2: The wide distribution and importance of water on Earth is a consequence of its molecular
structure and hydrogen bonding

Construct Lewis dot structures of water, ammonia, methane and hydrogen sulfide to
identify the distribution of electrons.

Compare the molecular structure of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, the differences
in their molecular shapes and in their melting and boiling points

Water

Ammonia

Methane

Hydrogen Sulfide

Molecular weight

18

17

16

34

Melting point

-78

-183

-86

Boiling point

100

-33

-162

-60

Although water, methane and ammonia have similar molecular weights, they have very different melting and
boiling points methane very low, ammonia quite low, and water much higher. Hydrogen Sulfide has a higher
molecular weight than water, so we should expect it to have a higher melting and boiling point but in fact they
are much lower.

Electron-dot structures do not explain the differing melting and boiling points of these compounds, because
melting and boiling points depend upon the strength of the intermolecular forces, not upon the strength of the
covalent bonds within the molecules.
Describe hydrogen bonding between molecules
Hydrogen bonding is the strongest type of intermolecular force.
A hydrogen bond is a type of intermolecular force that involves a hydrogen atom bonded to an O, N
or F atom in one molecule becoming attached to an O, N, or F atom in a different molecule.
REMEMBER HNOF
Water and ammonia display hydrogen bonding as shown below:

O, N, F atoms have very strong electron attracting powers they are the three most electronegative
elements. This means that bonding electrons in O-H, N-H and F-H bonds are strongly attracted to the O, N, F
atoms respectively, giving those atoms significant negative charges with the H-atom becoming positively
charged. In addition the small size of the H atom means that two adjacent molecules can get closer together:
the positive H atom, bonded to the O, N or F atom in one molecule forms a strong attraction to an O, N or F
atom on the adjacent molecule and so there is a strong intermolecular force.
Hydrogen bonds are much stronger than ordinary dipole-dipole forces. Their relative strength arises from the
facts that the hydrogen nucleus (bare proton) is extremely small, and than the FON atoms are strongly
electron-attracting.
The strength of a hydrogen bond is typically about one-tenth that of a normal covalent bond.
Hydrogen bonding explains why water and ammonia have much higher melting and boiling points than the
much higher molecular weight compound, hydrogen sulfide.
For the hydrides of the nitrogen and oxygen groups, we find that the boiling point of the lightest
member is anomalously high. This is due to hydrogen bonding.
Identify the water molecule as a polar molecule
Water is a polar molecule as the hydrogens retains a slightly positive charge whereas the oxygen is slightly
negative.
In many heteroatomic molecules such as HCl, the electron pairs are unevenly shared; the electrons spend
more time near one nucleus than the other. In hydrogen chloride, the shared pair of electrons spends more of
its time near the chlorine atom than near the hydrogen atom. This means that the chlorine end of the
molecule is slightly negative, while the hydrogen end is slightly positive.
Covalent bonds in which the electrons are unequally shared are called polar covalent bonds.
A pair of equal and opposite charges separated in space as in the H-Cl molecule is called a dipole.
Polar molecules are molecules that have a net dipole.
Diatomic molecules that have a polar covalent bond are polar molecules.
However for polyatomic molecules, the presence of polar bonds does not guarantee that the molecule will be
polar. This is because the dipoles will cancel each other out.
A particular covalent bond between two atoms will be polar if one atom has a greater electron attracting
power than the other. This is measured by the electronegativity of the atom.
Electronegativity measures electron attracting power: electronegativity increases from left to right
across the periodic table and decreases from top to bottom.

To decide whether a particular molecule is polar, first use the electronegativities to decide whether it contains
any polar bonds, and use the shape of the molecule to decide whether the polar bonds cancel out.
Describe attractive forces between polar molecules such as dipole-dipole forces
Dipole-Dipole
Because polar molecules have positive and negative ends, they are able to line up so that the positive end of
one molecule attracts the negative end of another molecule. Therefore the electrostatic attraction holds the
molecules to one another more strongly than would be the case for non-polar molecules. These electrostatic
attractions are called dipole-dipole forces.

Dipole-dipole forces are present in hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and water but not in methane. Hence the
intermolecular forces are stronger in the first three substances than in methane, and so the first three
compounds have higher melting and boiling points than does methane.

Dispersion forces
These are the intermolecular forces that hold molecules of methane together. They are quite weak attractive
forces that result from uneven electron distribution around the nucleus of and between neighbouring atoms,
since opposite charges attract.
One side of the atom can temporarily become positive and the other slightly negative.

The larger an atom or molecule, the larger the dispersion force between it and its neighbours because more
electrons or protons are involved.
Dispersion forces with respect to Hydrocarbons
As the number of carbon atoms in hydrocarbons increases eg methane, ethane, propane it means the
molecular mass increases. This means that there are more interactions between the electron clouds
surrounding the atom which causes dispersion forces. As a result the dispersion force increases as the
molecular mass increases. Increase in dispersion forces results in the hydrocarbon having a higher boiling
point / melting point.
Therefore the statement can be made that as consecutive hydrocarbons (1-8) increase in molecular mass,
their MPs and BPs will increase. Thus it will be more difficult to overcome the dispersion forces (ie. More
energy input would be required).

 explain the following properties of water in terms of its intermolecular forces:

o surface tension
o viscosity
o boiling and melting points
Surface Tension
Surface tension is a measure of the elastic forces in the surface of a liquid. Water molecules are held together
by strong cohesive forces. All polar molecules that maintain a strong cohesive force will have high surface
tensions.
Surface tension is a measure of the energy required to increase the surface area of the liquid
Water, ethanol and glycerin all exhibit hydrogen bonding, but in water this is the greatest.
Mercury also has a high surface tension as demonstrated by its ability to not wet the surface of glass.

When water drips from a tap, the detached water droplets are almost spherical. Inside the drop water
molecules are pulled equally in all directions. However at the surface, water molecules are pulled unequally.
These unbalance forces cause the droplets to assume a spherical shape to help minimize the surface energy.

Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance of a liquid to flow through a tube. This means moving molecules one over the other.
It also refers to the thickness of the medium in which an organism is located, and also its ability to resist
internal movement through it.
For example, honey and water. It is harder to travel through honey than it is to travel through water. Thus it
can be said that honey has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity is determined by two factors:
1) Ease at which the molecules can move over one another. This includes the size and complexity
of molecules. For example motor oil has high viscosity as the large molecules get tangled thus
dont flow easily.
2) Intermolecular forces. The stronger the forces of attraction between molecules the more
resistance there is to flow. Therefore water has strong hydrogen bonding, thus has a higher
resistance to flow than other smaller molecules.
Viscosity is a measure of a fluids resistance to flow: A fluid that has high resistance high viscosity
Liquids of a high viscosity flow slowly. Eg motor oil, honey, molasses. This is opposed to water which as a low
viscosity.
Viscosity depends on the structure of the molecules and the intermolecular forces between the molecules
Long chained molecules often have a high viscosity because their long chains become entangled as they flow

Viscometer used to measure viscosity by the rate of flow. When liquids are heated their viscosity tends
to decrease.
Water has a higher viscosity than benzene:

Melting and Boiling Point

Melting and Boiling points generally increase as the molecular weight increases. Water has by far the lowest
molecular weights, yet its melting and boiling points are higher than that of most other liquids. This is due to
two main reasons:
1) The intermolecular force between the particles of water are strong. Ie hydrogen bonding is the
strongest intermolecular force.
2) Water has a high specific heat capacity which means it takes a significant amount of energy to
raise a volume of water by one degree (4.18 J/ K g)
When water is cooled, molecular clusters form which increase density (maximum at 4C); between 4 and 0 the
density decreases until ice forms. In ice 5 neighbouring water molecules form a tetrahedral cluster that is
stabilized by hydrogen bonding. A three dimensional network of clusters forms an open cage like structure.
This open structure keeps the density of ice low. Ice crystals are examples of covalent molecular crystals.
These are softer than ionic or covalent network crystals.
Ice crystals have a shiny / wet outside appearance because the H-bonding is reduced and the molecules
vibrate, behaving like water.

3) Water is an important solvent

explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changes when the following types of
chemicals interact with water:

a soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride

a soluble molecular compound such as sucrose

a soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine, oxygen or
hydrogen chloride

a covalent network structure substance such as silicon dioxide

a substance with large molecules, such as cellulose or

polyethylene

For a solution to occur:

The intermolecular forces within the solute must be overcome
The intermolecular forces within the solvent must be overcome
The intermolecular forces must form between the solute and the solvent.
Generally, the intermolecular forces within the solute and the solvent must be similar if a solution is to form.
Polar solvents tend to dissolve polar (or ionic) solutes and non-polar solvents tend to dissolve non-polar
solutes.
LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE
Typical polar solvents include water and ethanol. Typical non-polar solvents include kerosene, cyclohexane and
carbon tertaflouride.
Ethanol displays both polar and non-polar qualities.
Dissolution is another term for the process of solute dissolving in a solvent to form a solution
Aqueous solutions are water based solutions
Aqueous solutions of Ionic Compounds
Ionic compounds are extremely polar substances
Many ionic compounds (for example sodium chloride) are soluble in water but other (for example silver
chloride) are not.
The process of an ionic substance dissolving is termed dissociation since as a consequence of the dissolution
process the ions separate from one another.
If a soluble ionic compounds is added to water, the polar water molecules can from strong ion dipole
interactions with the ions. These ion-dipole interactions are stronger and as a result, the ions break away from
the ionic crystal lattice.
As the ionic solid breaks up into its ions in water, the process of dissociation has occurred.
Some ionic salts are not soluble (eg calcium carbonate) because the strength of the ion-ion bonds within the
crystal lattice is stronger than the ion-dipole interactions between the water molecules and the ions within the
crystal.
As the ionic solid dissolves, ions are released and an electrolytic solution forms. The electrolytic solution is
able to conduct electricity the ions act as a charge carriers.
The process of an ionic substance dissolving (ie. Undergoing dissociation) can be represented as:
NaCl(s)

--->

Na+(aq)

Cl-(aq)

Solubility of Covalent Molecular Substances

Molecular Compounds
Polar covalent molecular compounds such as ammonia, glucose, sucrose, ethanol and methanol are very
soluble in water. Each of these molecules is able to form hydrogen bonds with the water molecules. The
intermolecular forces between these substances and water are similar to those within the separate solute and
solvent (water).
Fairly small alcohol molecules like methanol and ethanol are very soluble in water, larger alcohols are much
less soluble. Although the larger molecules still contain a polar hydroxy group capable of forming hydrogen
bonds with water, the size of the non-polar hydrocarbon part of the molecules is much larger.

Partially soluble molecules

Covalent molecular substances unable to form hydrogen bonds with water molecules will only form dipoledipole or dispersion forces with the water. As a result, these substances are generally less soluble in water and
are sometimes described as being partially or slightly soluble. The lesser solubility of these substances occurs,
because the intermolecular forces between the solute and water molecules are generally much weaker than
the hydrogen bonds that form between the water molecules in the solvent.
Both dissociation and ionisation produce ions in solution. The basic difference is that in
dissociation of ionic compounds, the ions are already present in the solid and separate to move
into the solution, whereas in ionisation of a covalent molecular substance such as HCl, the ions
formed are due to the reaction with water.

Insoluble large molecules

Large covalent molecules such as cellulose and polyethylene do not dissolve in water and most other solvents.
This is because the very strong covalent bonds that form these large molecules cannot be broken by the
intermolecular forces that could be possibly be formed with water molecules.

Solubility of Covalent Network Substances

Covalent network solids such as silicon, silicon dioxide and diamond are insoluble in water and most other
solvents. This is because very strong covalent bonds which form the crystal lattices of these substances
cannot be broken by the weaker intermolecular forces that could be formed with water molecules.

Analyse the relationship between solubility of substances in water and the polar nature
of the water molecule.

Bonding Type

Solubility in water

Examples

Ionic

Soluble

NaCl

Polar molecular

Soluble if H-bonds are possible

Ethanol, glucose

Soluble due to reaction

Sulfuric acid

Otherwise insoluble

Ether

Slightly soluble

Iodine, Oxygen

Most are insoluble

Benzene

Insoluble if highly structure

Cellulose, protein, synthetic polymers

Few that are soluble

Starch, enzymes

Non-polar Molecular

Large molecules

Covalent lattices

Insoluble

Diamond, SiO2

Metals

Insoluble

Al, Zn, Fe

Unless they react with water

Li, Na, K, Ca, Ba

5) Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids

Explain what is meant by the specific heat capacity of a substance

If two objects are brought into contact, heat will flow from the hot object to the cold one until the
temperature of the two objects is equal.
When the temperature is uniform throughout both objects we say that thermal equilibrium has been
reached.
Amount of heat (or quantity of heat) is different from temperature: two objects can be at the same
temperature but contain very different amounts of heat.
The amount of heat is proportional to the mass of the substance involved.
The amount of heat energy contained in equal masses of different substances depends upon the nature of the
substance
The specific heat capacity, C, of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the substance by 1C (or 1 K Kelvin).
Specific heat capacity is therefore measured in joules per Kelvin per gram (

Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of other solvents

To raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree celcius you need an input of 4.J of energy
Therefore:

C = 4.2 J

Water has a much higher heat capacity than many other substances for example:
Copper = 0.4 J
Mercury = 0.15 J
Therefore it can be concluded that water requires a lot more energy to raise its temperature by the same
number for the same number of grams.
Calorimetry The measuring of energy (heat) changes during a chemical reaction
A special device known as a calorimeter is used:

In the calorimeter, the amount of energy released or absorbed during the reaction is indirectly determined by
determining the amount of energy absorbed or released by the calorimeter.
Therefore, heat released by the reaction = heat absorbed by the calorimeter (AND VICE VERSA).

Explain and use the equation:

The amount of energy absorbed/released is determined by the equation:

Explain how waters ability to absorb heat is used to measure energy changes in
chemical reactions

Water is a universal solvent, that has high heat capacity thus it is able to absorb heat better than most other
common liquids.
Water has a heat capacity of 4.18 J
. We can measure the temperature quite easily. We measure the
change in temperature of the water. Also, it is quite easy to set up the apparatus to measure the temperature
change. The calorimeter was easy to set up using a styrofoam, thermometer and water. The initial
temperature and volume of water was easy to calculate. The chemical reaction will either give off heat or
absorb heat. The water is the medium that provides us with the temperature change allowing for the
determination of whether reaction was endothermic or exothermic. When the temperature change is known,
this can be converted into a change in heat; i.e. energy by using the formula:

Molar heat of solution: The heat lost of absorbed when one mole of a substance is dissolved in excess water.

Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic + examples

When an ionic substance dissolves in water, there is usually a noticeable change in temperature.
When sodium hydroxide dissolves in water, the solution heats up. The dissolution process releases heat, which
then warms up the solution.
Processes that release heat are called exothermic.
The dissolution of sodium hydroxide is exothermic. Similarly, so is the dissolution of sulfuric acid.

Describe dissolutions which absorb heat as endothermic and give examples

When potassium nitrate dissolves in water, the solution cools. In this case, dissolving requires an input of
energy; this energy is taken from the normal thermal energy of the water and solid substance, so the mixture
(solution) becomes colder.
Processes that absorb heat are called endothermic
The dissolution of potassium nitrate in water is endothermic. Similarly, dissolving ammonium chloride or silver
nitrate is endothermic.

Explain why waters ability to absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to life
on earth generally

An aquatic habitat is one that is present in water or part of water (ie. pond or lake for frogs). Fish and coral
are two examples of adequate habitats.
Two types of aquatic habitats:
- marine (sea water)
- Fresh water
Water has a high specific heat capacity. This means it takes a significant amount of energy to increase the
temperature of water. The suns energy does not provide enough energy to significantly increase the
temperature of water. Air has much less heat capacity and thus resulting in greater temperature fluctuations
than water.
Water has a higher specific heat capacity to air, meaning that more energy is required to raise the
temperature of the ocean relative to the land temperature. Water also retains heat better than air. Thus
variation is smaller than on land.

Aquatic organisms generally have an advantage over land organisms in terms of the temperatures they
experience. This is because water is able to retain and reflect heat, thus the temperature variations on water
are less than that on land. Aquatic organisms experience a uniform or fairly constant temperature in their
surroundings. Thus organisms do not need to have thermal regulatory adaptations that land organisms need
in order to survive in their varying climate.

Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a body
of water is affected by thermal pollution.

Thermal Pollution
Is the discharge of hot water into a water body that is large enough to significantly increase (2-5 degrees) the
temperature of that water body.
This can occur when rivers or lake water is used for cooling in industry or electricity generation. The amount of
water used is a significant proportion of water in the river or lake.
Detrimental Effects:
-

Dissolved Oxygen: Solubility for gases in water decreases as temperature increases. Therefore an
increase in temperature lowers the concentration of available oxygen in water. In general 5C
increase reduces oxygen concentration by 10-15%

Increased metabolic rates as the temperature increases the chemical reaction rate increases

Fish eggs do not develop of hatch if the temperature is too high, also shells for oysters dont develop

Higher temp. migration and spawning at the wrong time of the year.

Lethal temperature limits exceeded. Eg enzymes will only work in certain temperatures, fluctuations
cause inefficiency may result in death

Sudden temperature changes can kill fish eggs, even if the temperature range is still correct.

Ways to combat Thermal Pollution

Using cooling towers reducing temperature of water before the water is released into the environment

Cooling ponds artificial lakes where the water is cooled before released.

Assess the impact of change in temperature on solubility of oxygen in relation to aquatic organisms

As the temperature increases the solubility of the oxygen decreases. Thus in an aquatic environment,
temperature changes will result in a decreased level of oxygen concentration. As the concentration of oxygen
decreases, the demand (or competition) between aquatic organisms increases. As a result the metabolic rate
of the organism increases which requires an increase in oxygen flow through the body. This creates a cyclic
downwards affect where the available oxygen is reducing but the demand is increasing, hence resulting in
death for many aquatic organisms.