Evaluation of Architectural Design

AR 543: EVALUATION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN
LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No. 6

Preliminary
Specific Learning Objectives:
1. Explain the influence of environmental, historical, and socio-cultural factors and their relevance to the development of architectural
building structures.
Topics and Activities
1. Comparative analysis of architectural elements and features of the different historic periods:
a. Byzantine
b. Romanesque
c. Gothic
Byzantine Architecture: 330 to 1453
Geographical
Byzantium, renamed Constantinople after Constantine the Great, and later to Istanbul, was also called the New Rome, was
inaugurated as the capital of the Roman Empire in 330. It stood at the junction of the Bosphorus and the Sea of Mamorca, where
Asia and Europe are divided by only a narrow strip of water. This gave it a commanding and central position. For the government
of the Eastern and most valuable part of the Roman Empire.
Byzantine art pervaded all parts of the Eastern Roman Empire and was carried by traders to Greece, Serbia, Russia, Asia Minor,
North Africa and further Wets where it is found in Venice, Ravenna and Perigueux. Venice, by her situation, was connecting link
between the Byzantine and Frankish Empires, and a depot for merchandise from both East and West.
Geological
Constantinople had no good building stone, and local materials such as clay for bricks and rubble for concrete were employed.
Other materials more monumental in character had therefore to be imported: marble was brought from the quarries in the island
and along the shores of the Eastern Mediterranean to Constantinople, which was the chief marble-working center and supplied all
parts of the Roman Empire.
Byzantine architecture was further considerably influenced by the multitude of Monolithic columns of such sizes as were obtainable
from the different quarries. These were even introduced into the underground asterns for the water storage of this Imperial City.
Climate
Flat roofs for summer resort were combined with oriental domes and these, with small windows often high up in otherwise
unbroken walls, formed the chief features of the style, and sheltering arcades surrounded the open courts.
Historical and Social
Byzantium was founded as a Greek Colony 660 B.C. and A.D. 330 became the capital of the Roman Empire. On the death of the
Emperor Theodosius I (395) the Empire was finally divided and Byzantium continued to be the capital of the Eastern Empire; and
throughout the Middle Ages was the bulwark of Christianity against the attacks of barbarians on the West & of Moslem in the East.
The history of the Byzantine Empire from the 5th to the 11th century is one of fluctuating and gradually declining fortunes.
There were always conflicts with Persians and the Moslems. In the 11 th century the decline was accelerated because, besides
having enemies of the East and North. The Empire was now attacked by Normans and Venetians. The old empire still lingered on
for nearly two hundred years, but its vitality had been sapped by internal dissensions and continuous warfare against the Persians
and Turks, and it was finally captured by Ottoman Turks in 1453.
Nevertheless, the spirit of the Empire had fallen, especially in Russia and in the Balkans. Constantinople has continued up to the
present day as the seat of a Patriarch of the Orthodox Church.
Byzantium was an old Greek City, and so the new imperial buildings were executed by Greek craftsmen untrammeled by Roman
traditions. Within the fortifications of Constantine, the new city was laid out on Roman lines, so far as the hills and site allowed.
There was the central dividing street running through a succession of six forums of which the original Augusteam was adjoined, not
only by St. Sophia, the greatest glory of early Christendom, but also by the Imperial Palace, Senate House and Law Courts. The
forum of Constantine, with its great porphyry column, was the center of commercial life, while in the Hippodrome bard by, the
chariot races took place which was the chief amusement of New Rome, as gladiatorial combat had been old Rome.
The hippodrome held the same portion in the social life of New Rome as the colloseum and Thermae did in Old Rome, and was
used for all purposes and on all occasions, for election of emperors, burying of martyrs, execution of criminals, and for triumphal
processions.
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Preliminary
Religious
In the year 313 the Edict of Milan was issued, which granted toleration to Christians, and in 330 Constantine became the capital of
the First Christian Empire. It follows that the chief buildings erected in the new capital were churches for the new religions. At first
they were of the basilican Early Christian type. But later the domical Byzantine Style was developed.
Architectural Character
The character Byzantine architecture, which dates from the 5th century to the present day, is determined by the novel development
of the dome to cover polygonal and square plans for churches, tombs and baptisteries. The practice of using a domical system of
roof construction is in strong contrast to the Early Christian timber trusses.
It may be broadly stated that the basilican type of plan belongs to Early Christian architecture, and the domed, centralized type of
plan to the Byzantine.
The system of construction in hand-laid concrete, introduced by the Romans, progressively had become more like brickwork, and
in this form was adopted by the Byzantines. The carcass of brickwork was first completed and allowed to settle before the interior
surface sheathing unyielding marble slabs was added, and this independence of the component parts is characteristic of Byzantine
construction.
Brickwork, moreover, lent itself externally to decorative. Caprices in patterns and banding, and internally it was suitable for
covering with marble, mosaic, and fresco decoration. The Byzantines therefore took great pains in the manufacture of bricks, 38
mm in depth and were laid on thick beds of mortar.
This general use of brickwork necessitated special care in making mortar, which was composed of lime and sand and with crushed
pottery, tiles or bricks. The decorative character of external facades depended largely on the arrangement of facing bricks, which
were not laid horizontally, but sometimes obliquely, sometimes in the form of the meander fret, sometimes in the chevron or
heuing, bone pattern. An attempt was also made to ornament the rough brick exteriors by use of stone bands & decorative arches.
o
Frescos, term originally applied to painting on a wall while the plaster is wet, often used for any wall painting not in oil colors.
The DOME which has always been a traditional feature in the East became prevailing motif of Byzantine architecture. It was a
fusion of the domical construction with the classical columnar style. Domes of various types were now placed over square
compartments by means of pendentives.
o
Pendentive, is the term applied to the triangular curved overhanging surface by means of which a circular dome is supported
over a square or polygonal compartment.
o
Domes are of three types:
a. Simple, the pendentives and domes are part of the same sphere.
b. Compound
1.
The dome is not part of the same sphere as the pendentives and domes rises independently upon them.
2.
The dome is raised on a high drum pierced with windows
c. Special Designs
1.
Melon Dome, dome with convolutions
2.
Serrated
3.
Onion or Bulbous Sharp
o
These domes were usually constructed of bricks on some light porous stone, such as pumice, or even of pottery. Some
Byzantine Domes and Vaults were, it is believed, constructed without temporary support or centering by the simple use of
large flat bricks.
Centering, a temporary structure upon which the materials of a vault or arch are supported in position until the work
becomes self-supporting.
o
Windows were formed in the lower portion of the dome which, in the later period, was hoisted upon a high drum, a feature
which was still further developed in the renaissance architecture by the addition of an external peristyle.
Examples
Byzantine churches are distinguished by the centralized type of plan, having a dome over the nave, which in early examples, is
sometimes supported by semi-domes. In later examples, the churches are much smaller and the dome is raised upon a high drum with
occasionally, additional smaller domes, rising at a lower level. There is usually a narthex, or entrance porch, at the west end, and at the
East end is cut off from the nave by an Iconostas or screen of pictures.
o
Iconostasis, a screen in a Greek Orthodox Church on which icons (sacred image) is placed, separating the chancel from the
space, open to the laity.
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Preliminary
St. Sophia Constantinople (Hagia Sophia = divine wisdom)

Was built by Justinian by the Architects Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus, or the site of two successive basilican
churches of the same name, erected respectively by Constantine and Theodosius II. It was the most important church in
Constantinople.
o
Gymnaceum, that part of a Greek house, or a Byzantine Church reserved for women.
St. Mark, Venice
Reflects the art of Byzantium which so largely influenced the architecture of Venice. The glittering, resplendent faade of the
narthex faces the great Piazza of San Marco, whose vast open space, paved in marble, forms a great public atrium to the church
dedicated to the sea-citys patron saint.
o
Piazza, a public open space or square surrounded by buildings.
Gracanica Church
St. Sophia Novgorod
For capitals, the Roman, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite Types were sometimes used, but from these were derived a new
cubiform type with convex side suited to carry a rising arch which took the place of the horizontal entablature. Over each type
was placed a deep abacus of Dosseret Block a new invention which performed the function of enlarging the surface of the
capital to support the wide voussirs of the arch or a thick wall.
Romanesque Architecture in Europe: 9th to 12th Century
Influences
The decline of the Roman Empire in the West led to the rise of the independent states and the nations of Europe. The coronation of the
Pope of the Frankish King Charlemagne in 800 as the Holy Roman Emperor marked the beginning of a new era, with the establishment
of a pan-Germanic Christian state, politically ordered and bound of both ecclesiastical and political ties to Rome.
The great monastic foundations proliferated and expanded, being closely linked with the economic revival, the fusion of Latin and
Teutonic communities, and the survival of the Roman law in the monastic rule. After the middle of the 10th century, an increasing
number of major buildings were vaulted, partly to guard against fire risks, partly to create strong structures to resist the raids of the
Norsemen, Hungarian and the Moors.
Christianity, the chief source of education and culture, was gradually spreading throughout Northern Europe, and the erection of a
church often resulted in the foundation of a city, for the Papacy had been rising to great power and influence. Religious enthusiasm and
zeal found their material expression in the magnificent cathedral churches and monastic buildings. The same religious fervor led to the
crusades against Moslem occupation of Palestine and the Holy Places, and affected Western art.
Until the middle of the 12th century, science, letters, art and culture were largely the monopoly of the religious orders. The schools
attached to monasteries trained youths for the service of religion; monks and their pupils were often the designers of cathedrals.
The principal RELIGIOUS ORDERS were:
1.
Benedictine Order (Black Monks) early 6th century houses commonly located in towns, part of the church being devoted to offices
of the laity. Founded by St. Benedict in South Italy who decreed that architecture, painting, etc. are to be taught.
2.
Cluniac Order founded by Abbot Odo in 910 at Cluny in Burgundy.
3.
Carthusian Order, founded by ST. Bruno in 1086 Carthusian architecture is notably severe and unadorned. The character house,
often remotely located provided separate cells for the monks, generally grouped around cloister garth, and the community served a
simply planned church
4.
Cistercian Order (White Monks) founded in 1908 at Citeaux by ST. Stephen Harding and at Clairvaux by St. Bernard. The ascetic
aims of the Cistercian order produced an architecture which was at first simple and severe. In mature Cistercian planning the
monks frater or refectory was located at right angles to the South walk of the cloister with the kitchen adjoining it to the West, and
the frater of the conversi or lay brethren, beyond the usual form of Cistercian chapter house was an aisle hall, in contrast to those
of the Benedictine and Augustinian Order and which were either rectangular or circular.
5.
Secular Canons, serving principally cathedral and collegiate colleges.
ORDERS OF CANONS Regular:
6.
Augustinian Canons (Black Canons regular) established in 1050. They undertook both monastic and pastoral duties in houses
often located in towns and planned similarly to those of the Benedictine Order.
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Preliminary
7.
8.
Premonstratensian Canons (White Canons regular) founded around 1100 by ST. Norbert at Premontre in Picardy.
Gilbertine Canons an exclusively English order founded in the 12th century by St. Gilbert of Sempringham, usually combining a
house of canons of Augustine rule with another Nuns of Cistrcian rule, in conventual buildings separately planned, attached to a
common church divided axially by a wall.
MILITARY ORDER
9.
The Knights Templar, founded in 1119 to protect the Holy Places in Palestine and to safeguard the pilgrim to Jerusalem.
10. The Knights Hospitallers organized in 1113 but develop no characteristic architecture of its own.
11. The Mendicant Orders of Friars founded during the 13th century and headed by the Franciscans and Dominicans. Their houses
were usually located in towns, where the friars preached and did charitable works among the common people.
1.
The Romanesque style of the 10th to the 12th centuries was remarkable for the tentative use of a new constructive principle: the
deliberate articulation of structure, in which each constructive part played a designed role in establishing equilibrium.
2.
The general character of the Romanesque style is sober and dignified, while formal massing depends on the grouping of towers
and the projection of transepts and choir.
3.
The character depends on the employment of vaulting, based initially on Roman Methods.
4.
Roman cross-vaults were used throughout Europe till the beginning of the 12th century, but they were heavy and difficult to
construct and were gradually superseded by rib and panel vaulting, in which a framework of ribs supported thin stone panels. The
new method consisted in designing profile of the transverse, longitudinal & diagonal ribs to which form of the panels was adapted.
5.
Groins had previously been settled naturally by the intersection of the vault surfaces; this arrangement produced the quadripartite
(four -part) vault.
6.
If the cross-vaults were semi-cylindrical the diagonal groin would be a semi-ellipse.
In France and Germany, the vaulting ribs of a square vaulting compartment were usually semi-circular curvest starting from the same
level; therefore the diagonal rib; having the longest span rose to a greater height than the transverse and longitudinal ribs, and when the
paneling was filled in on the top of these ribs each vault was domical.
In England vaults were generally constructed with continuous level ridges, instead of this domical form, and the differences in height
between diagonal and transverse ribs in a square vaulting compartment was equalized by stilting the latter or by making the diagonal rib
a segment of a larger circle than that of the longitudinal and transverse ribs, which were semi-circular.
7.
In vaulting an oblong compartment the difference between the heights of diagonal and transverse ribs was still greater than in a
square compartment and produced and awkward waving line of the ribs on plan, but little attempt was made to vault any but
square compartment. The difficulty of vaulting oblong nave compartments was partially surmounted.
8.
In some instances, the intermediate pier was carried up as a vaulting shaft to support a rib which altered the quadripartite vaulting
compartment into six parts known as Sexpartite vaulting. The main piers were usually massive than the intermediate because
they supported the chief weight of the vaulting.
9.
The addition of transepts and the prolongation of the sanctuary of chancel made the church a well-defined cross on plan.
10. Transepts were generally the breadth of the nave, which was usually twice the width of the aisles.
11. The choir was often raised on piers above the level of the nave and over a vaulted crypt, in which saint or martyr had been buried.
12. Towers, square octagonal or circular are prominent features of most Romanesque churches, either over the crossing, at the West
end centrally with the nave, or at East end, sometimes arranged in pairs, at the west end and at the ends of transepts or at the
Eastern ends of the aisles, often rising to a great height in well-marked stages pierced with windows.
13. Roman methods of craftsmanship still influenced constructive art in Europe. Walls were often roughly built, and were relieved
externally by shallow buttresses or pilaster strips connected at the top by bands of horizontal moldings or by a series of semicircular arches.
Pilaster strips is a rectangular feature in the shape of a pillar, but projecting only about one sixth of its breath from the wall.
14. Attached columns, with rough capitals supporting semi-circular arches, formed wall arcading, which was a frequent decorative
feature.
15. Arcades consisted of massive circular columns or piers which supported semi-circular arches, as in the nave of Norman
Cathedrals.
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Preliminary
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Door and window openings are very characteristic, with jambs or sides formed in a series of receding molded planes known as
orders, in which are set circular shafts surmounted by a continuous abacus. The semi-circular arch above was also constructed
in receding concentric rings which followed the lines of recesses below.
A Rose or Wheel Window was often placed over the west door.
Glass seems not to have come into general use till the 9th century.
In Italy, the traditional monolithic column was usual but in the West, in France and England, the columns were generally cylindrical
and of massive proportions, built up with ashlars masonry and having a rubble core. These were treated with plutings or with
spiral, trellis or chevron patterns.
Variations of Corinthian or Ionic Capitals were used.
In later times the capital was often of a cushion (cubiform shape).
Moldings were often elaborately carved.
Ornament, into which entered vegetable and animal forms, was treated conventionally and carving and sculpture were often rough.
Romanesque Architecture in Italy: 9th to 12th Century
Geographical
The long, narrow peninsula of Italy stretches from the Alps on the North, right down through the waters of the Mediterranean, almost to
Africa on the South.
These geographical variations were accompanied by over differences which influenced architecture in such varying degrees that it may
be most conveniently considered under:
a. Central Italy lies between Florence, commanding the passage of the Arno in the North; Pisa, the maritime power to the west; and
Naples, the naval port of the South Rome, rich in ancient pagan monuments and early Christian Churches, exercised a paramount
influence of architecture.
b. North Italy Milan, the capital of Lombardy enjoyed prosperity on account of its proximity to several Alpine passes and its situation
in the fertile plains of Lombardy. Venice and Ravenna, which were connecting trade links between East and West and
geographically under the influence of Byzantine Art.
c. South Italy and Sicily was by position especially susceptible to influence from the East and after passing under Greek and Roman
rule, it formed part of the Byzantine Empire under Justinian. Sicily facing Greek on one side, Italy on another and North Africa on
the third was exposed to influences from all three countries.
Geological
a. Central Italy. Tuscany possessed great mineral wealth and an abundance of stone. Various building materials were used in
Rome, including bricks, volcanic tufa or peperino, travertine stone from Tivoli, and marble from Carrara. Much material was
obtained from the ruins of classic buildings.
b. North Italy. The low lying plains of Lombardy supplied clay for making bricks, which used with marble from the hills, gave a
special character to the architecture.
c. South Italy and Sicily. The mountains of Sicily of South Italy supplied calcareous and shelly limestone as well as many kinds of
marble.
Climatic
a. Central Italy. The brilliant sunshine demanded small windows and thick walls both in cities of the plain and in cities on the hilltops.
b. North Italy. The climate varies between extremes of heat and cold. The mountains produce ice to winds in winter but protect the
town from Milan to Venice from the excessive heat of the plains.
c. South Italy and Sicily. The climate is almost sub-tropical on the southern coast of Italy buildings have flat roofs and other oriental
features.
Historical, Social and Religious

a. Central Italy. Pisa sent merchant fleets to the Holy Land for the Easter fair at Jerusalem. The Pisans captured and defeated the
Moslems in wars and this contact with the Moslems accounts for the characteristic Pisan use of striped marbles. During this period
the Pope began to exercise influence in Italian politics.
b. North Italy. In spite of the intervening Alps, the invaders who had occupied the valley of the Po kept up commercial
communications with those on the Rhine by means of the Alpine Pass.
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Preliminary
Commerce and art were the special care of the Venetians. Their close alliance with Byzantium (Constantinople) greatly increased
their commerce, so that by the end of the 11th century it extended along Dalmatian, Croatian coasts to those of the Black Sea and
Western Mediterranean. They raised glorious buildings and brought precious freights from the East including relics from the Holy
Land. All the free cities such as Milan, Pavia, Verona and Genoa vied with one another in the beauty of their public buildings, and
this spirit of rivalry encouraged the most remarkable structural advances in Italy
c. South Italy and Sicily. In 827 the Moslem landed in Sicily and gradually overran the island. The latter part of the 10th century was
their most prosperous period, but bloody religious struggles ended in the downfall of the Moslem Dynasty.
Under Moslem rule even church facades were ornamented with geometrical patterns, because the Moslem religion forbids the
representation of the human figure.
a. Central Italy. The basilican type of church was closely adhered to during this period; Italians were slow to adopt a new system of
construction and preferred to concentrate on beauty and delicacy of ornamental detail, while the architectural character was
governed by classic traditions.
The most pronounced features of faade were the ornamental arcades which rose one above the other, sometimes even into
gables. This decorative use of arcaded galleries is one instance of the employment of an architectural feature having a
constructive origin.
The use of marble for facing walls distinguishes Romanesque Architecture in Italy from that of the rest of Europe churches had the
most part, simple open timber roofs ornamented with bright coloring. A vast number of columns from ancient Roman Temples
were utilized in the new churches, and this retarded the development of the novel types.
The finely carved and slender twisted columns in the cloisters of St. Giovanni and St. Paolo, Rome are delicate variations of the
Classic Type. In all parts of Italy Christian symbolism now entered into decorative carving and mosaics. The monogram of Christ,
the emblems of evangelists and saints, and the whole system of symbolism, represented by trees, birds, fishes and animals, are all
worked into the decorative scheme.
Examples of Central Italy
Pisa Cathedral, with Baptistery, Campanile and Campo Santo, together from one of the famous building groups of the world.
It resembles other early basilican churches in plan, with long rows of columns connected by arches, double aisles, and a nave
which has the usual timber roof. The exterior has bands of red and white marble, and the ground floor is faced with wall
arcading, while the entrance faade is thrown into relief by tiers of open arcades which rise one above the another right into
the gable end,
The Campanile is a circular tower 16 meters in diameter rising in eight storeys of encircling arcades. This world famous
Leaning Tower of PISA which is the most arresting feature of this marvelous group, has been increasing its inclination sue to
the subsidence in the foundations. The upper part of the tower now overhangs its base more than 4.2 meters.
The Baptistery was designed by Dioti Salvi on a circular plan with a central Nave 18.30 meters in diameter, separated by four
piers and eight columns from the surrounding two-floors aisle which makes the building nearly 39.30 meters in diameter.
Externally it is surrounded on the lower floors by half columns, connected by semi-circular arches, under one of which is the
door, above an open arcade of small detached shafts. The structure is crowned by an outer hemispherical roof through which
penetrates a truncated cone capped by a small dome, covering the central space.
b. North Italy. It was in Lombardy that the most important developments took place. The principal innovation was the development
of the ribbed vault which brought about the adoption of many new constructive features. The churches are basilican in type, but
naves as well as side aisles are vaulted and have external wooden roofs. Aisles are often two floors in height, while thick walls
between the side chapels act as buttresses to resist the pressure of the vaults.
The flat, severe entrance facades stretch across the whole church, thus making externally the division of nave and aisles. There is
often a central projecting porch, with columns standing on the backs of crouching beasts and a wheeled window above to light the
nave.
The gable is characteristically outlined with raking arcades and there are also arcades around the apse under the eaves. The
general character becomes less refined, owing to the increased use of stone and brick instead of marble, and ornament shows a
departure from classic precedent, and portrays with an element of the grotesque, the rough outdoor life of invaders from the North.
There were many baptisteries, usually octagonal or circular, which is connected to the cathedral by an atrium similar to the famous
atrium at St. Ambrogio, Milan. Projecting porches, which were preferred to recessed doorways, are bold arched structure often two
storeys, flanked by isolated columns on huge semi-grotesque beasts.
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Preliminary
c.
Towers are straight shafts, often detached as at Verona without buttresses or spires. The composition of facades usually relies
upon simple pilaster strip decoration running from the ground and ending in small arches under the eaves.
Examples of North Italy
St. Ambrogio, Milan. Founded by the great St. Ambrose in the 4th century, raised on its present plan and partly rebuilt with
vault and dome in the 12 century. The plan includes the only existing atrium among Lombard churches, a narthex flanked by
towers, vaulted nave and aisles with an octagon over the crossing, triforium gallery, raised choir over the crypt and an apse.
Narthex is a long arcaded entrance porch to a Christian Basilica.
The pulpit which is built over a 6th century Sarcophagus consists of an arcade with characteristic Lombard ornamentation of
carved birds and animals.
Pulpit is an elevated enclosed stand in a church in which the preacher stands.
St. Zeno Maggiore (Verona). Has a faade which is stern in its simplicity. The fine projecting porch has two free-standing
columns, which rest on the backs of crouching beasts and support a semi-circular vault, over which is a gabled roof. Above is
a great wheel window which lights the nave, and the whole facade is relieved by pilaster strips connected by corbel tables
under the slopes of the centre gable and side roofs. The interior has a nave arcade of compound piers with uncarved
capitals, and the nave shaft is carried up as if to support a vault. Intermediate columns with carved capitals support semicircular arches, surmounted by a wall banded in red brick and stone. There is no triforium, but a clear-storey and above this
is a wooden ceiling of trefoil form. The choir 2.1 m. above the Nave floor has a high pointed 14 th century vault and an apse,
and beneath is the crypt, in seven aisles, with the shrine of St. Zeno. The campanile is detached and has not buttresses, & is
of alternate courses of marble & brick terminating in open arcades to the bell chamber angled pinnacles & a high-pitched roof.
Baptisteries, a special feature of Italian Architecture and represent a period of Christianity when the baptismal rite was
carried out only three times a year. Easter, Pentecost and the Epiphany; and therefore required a large and separate
building. This contains a baptismal font. Usually octagonal and has a projecting porch and the usual pilaster strips, corbel
tables and arcading.
Campanili or bell towers are product of the period of generally stand alone. They are often civic monuments rather than
integral parts of churches, and were symbols of power, and served also as watch towers. They are square in plan without the
projecting buttresses & design is generally simple, broken only by windows which light the internal staircase or sloping way.
South Italy and Sicily. The changing architectural character can be traced through Byzantine, Moslem and Norman Rule, and
each successive period carried with it something from the past. Byzantine influence is evident in the mosaic decoration of interiors
and predominates in the plans of such buildings. Moslem influence is especially seen in the application of stripes of colored
marbles and in the use of stilted pointed arches.
In South Italy domes rather than vaults were adopted, but timber roofs were the rule in Sicily under Moslem influence and had
stalactite ceilings, rich in design and color. Lateral walls were occasionally decorated with flat pilaster strips connected horizontally
by small arches springing from corbels. Wheel windows are often made of sheets of pierced marble and are highly elaborate.
In South Italy, elaborately modeled bronze doors are characteristically external, while colored mosaics add to the beauty of the
interiors of Palermo Churches. Color, in spreading masses of geometric design was the predominant note of internal decoration of
South Italian and most especially of Sicilian Churches, while the bronze pilasters clearly indicate the influence of classic tradition.
Examples of South Italy and Sicily
Cefalu Cathedral, 1131 to 1240, founded by Count Roger as a royal pantheon, was served by Augustinian Canons. It is
externally the most distinctly Romanesque Church in Sicily, and has a basilican nave with groined aisle vaults, columnar
arcades a high transept and a tri-apsidal East end with lateral ribbed vaulting over presbytery and south transept. The two
western towers of minaret proportions enclose a columned porch.
Monreale Cathedral. This stands on the heights south-West of Palermo, and is the most splendid of all the monuments
erected under Norman Rule in Sicily. The plan is basilican in its western part and quasi-Byzantine inn its Eastern part, with a
choir raised above the nave and with eastern apses.
The nave columns have capitals of Byzantine form with dosseret-block encrusted with mosaic to support pointed arches.
And in the aisles there are pointed windows without tracery. The walls are covered with mosaics in gold and color,
representing scenes from Biblical History with a figure of Christ in the apse, framed in arabesques; while a high dado of white
marble slabs is bordered by inlaid patterns in colored porphyries. The open timber roofs, intricate in design, are brightly
painted in Moslem style. The interior is solemn and grand, an effect produced by the seventy of the design, enhanced by the
colored decoration. The low oblong central lantern & the antique bronze doors add beauty & distinction to this famous church.
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Preliminary
Romanesque Architecture in France: 9th to 12th Century
Geographical
France has great natural highways along the valleys of the Rhone, Saone, Seine and Garrone which connect the Mediterranean with
the Atlantic Ocean and the English Channel. Roman civilization has spread through France along the historic highway of the fertile
Rhone Valley.
Geological
France has an abundance of good stone, easily quarried and freely used for all types of buildings. In the North the fine-grained Caen
Stone was available throughout Normandy. In the volcanic district of Auvergne, the colored pumice and tufa were not only used for
walls and inlaid decoration, but were so light in weight that they were also employed in large blocks for the solid stone vaulted roofs
peculiar to the district.
Climatic
The climatic variations between North and South regulate door and window openings, which decreases in sizes towards the South. The
climate also determines the pitch of roofs which, from being steep in the North to throw off snow, become almost flat in sub-tropical
South, and these largely control the general architectural style.

Caesars conquest of Gaul (58 to 49 BC) was followed by the systematic Romanization of the country, which had begun with the making
of a road system centered upon Lyons, and the development of thriving commercial colonies which adopted the Roman Social System
in their independent municipalities. The PAX ROMAN was established, and the early 3rd century, social conditions were very stable;
thereafter Roman Administration and Industrial and Commercial Development were progressively undermined by barbarian incursions
and by the increasing power of great landowners.
Christianity was first established in the Rhone Valley. Where Lyons contributed martyrs to the cause. The Moslems overrun Southern
France but Charles Martel defeated them at Poitiers in 732 and changed the future of Western Europe.
The 11th century was marked by a widespread desire to withdraw from the world and embrace the monastic life; this resulted in the
foundation of many religious houses, which gave an impulse to architecture and also fostered art and learning. Religious zeal was not,
however, confined with monastic walls, but adventurously mingled with secular ambitions to produce crusades, which began in 1096.
In the South, churches were usually cruciform in plan and frequently had naves covered with barrel vaults whose thrust was taken by
half-barrel over vaults aisles in two floors. Buttresses are internal and form the divisions between the chapels which flank the nave, as
at Vienne Cathedral. Towers are sometimes detached, like Italian Campanili. Cloisters are treated with the utmost elaboration, and
form a special feature in the plan of many churches of this period.
Cloisters (a secluded place) covered passages round an open space, connecting the church to the chapter houses, refectory and
other parts of the monastery.
Circular Churches are rare, but the development of the semi-circular east end as an ambulatory, with radiating chapels is common in
Southern France. In the North, plans were of basilican type with nave and aisles. The use of high nave vaults changed the setting-out
of the bays, which were brought to a square by making one nave vaulting compartment equal to the length of two bays of the aisles until
the introduction of the pointed arch solved the problem of vaulting oblong compartments with ribbed vaults.
The South is remarkable for richly decorated church facades and graceful cloisters, and for the use of old Roman Architecture features
which seem to have acquired a fresh significance. The development of vaulting progresses, and naves were often covered with barrel
vaults whose thrust was resisted by half-barrel vaults over two-storeyed aisles, thus suppressing the clear-storey.
Nave wall arcades of aisle less churches are semi-circular, with moldings in recesses or orders, while cloister arcades are elaborated
with coupled columns in the depth of the walls and with carved capitals which support the semi-circular arches of the narrow bays,
which were left unglazed as in Italy.
Southern climatic conditions required that roofs need only below pitch, but other factors entered into the nature of their construction; for
in the volcanic district of Auvergne the light nature of the stones resulted in stone-covered vaults. While in Aquitaine, Eastern
Mediterranean influences promoted the use of domical construction, as at Angouleme.
Piers were derived from the Roman square pier, wire attached columns to which were added hook shafts, and on the nave side the halfround shafts were carried up to the springing of the vaults. In the North, where remains were less abundant there was greater freedom
a new style, and western facades of churches, especially in Normandy, are distinguished by the introduction of two flanking towers,
while plain massive side walls with flat buttresses emphasize the richness of the facades.
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The gradual change to the Gothic System was promoted by repeated attempts to cover oblong compartments with rib and panel
vaults, a problem which was eventually solved by the introduction of the pointed arch.
The solution too many problems which had faced the Romanesque designers were found in the building of the choir of Abbey of St.
Denis near Paris, where the ribbed vault, pointed arch and flying buttresses are successfully combined.
Nave arcades are spanned by semi-circular arches which are repeated in the deep triforia, imposing western doorways with sculptured
tympana were the forerunners of the magnificent sculptured entrances of the Gothic period.
Cylindrical piers were frequent, surmounted with carved capitals of Corinthianesque type and square abacus from which the vaulting
shafts start awkwardly. Moldings executed in stone are coarser than those in the marble of Italy. Capitals and bases are either rough
imitations of the old Roman Corinthian type.
In the North, the jambs are formed in receding planes, with recesses filled with nook shafts fluted or carved with zigzag ornament.
Capitals are frequently cubiform blocks, sometimes carved with animal subjects. Corbel tables of great richness, supported by
grotesquely carved heads form the wall.
Facades of churches have elaborate carved ornament representing foliage, or figures of men and animals. Capitals of columns on the
ground floor are often continued as a rich, broad frieze across the building. The diaper work in the spandrels of arches is supposed to
be an imitation in carving of the color-pattern work or stuff draperies that originally occupied the same position, while the period is rich in
carving of zigzags, rosettes and billets. Carved timpana, dealing with Biblical subjects are frequently of considerable distinction.
Examples
Ecclesiastical Architecture
o
St. Sernin, Toulouse, is cruciform with nave, double aisle and transepts. The nave has round-arched barrel vaults, with plain
square ribs, supporting the roofing slab direct, and the high triforium chamber has external windows which light the nave, for
there is no clear-storey.
o
St. Madeleine, Vezelay in Burgundy has a most remarkable narthex with nave and aisles crowned by one of the earliest
pointed cross vaults in France. This leads into the church, which also has nave and aisles, the transepts, choir and chevet
being completed in 1170. The nave has no triforium, but a clear-storey with small windows between the immense transverse
arches of the highly domical groined intersecting vaults.
The central portal with two square-headed doorways, separated by a large semi-circular arch containing a relief of the last
judgment left and right are side portals, and in the upper part of the faade is a large five-light window richly sculptured and
flanked by towers, that in the left rising only to the height of the nave.
Secular Architecture
o
Fortified Towns, Bridges, Castles and Houses
Romanesque Architecture in Central Europe: 9th to 12th Century
Geographical
What is now known as Germany was through many centuries a conglomeration, first of various tribes fighting amongst themselves, and
then of various independent state, principalities and powers occupying the great central district of Europe. Roman civilization spread
North-West along the fertile Rhineland and into Saxony.
Geological
Stone from the mountains along the Rhine Valley was the material used for buildings in this district. Along the Baltic shores and in
Central and Southern Germany there was an ample supply of timber. As there was no stone or timber in the plains of the North, brick
was used almost exclusively in the district East of the Elber, and the style consequently differs from that of other districts.
Climatic
The average temperature of Central Germany is much the same as in Southern England, but in summer is higher and in winter lower.
Roman influence was such that even the northern climate did not exert its full influence on building. Nevertheless there was a distinct
tendency to large windows and to steep roofs to throw off snow.

Under the influence of Rome Christianity took root in Southern Germany and in the Rhineland, while the rest of the country remained
pagan. As early as the 6th century the Bishop of Trier and Cologne were conspicuous in promoting church building, of which evidences
can still be traced.
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Charlemagne, the first Frankish King who became Roman Emperor, was crowned in 800 at Rome by the Pope, and ruled over the
Franks, which included Central Germany and Northern France. He restored civilization in a great measure to Western Europe and was
a patron of architecture. He forced the people of Saxony to embrace Christianity, and this resulted in the erection of a number of
circular baptisteries, as the conversion of the tribes made a great demand for the baptismal rite.
The social development of these districts was much the same as in Europe generally; feudal lords were intolerant of King Authority and
oppressive towards the people, who became freemen or fill back as serfs, according as kings and cities prevailed against feudal
tyranny.
Romanesque architecture in Central Europe exhibits a continuous combination of Carolingian tradition and Lombard influence. The
significant structural developments in the high Romanesque of Burgundy, Normandy, were followed in Germany with reluctance,
however, and pointed arcades and ribbed vaults were made only a late appearance.
In monastic churches particularly, the principal features of the Carolingian planning survived strongly. They include a choir at the west
end, the Nuns choir, or winter choir, often accommodate in Western apse but occasionally provided in a square west end with either
transept or tribune. This western choir was commonly built over a crypt in the manner of Lombardic high choir.
Crypt, a space entirely or partly under a building; in churches generally beneath the chancel and used for burial in early times.
A distinctive characteristic of the architecture of the lower Rhineland, and of the valleys of the Moselle and Main, during the later 11th
and 12th centuries; is a three-apse plan of trefoil form. This appears to be an idea imported from Early Christian Lombardy.
In the Rhineland the semi-circular cross-vaults of the nave is of a domical nature, owing to the use of semi-circular ribs, which rise to a
greater height over the diagonal of the compartment. The system of including two bays of the aisle in one nave vaulting compartment
was generally adopted. Timber roofs were also employed for naves with large spans. Square towers divided into floors by molded
courses, frequently terminate in four gables with hipped rafters rising from the apex of each, and the roofing planes intersect at these
rafters and thus form a pyramidal or helm roof with four diamond-shaped sides meeting at the apex.
Helm roof, type of roof in which four faces rest diagonally between the gables and converge at the top.
Polygonal towers have similar roofs, but with valet between the gables. The plain wall surface is relieved by pilaster strips, connected
horizontally at different stages by range of arches on corbels which, owing to the smallness of scale, have the appearance of molded
string courses.
Doorways are frequently in the side aisles instead of in the west front or transepts, and have recesses with nook shafts. Windows are
usually single but occasionally grouped and sometimes have a mid-wall shaft.
In nave arcades square piers with attached half-columns were usual, though sometimes varied by the alternation of compound piers
with attached half-columns were usual, though capitals bold in execution and well designed. The shaft and capitals in doorways were
frequently elaborately carved with figures of men, birds and animals.
There is a general absence of moldings in nave arcades. When these occur, they are as a rule of indifferent design, and those of
capitals and bases take a distinctive form intermediate between Roman and Gothic. Internally, the flat wall surfaces may have been
painted originally, but the general effect today is extremely bare. Characteristic carving in bands was employed and in the north, lines
of colored bricks were used externally.
Examples
Aix-la-chapelle (Aachen) Cathedral. Built by the Emperor Charlemagne as his tomb-house. The entrance, flanked by staircase
turrets, leads into a polygon of sixteen sides, 32 m. in diameter. Every two angle of this polygon converge to one pier & thus form
an internal octagon, the eight piers of which support a dome 14.5 m in diameter, rising above the two-storey surrounding aisles.
The Church of the Apostles, Cologne, is one of the series of trefoil churches in that city. The plan forms a broad nave, aisles
half of its width, western transepts, and with a triapsidal choir while over the crossing a low octagonal tower gives dignity to the
effective grouping.
The entrance is by a northern porch and there are no great western portals as in France, the west end being occupied by a tower
flanked by stair turrets, crowned with a typical Rhenish roof.
Worms Cathedral. The plan is apsidal at both ends, with eastern and western octagons, while one vaulting bay of the nave
corresponds with two of the aisles and cross-vaults are employed in both cases.
Turn circular towers containing stairs flank the eastern and western apses, and the crossing of the nave and transept is covered
with a low octagonal tower, crowned with a pointed roof. The entrances are in the aisles. The lateral facades have circularheaded windows, between the characteristic flat pilaster strips.
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Preliminary
Romanesque Architecture in Spain, Portugal and the Holy Land
Geographical
Spain and Portugal

The Iberian Peninsula is divided into distinct natural regions by the principal mountain ranges which cross it from East to West,
enclosing high bare plateau lands. In the middle ages, the natural regions provided boundaries for rival races and kingdoms.
Portugal is divided from Spain by the western limits of these high table lands and by the steep gorges of four great rivers. French
influence was dominant in the North, but Moorish influence in the South persisted until 1492 in the emirate of Granada, centered
on a fertile plain surrounded by high ranges.
The Holy Land

The most influential geographical characteristic of the Latin Kingdom of the crusaders was its shape. From North to South it
included the country of Edessa, the principality of Antioch. The country of Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem and this whole
territory was nearly 88 km long, but generally very narrow between the Mediterranean Coast and the Eastern frontier with the semidesert.
Geological
Spain and Portugal

The peninsula itself is a great rock massif. Natural resources in building stone included granite in the North; limestone in the South
and the Ebro basin, red sandstone in the Pyrenees and Andaluca, and both eruptive rock and semi-marbles everywhere, which is
used for rubble walling with brick binding courses and quoins, which was used under Moorish influence. There are few forests in
Spain and so timber suitable for building is conspicuously absent.
The Holy Land

Here stone materials of eminent suitability for great castles and small churches were abundant, though timber was not as plentiful
as in those parts of Europe from which the crusader builder had come.
Climatic
Spain and Portugal

There are four chief varieties of climate. In the provinces along the North and Northwest sea coast, the climate is mild, equable
and rainy. In the great central table-land and the basin of the Ebro, the climate is of great extremes of temperature. The plains of
the Castile are swept by winds in winter and are torrid in summer. The middle climate along the Mediterranean is moderate and
the Southern in Andaluca is sub-tropical, with the greatest heat in Cordoba.
The Holy Land

Climatic conditions vary from the harsh and semi-desert of the South and the Eastern fringes, through the oppressive summer of
the Jordan valley to the rocky highlands of Syria which are under snow for much of the year. Rainfall is generally concentrated in
the late winter months, but is then usually considerable.
Spain and Portugal

The Moorish incursions in South-West Europe were brought to an end by Charles Martel at Poitiers in 732, and subsequent
medieval Spanish history is dominated by successive extensions of Christian influence and the regaining of territory until the very
end of the 15th century.
Spain has connection with France and also with England through medieval marriages; with Italy through papal supervision and the
quarrels with the Angevins in Naples and Sicily, and with the Moors from Africa. All these links affected in varying degrees the
architecture in the peninsula. The evidence of Moorish influence appears in curious construction and exuberant detail.
As to social conditions in Spain, only a small proportion of the population, including citizens of chartered towns were free; under the
system of land tenure the peasants were oppressed throughout the middle ages. Social life in pain was dominated by the
Grandess and the clergy; churches and monasteries are the chief architectural monuments, while in domestic architecture there is
little importance except the houses of the nobility.
Christianity has reached the Iberian Peninsula in the 2nd century and flourished for two hundred years. The constant warfare
waged against the Moors, which was religious even more than racial, gave a certain unity to the Christian states of the Peninsula.
Throughout the medieval period, the Catholic Church was the strongest and most constant unifying force in the struggle against
the Moors, and it thus obtained great temporal power and possessions. This fact and the Spanish taste for dramatic ceremonial
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Preliminary
and ritual, determined the planning cathedrals and churches with their great sanctuaries and enormous chapels of the noble
families.
The Holy Land

The Latin Kingdom in the Holy Land was established as a direct consequence of the reaction in Christian Europe following the call
by Pope Urban II in 1905 to the first crusade. The Frankish fighting men were in a minority even in their own garrisons, and some
of the characteristics of the magnificent military architecture resulted from the necessity for security as much against internal revolt
as against external threat. The prosecution of the Holy War through the 12 th century produced buildings not only for military value
and wide influence upon later castle architecture in Europe.
It is worth emphasizing that the building initiative of the crusades was turned also to the necessary religious functions, and in many
cases these were combined; the templars hospice building in Palestine usually included a fortified church. The grear inland
castles almost invariably had a chapel, and tortosa has a cathedral church. Churches were built, or more usually adapted from
existing buildings, in many of the Holy Places. The centers of administration, however, and the communications network, were
based upon the castles.
Spain and Portugal

The tangible remains of this period are scarce, but are sufficient to show that Visigothic art provided a link between Eastern and
Western Mediterranean cultures long before the Moorish influences were introduced. Some features of church design of this
period anticipated the distinctive characteristics of mature Spanish Romanesque architecture. The most important of these was
the horseshoe arch.
Church planning, was carried, and includes instances of both Basilican and Greek-Cross forms, with chapels attached to the
Eastern arm as prothesis and diaconicon. Decorative devices include cable moldings and some Syrian motifs (rosettes,
circumscribed stars).
Diaconicon, the vestry of Early Christian Church.
Prothesis that part of a church where the credence table stands.
By about 780, a national school of church of architecture, painting and sculptures had developed and in the 9 th and 10th centuries
achieved a stature, comparable with contemporary Lombardy or Saxon England. The threat of the Norse raiders led to the very
introduction in Asturian Church and Court Architecture of barrel vaulting as a protection against fire. The most typical plan form for
these Asturian Churches is basilican, with a beina, or lateral chapel projections providing a kind of transept.
Churches built for Christian communities under tolerant Moslem control were based principally upon mosque traditions. In Adora
and Catalonia, Mozarabic Architecture was succeeded after the middle years of the 10 th century by a truly continental
Romanesque style created in Lombardy soon after 800.
An incidental but significant phase of Romanesque development in Spain was provided by church buildings in parts of Castile and
Aragon newly recovered to Christian rule. Most of the products of this Mude jar movement are simple churches without aisles,
having sanctuary barrel vaults, timber ceiling, and some form of eastern apse, usually polygonal in plan. Most of the churches
were built in brick.
The finest achievement of the Spanish High Romanesque is the great church which marked the goal of the pilgrimage to Santiago
de Compostela. IT has a long nave often bays with groined-vaulted aisles, a gallery with half barrel vault and no clear-storey. The
high vault is a barrel with transverse arches, which is returned through the wide transepts, together with heavy square piers with
attached shafts, the inner ones carried up through the gallery to carry the vault arches.
Spain is well endowed with medieval military architecture; grand castles are particularly numerous in Castle. The earliest castles
and town walls occur in Andalusia and are related to Moorish work in Morocco. The finest of Romanesque castles in Spain is at
Loarre in Aragon. It incorporates an important Augustinian Church.
The city walls of Avila in central castle, are of granite, are splendidly preserved, and constitute one of the most distinguished works
of military architecture in Europe.
Examples of Spain and Portugal
Religious Buildings
o
St. Maria Ripolli, is the finest of the 11th century early Romanesque churches. It has a double aisled Basilican Nave of
seven bays and the outer arcades alternate to produce double bays in the aisles, in the Lombardic manner. The bold
transepts are modeled on the basilican church bema, and there are seven eastern apses. Externally the church portrays
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Preliminary
many of the Lombardic features which accompany its formal derivation from Italian models. These included arcaded
apse galleries, blind wall arcading and pilaster strips, and gable galleries on the west front.
o
St. Tirso, Sahagun one of the earliest brick Mudejar Churches, has much of the 11th century of Catalan Romanesque,
though with Moorish overtones, such as the horseshoe-headed blind arcading to the apses, set in rectangular panels.
o
La Lugareja, Arevalo 13th century is the finest example of Mudejar work in brick. A Cistercian church, it has many
Lombardic devices, and a bold central tower enclosing a lantern cupola on pendentives.
o
St. Martin de Fromista is the only complete example of the Spanish pilgrimage style, with a four-bay nave, shallow
transept, and three paralle apses. It has barrel vaults throughout, but it approaches hall church form, the aisle vault
springing nearly at the level of that of the high vaults, so that there is no clear-storey. There is a tall octagonal lantern at
the crossing.
o
Monastery of Poblet, in Catalonia was founded in 1151, and the church was built between 1180 and 1196, with a
chevet having five radiating chapels, with absidoles attached to the transepts. The aisles have four-part vaults
throughout, but nave and transepts is barrel vaulted.
Absidole or Absidoles, a small apsidal chapel one projecting from an apse.
Military Buildings
o
Castle. The finest Romanesque castle in Spain is at Loarre, a complex of circular towers and curtain wall
incorporating a church of Augustinian Canons, situated on a spire overlooking the Gallego Valley.
o
City Walls. The town defenses at Avila, in Castile include a curtain wall 2.5 km. long with 86 identical circular towers,
built in granite by Raymond of Burgundy, largely in a French masonry manner. There are ten gates, each formed by an
arched opening between two adjoining towers.
Holy Land
Military Buildings. The Castles of the Crusaders were of three kinds, each having a specific function:
1.
Pilgrim Forts. Located and designed to secure the routes from coastal ports to Jerusalem. They were generally designed
on a Byzantine pattern derived from the ancient Roman castrum or legionary fort.
2.
Coastal Fortifications. The Levantine coastal ports were fortified to secure the sea links with the west. They took the form
either of a bastide town, a civil settlement under the protection of a castle.
3.
Strategic Inland Castles. The principal function is to protect the coast road. A large part of the strategic strength of the
crusaders castle lay in an elaborate communication between them by means of carrier pigeon and visual signaling.
The general form of the large castles makes it possible to divide them into two main types.
a.
First Type. Castles are those of the 12th century when the main strategic process was one of the hopeful expansions, and
the purpose of the fortifications was primarily offensive.
Keep and donjon, is the stronghold of a medieval usually in the form of a massive tower and a place of residence, especially
in times of siege.
Fosse - foss, a moat or a ditch.
b.
Second Type. Castles belongs mostly to the period of nearly 100 years after Hattin, and shows the need for increasing
defensive strength in place of depleted manpower.
Talus, the slope as inclination of any work, or a coarse rock fragments, mixed with soil at the foot of a cliff.
Glacis, a sloped embankment in front of a fortification so raised to bring an advancing enemy into the most direct line of fire.
Bent Entrance, an arrangement of two gate-ways not in line so that it is necessary to make a sharp turn to pass through the
second, for privacy in houses or temples. For security in fortifications.
Examples
The Chateau de Mer, Sidon, Lebanon is the best surviving example of coastal crusader castle, separated from his dependent
township by a sea dike crossed only by a later causeway.
Saone at the north end of the Gebel Alawi, was built on a site previously fortified by the Greeks in Byzantine fashion, with a thin
outer curtain wall punctuated with shallow towers, and a keep commanding the most vulnerable part of the curtain.
Allure, an alley, walk or passage. A gallery behind a parapet.
The Krak of the Knights. The best preserved and most wholly admirable castles in the world, is the eastern most of a chain of 5
castles located so as to secure the Horns gap; the Krak was in visual signal communication with Akkar, the north end of the Litani
Valley. The castle stands upon a Southern spur of the Gebel Alawi.
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The most remarkable single feature of the inner castle is the colossal glacis of the west and south sides, which the Arabs call the
mountain, rising formidably above the great cistern and the outer ward, more than 25 m. thick at the base.
Parapet
the portion of the wall above the roof gutter or balconies sometimes battlemented.
Battlement
parapet having a series of indentations or embrasures, between which are raised portions known as
merlons.
Merlons
upstanding part of an embattled parapet, between two cre-nelles or embrasure openings.
Machicolations projecting wall or parapet allowing floor openings, through which molten lead, pitch, stones, were dropped
on an enemy below
Moat
a broad deep trench surrounding the ramparts of a town or fortress usually filled with water.
Drawbridge
at the entrance of a fortification, a bridge over the moat or ditch, hinged and provided with a raising and
lowering mechanism so as to hinder or permit passage.
Portcullis
a defensive grating, of massive iron or timber movable, vertically in retaining grooves cut in the jambs of a
fortified gateway.
Loggia
an arcaded or colonnaded structure opens on one or more sides, sometimes with an upper floor.
Religious Buildings. The church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem by its origin and its function is the most sacred in
Christendom, and its Holy Places were the final objective of the crusades. It is to be expected, it represents the finest and most
ambitious of crusader church architecture, the sources of which can be traced to Provence, Burgundy and Poitov, and to the art of
the Santiago pilgrim routes, all over laid with Levantine characteristics.
Examples
St. Anne, Jerusalem which commemorates the site held to be that of the home of the parents of the virgin, and consequently her
birth place. It has a typical Benedictine plan. The arches are generally pointed and the central west door is a finely proportioned
near-Gothic feature embellished with molding enrichments which anticipate the 13th century dog-tooth.
Romanesque Architecture in British Isles and Scandinavia: 1st to 12th Century
Geographical
In Northern Europe, remote from Rome, development depended largely upon a common concern with sea and river routes. The
geographical similarities of the political divisions of Scandinavia gave the whole region a unity which emphasized by the greater ease of
sailing across the narrow waters within the region than of crossing the mountains toward the rest of Europe.
Skill in navigation during the middle ages led to the Nordic colonization of Iceland and Greenland and to cultural and commercial
contact with Ireland and Britain.
Geological
Geological formation of Great Britain was varied. The English hardwood forests, particularly in the North-Western and South-Eastern
countries, provided roof framing material for the more important buildings, and for lesser buildings which were entirely timber-framed.
Most of the indigenous building stones contributed to the materials of the more mature military and religious buildings.
Climatic
The generally low northern light tended to encourage the development of ways of producing larger or multiple openings in walls.
Massive masonry construction and steeply-pitched roofs, roof pitches were often reduced in order that it should assist in retaining heat
within the buildings.

The British Isles
The Roman conquest of Britain was preceded by the landings of Julius Caesar in 55 and 54 B.C. During the military occupation
following the Claudian invasion of 43 A.D. progress was made in developing natural resources such as tin, iron and lead; orderly
government was ensured by the Roman Legions, and improved methods in agriculture stabilized the society.
Christianity first made its way into Britain during the Roman occupation, but during the years of the Anglo-Saxon settlements, after the
middle of the 5th century, church building was of historical importance only in Ireland. The conversion to Christianity of the Anglo-Saxon
kings and their people is evidenced by numerous surviving churches, towers and crosses of the 7th and 8th centuries.
In 1042, Edward, son the English Ethelred, acceded to the throne and assured the Norman influence of England before the conquest.
He begun in 1045 the building of Westminster Abbey, the church planned in the current Norman Benedictine fashion, and the
conventual buildings based largely upon the Cluniac pattern.
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The Norman conquest of 1066 linked England to the continent and introduced a fully developed feudal system. Yet all land was held
from the king, who established the most efficient and centralized government in Europe. Castles were built to strengthen the position of
the conquerors. Towns which grew up around abbeys became trading centers and through their merchant guilds laid the foundations of
urban government. Settled government prompted the pursuit of learning.
The crusades gave impetus to the progress of learning and in the foundation of the military orders which influenced some aspects of
church-building later in the middle ages.
Scandinavia
The Kingdoms were first in Denmark and Norway, and that by about the year 1000 Sweden was united as part of the Svear Kingdom.
The Viking expansion of the 9th century, which included in the early Danish settlement in North East England, the colonization of
Normandy and the establishment of the Svear colonies in Latvia, all brought Northern influences to bear European development.
The most distinctive building development of the period in Scandinavia followed the conversion of the Northern races, which was started
by the Frankish missionary Angar at Hedeby in Denmark in 826. The Norse Church itself was established from Britain, and Christianity
was legally maintained in Norway, Greenland and Iceland by the end of the 10th century.
In 980 the Danish King Harold made his people Christians, English bishops were introduced, and the Empire was spread into England.
The earliest Christian Scandinavian buildings those of Frankish missionaries, were Timber-built. Particularly in Norway, development of
timber techniques continued into the 13th century. Subsequent building in stones reflected Germany & cluniac influences in Denmark.
The monastic orders played an important part in reinforcing Scandinavian links with Europe and the Benedictine Church Architecture of
Denmark and Norway followed very closely much of the custom of the order, through with some cluniac modifications, and in both
Denmark and Sweden were established several examples of Cistercian abbeys displaying simple and robust Burgundy characteristic.
The British Isles
a. Roman Period
Examples of mosaic flooring, pottery and sculptures indicate the cave which the Romans bestowed on dwelling houses and public
buildings. The characteristics of Roman architecture were so virile that they inevitably influenced subsequent Anglo-Saxon and
Romanesque architecture in Britain.
The form of the Christian Church in Britain before the end of the Roman occupation is exemplified at Silchester. This was a small
church, with a Basilican plan, built early in the 4th century. It had a western apse.
b. Anglo-Saxon Period
Domestic buildings were largely dependent upon the use of timber, but little evidence remains of methods of construction. The
masonry of church buildings from about the middle of the 7th century shows signs of dependence on timber prototypes, as in the
long and short work in groins.
c. Norman Period
During the last three decades of the 11th century there was an enormous surge of military and church building centered particularly
upon the great Benedictine Abbeys. In greater church architecture, the characteristics directly or indirectly inherited from Cluny
were the long nave exemplified in Norwich with 14 bays, St. Albans 13 bays and Winchester at 12 bays.
Examples of British Isles
1. Cathedral Churches
a. The Old Foundation. Served by secular clergy.
b. Monastic Foundation. Originally served by regular clergy or monks, and were reconstituted at the Dissolution of the
monasteries as chapters of the secular canons.
c. New Foundation. The cathedrals of the new foundation are those to which bishops have been more recently appointed.
2. Monastic Buildings
A representative example of mature largely Romanesque monastic architecture is Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire. The gatehouse
led into the outer court; south of this were the guest house and the infirmary of the converse, or lay brethren, and east of it was the
cellarium, no less than 90 meters long, comprising storehouses and refectory of these converse on the lower floor, with the
dormitory above. Opposite the gatehouse is the comitial church, of which the nave and transepts date from about 1147. The
transept known as the Chapel of the Nine Altars was built.
Refectory. It is a hall in a convent, monastery or public secular institution where meals are eaten.
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Castles
a. Anglo-Saxon Period, there were no castles, as the Forts of burhs built at this time were for community use; privately
speaking castles were private strongholds for king or lord, and were an outcome of the feudal system, which did not apply in
England until the conquest.
b. Norman Period, there were 1,500 castles in England and 1,200 were founded in the 11 th to 12 century. Only a few of the
most important had stone keeps from the outset, majority began as Motte and Bailey earthworks. The motte or mound
usually was partly natural, partly artificial, its sides steeped by a ditch dug around its base. The flat-topped crest sometimes
was broad enough to accommodate a timber dwelling. In other cases it served solely as a citadel, carrying a wooden defense
tower, raised on angle posts.
Motte
a steep mound of earth surrounded by a ditch and surmounted by a timber stockade and tower; the main feature
of a Norman Castle.
Bailey
it is the open area with a medieval fortification; the outer wall of a Feudal Castle.
Rampart it is the earthen or masonry defense wall of a fortified site.
Palisade a series of stout poles, pointed on top and driven into the earth, used as a fence or fortification.
Baulks
a squared timber used in building construction or a low ridge of earth that makes a boundary line
4. Manor Houses
a. Anglo-Saxon Period. One of the earliest types of dwelling in England was the aisled hall, known well before Roman times.
In Anglo-Saxon times it could be on the one hand a palace or mansion or on the other a husbandmans steading,
accommodating corn & fodder in the nave, oxen & horses in the aisles and living quarters in the end opposite the entrance.
Manor House the most important house in a country or village neighborhood.
b. Norman Period. Such a few examples as remains are mostly in the South-East. In the majority, stone-built, the domestic
accommodation is raised on a first floor, over an undercroft or storage cellar.
Undercroft
it is the vaulted basement of a church or secret passage, often wholly or in part below ground level. It is also
called a crypt.
Cellar
a floor having half or more of its clear height below grade.
Solar
a room or apartment on an upper floor, as in Early English dwelling house.
Scandinavia
Truly Romanesque characteristics did not appear in the architecture of Scandinavia until both British and Continental European
influences upon church buildings in stone became effective toward the middle of the 11 th century. The traditions of ship-building and of
timber-built pagan temples supported the development of a distinctive native architecture of which there is ample early evidence.
The most highly developed form of stave church has an inner timber colonnade which contributes to a basilican section with a clearstorey, and a steep scissors-trussed roof.
Medieval dwellings in Scandinavia show a continuous tradition of timber building, particularly in Norway. The customary technique was
a form of Lafting making use of logs lapped at their ends. The Swedish version of this combined structure which was common
throughout South Scandinavia is known as Ramloftstuga.
Lapped
It is a joint formed by placing one piece partly over another and uniting the overlapped portions.
Examples of Scandinavia
1. Religious Buildings
The Stave churches represent a most distinctive indigenous architectural phenomenon of the early middle ages in Scandinavia. A
Stave Church is a Scandinavian wooden church with vertical planks forming the walls.
The church has an internal timber colonnade and basilican section. The chancel has an eastern apse of later date, and the upper
gables are embellished with carved dragons heads, reminiscent of the figure heads of pagan times. Internal decoration is limited
to craved heads as capitals to the main columns and foliated carvings of the bracing timbers above the level of the aisled walls.
Stone-built church architecture in Scandinavia was most profoundly influenced by Norman and Anglo-Saxon Benedictine Fashion.
Earlier examples, such as Husaby Church, while reflecting some of the Carolingian characteristic of this tradition, such as the
oxial western tower and eastern apse, also adopted some of the Anglo-Saxon features of the 9th and 10th centuries.
The Lund Cathedral was built after 1103 to an enlarged design by Donatus, probably a Lombard Architect. The plan is organized
on a double-bay system, possibly modeled upon that of Speyer and incorporates a western tribune and towers begun about 1150
but completed in Lombardic style. Richly decorated capitals, arches and Tympana reflect a continuing Nordic Tradition.
3.
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Preliminary
2.
Secular Buildings
Early medieval minor domestic architecture in Scandinavia conformed to the strong tradition of timber construction, and little
original work survives. The traditional forms themselves are fairly readily discerned, and the constructional techniques were
apparently similar in many respects.
Stone-built dwellings followed the continental custom, and must have had much in common with the Norman manor house in
England. An example is at Tynnelso. The lower floor is a cross-vaulted undercroft probably used for storage and occasional
accommodation of livestock, with a hall and chamber at first floor level.
Gothic Architecture in Central Europe: 13th to 16th Century
Geographical
The former collection of states which became the German Empire was inevitably in geographical touch with the architecture of
neighboring countries. The chief influence of German Gothic Architecture came from France and is conspicuous in the Rhine Provinces
and Westphalia, notably in Cologne Cathedral and other churches, castles, town halls and domestic buildings along the Rhine.
Geological
The northern plains of Germany provide little building material but brick, which gives a special character to the architecture. In the
center and south along the Rhine, excellent stone was found, while timber from the great forests in these regions give individuality to
domestic buildings as in wooded districts of England.
Climatic
The climate is without the fierce sun of the south, and therefore permitted large traceried windows, as in England and France, but the
snows of severe winters rendered steep roofs a necessary and special characteristic.

Central European History in this period is complicated by the successive rise and fall of imperial and royal dynasties, by the intrigue of
princely and ducal houses of the various states to secure kingly power, and by the secular ambition of prince-bishops who combined the
intolerance of ecclesiastical with the arrogance of secular tyrants.
Germany was not one, but many states, thus the style of architecture varies with the locality, just as does the constitution of the various
states and cities. Trade guilds during this period acquired great importance and built elaborate halls, while freemasons have been
credited with much influence in the design and working out of the Gothic style.
The most salient feature, apart from monastic establishments, in the religious life of medieval Germany before the reformation, was the
exercise of civil power by prince-bishops, who included in their rank electors of the Holy Roman Empire, and whose principalities were
only finally swept away by the European upheaval during the French Revolution.
Ecclesiastical abuses and especially the sale of indulgences led to the revolt against the authority in Rome, until in 1517 Luther
published his famous thesis against indulgences. The reformation divided Germany into the Protestant North and Catholic South.
ARCHITECTURAL CHARACTER
The style came from France and was not evolved from German Romanesque, and this method of introduction may be due to the extent
to which Romanesque building had been developed in Germany, where a preference for the ponderous Romanesque style had resulted
in the adaptation of vaulting to new needs without resorting to the pointed arch and other Gothic features.
In Northern Germany and in the Valley of the Elbe the architecture was carried out in brick and a Lubeck even window mullions and
tracery were of brick, and the brick architecture has the character due to the material.
The Hall churches (Dreischiffige Kirchen) are a special characteristic of German Gothic, more particularly in the North, and in these
the nave and aisles are approximately the same height, with the consequent absence of triforium and a clear-storey.
Examples
Ecclesiastical. St. Elizabeth, Malburg (1257-83)
Is the typical hall church in which nave and aisles are of equal height and thus there is no triforium or clear-storey. The plan has nave
aisles, western entrance between two towers, and apses at the ends of the transepts and sanctuary. The exterior is peculiar in having a
continuous external walking way at the level of each stage of windows, carried right through the buttresses.
Secular. Castles were ubiquitous, where the old fortified town still retains in medieval walls with defensive towers.
Town Halls (Rathauser). Regensburg are prominent and impressive buildings and like the town gates in the Baltic provinces are
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evidence of the prosperity of those times.
Customs House, Nuremberg 1498. Is remarkable with three storeys in the walls and no less than six storeys in its high roof, finished
with a fine traceried gable.
Old Houses. Are characteristic examples of the secular architecture of the period; old houses in Nuremberg, the Kaiserworth in Goslar
and the old house in Brunswick.
Domestic Architecture was marked by lofty roofs which frequently had more storeys than the walls, and were provided with dormer
windows to make a through current of air for their use as a drying ground for the large monthly wash. The planning of the roof-ridge,
either parallel with or at right angles to the street, considerably influenced design.
Thus in Nuremberg, where the ridge is generally parallel with the street, dormer windows are plentiful and party walls are finished off at
the roof level with artistic treatment, while at landshut and elsewhere the ridge at right angles to the street result in gables of great
variety of design, other with a hoist in the top gable to raise goods from the ground level.
Gothic Architecture in France: 12th to 16th Century
Geographical
France is divided into two parts by the River Loire with the Franks on the North and the Romans on the South architecture were
influenced not only by geographical position, but also by racial differences.
Geological
The excellent building stone in France continued as abundance as in the Romanesque period, and that found near Caen aided in the
development of the North Gothic Style. In the mountainous district of Auvergne the use of volcanic stone gave a rich chromatic
appearance to the buildings; while in the extreme South good local stone helped to continue the classical tradition handed down
through the Romanesque period.
Climatic
The comparatively dull climate of the North permitted and even invited the extension of large traceried windows to light the vast
interiors.

It was during the Philip that a number of French Cathedrals were begun. In 1337 the Hundred Years war with England began, over
claims arising from the marriage of Isabelle of France with Edward II of England, and in 1346 the Battle of Crecy was won by the
English. During the reign of Charles VII there was a great outburst of National Sentiment when Joan of Arc raised the siege of Orleans
and was burnt at Rovens as a witch by the English. In 1453 the English was expelled from the whole of France except Calais. So
ended the Hundred Years war.
The period during which Gothic architecture in France had its own growth was marked by all the restlessness that characterizes the
style, which is instinct with the intellectual and spiritual aspirations of that age. The Feudal System, though it has obvious military and
government advantages, was the root from which sprang the tyranny of the lords over the common people as well as the revolt of the
same lords against the Kingly power. When Kings were strong, the noble were kept in check and the people prospered, and thus Kings
and traders naturally fostered the towns against the nobles.
The Religious zeal of the 12th to 13th centuries, when Christianity was united against the Moslems, was especially manifested in France
in the 3rd crusade under Philip Augustus, and the 8th and 9th crusaders under St. Louis and was marked by the reception of many grand
Cathedrals which were the work of the laity and the free communes, in contrast with the monastic church-building of the Romanesque
period. The Papacy, in spite of vicissitudes, was undoubtedly powerful in France during the 70 years of the residence of the Popes in
the fortress, Palace at Avignon.
The religious spirit of the age found an outlet in the inauguration of cults of special saints in different localities, and this brought fame to
certain shrines which thus acquired wealth and importance as pilgrimage centers, this being reflected in the beautiful architecture and
decoration of the churches. The active zeal with which urban populations set about building cathedrals produced almost miraculously
rapid results, and with this outburst of building activity transformed the face of France.
The term Gothic was a term of reproach of this style, which had departed from those classic lines and is also given to Medieval
Architecture of the 12th to 16th century. Gothic evolved from Romanesque Architecture and is mainly distinguished by the introduction
and general use of the pointed arch.
The Gothic style in France L architecture Ogivale originated in the royal domain of the Ile de France. Structurally, the point of
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departure of Gothic Architecture is La Voute Sur croisee dogives, a vaulting framework of intersecting stone pointed arch ribs, which
support thin stone panels. The ribs were constructed as permanent framework and the thin stone panels laid upon them would have
been temporarily supported by a movable center sometimes known as a Circe.
The difficulty of vaulting oblong compartments was overcome by the use of the pointed arch over the shorter spans. While the semicircular arch for some time was retained for the diagonal or longer spans. In this style, the Gothic masons allowed themselves in the
treatment and disposition of ribs, with which they spun an intricate web of many strands.
Voussoirs
the truncated wedge shaped blocks forming an arch.
Buttress
a mass of masonry unit built against a wall to resists the pressure of an arch or vault.
Flying Buttress an arch starting from a detached pier and abutting against a wall to take the thrust of the vaulting.
Pinnacles
a small tunnel-like termination on top of buttresses often ornamented with bunches of foliage called crockets.
Crocket
a projection block or spur of stone carved with foliage to decorate the raking lines formed by angles of spires and
canopies.
Finial
the upper portion of a pinnacle, bench end.
Gargoyle
a projecting water-spout grotesquely carved to throw off water from the roof.
Clear-Storey
above the triforium to light the nave composed of a range of windows.
Triforium
a blind floor or storey is the space beneath the sloping roof over the aisle vault and enclosed on the nave side by
a series of arches.
Tracery
the ornamental pattern work in stone, filling the upper part of a Gothic window; it may either be place tracery
which appears to have been cut out of a plate of stone, with special reference to the shape of the lights, or bar
tracery designed principally for the pleasing forms produced by combinations of geometrical figures. It is formed
by inter-locking bars of a stone.
Chevet
a circular or polygonal apse when surrounded by an ambulatory of which are chapels.
Ambulatory
the cloister or covered passage around the east end of a church, behind the altar.
Nave
the central aisle of the church.
Chapels
places for worship, in churches, in honor of particular saints. Sometimes erected as separate buildings.
Aisle
lateral divisions parallel with the nave in a basilica of a church.
Transept
the part of a cruciform church, projecting at right angles to the main building.
Gothic architecture in France lasted from 1150 to 1550 and is commonly divided into:
1.
Primaire (12th century) sometimes called a lancettes a period distinguished by pointed arches and geometric traceried windows,
exemplifying the change of transition from Romanesque.
2.
Secondaire (13th century) or Rayonnant a period characterized by circular windows with whell tracery, as at reims, Amiens. i.e
Rose Window Notre Dame, Paris.
3.
Tertiaire (14th, 15th and part of 16th century) or Flamboyant, from the flame-like window tracery or free flowing tracery.
Examples
1. Churches and Cathedrals
The use and intention of these structures was so different from their modern functions, which has become purely religious and
ecclesiastical. French Cathedrals were erected in the first half of the century out of funds provided chiefly by the Laity. They did not
originate as monastic establishments and so their plan and design was different from those of England.
Since there was no practically no other public meeting places then in France. French Cathedrals were a part of the life of the
townspeople and jostled their houses shoulder to shoulder. These National Churches, by means of the painted glass of the interior and
the statuary of the exterior, served the citizens as illustrated Bible when few of them could read.
a. Notre Dame, Paris.
One of the oldest of French Cathedrals was begun by Bishop Maurice de Sully. The plan was on a bent axial line, is typical with
wide nave and double aisles, transepts of small projection practically in line with the aisles, and a notable chevet, with double
aisles and surrounding chapels between the buttresses.
Fleche a slender wooden spire arising from a roof.
b. Other Important Cathedrals
Laon Cathedral
Bourges Cathedral
Reims Cathedral
Soissons Cathedral
Amiens Cathedral
Charters Cathedral
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Preliminary
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Fortified Towns
France is rich in many types of secular Gothic buildings. The style of Gothic Architecture was employed not only in churches but
for all buildings, whether domestic, military, civil or ecclesiastical.
a. Carcassone and Aigves Mortes 13th century, has a double wall, of which the inner circuit is partly 6th century these with fifty
towers and moat still give an idea of a medieval fortress-town entered through two fortified gateways guarded by
machicolations, drawbridge and portcullis.
Hotel de Ville
These are few, as there was municipal life under the Feudal System, Communal business was probably carried on in the market
place or in churches and cloisters.
Palais de Justice
These were originally the great halls in which Kings and nobles dispensed justice to their vassals, while ecclesiastical courts dealt
with matrimonial cases and laws of inheritance.
Castles
Castles were generally built on mounds above rivers to command valleys and had thick walls and small windows to resist attack.
Many castles were adapted to make more convenient residences in the Renaissance period, as found along the river Loire.
Examples
The Chateau de Pierrefonds (1390-1400) restored by Violet-le-Duc, gives an admirable idea of other castles. It stands on a rocky
height above the village, and its cliff-like walls, 6 meters thick rise sheer from the ground, and like the eight massive round towers
have machicolations and battlemented parapets surrounding an irregular courtyard, while the entrance is guarded by a draw-bridge
over the moat.
Country Homes
On the introduction of gun powder, and with the development of the new social order in the 15 th century, county houses took the
place of fortified castles, though they were still called chateaux.
Examples
Chateau d O, Mortree. Chateau de Josselin, Brittany, dates from the 12th century but rebuilt in the early 16th century and with its
circular towers, ogee door-heads, mullioned windows, traceried parapets and steep roof with dormer windows, is typical of many
country houses.
Town Houses
The maisons nobles began to rise in the 15th century. When French nobles ceased to be feudal lords in fortified castles, and
erected houses, known to this day as hotels, planned as in the country, round a court and with an elaborate faade to the street.
Examples
The House of Jacques Coeur, Bourges one of the finest medieval town residences in France built by a merchant Prince, partly on
the town ramparts, round a central court and has seven turret stairs.
Turret
small towers, often containing stairs and forming special features in medieval buildings.
The Hotel de Cluny, Paris now a museum retains its medieval character, and is a fine specimen of the late Gothic. The chapel
stands above an arcade which supports on its central pier and oriel window of pleasing proportions with flamboyant tracery,
crockets and finials.
Oriel window a window corbelled out from the face of a wall by means of projecting stones.
Ambry
a cupboard or recess in a church and contain sacred vessel
Ambo
a raised pulpit from which the epistle of the gospel were read
Apse
the circular or multi-angular termination of a church sanctuary
Boss
plough share twist.
Gothic Architecture in British Isles: 12th to 16th Century
When the High Gothic Style was gaining acceptance in England during the reign of Henry II (1154-89), the techniques of Solid Norman
work were progressively modified over a number of years. This process is especially obvious, and the period label transitional was
coined.
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Preliminary
Norman: 1066 to 1154
This period includes the raising of most of the major Romanesque Churches and Castles.
2. Transitional: 1154 to 89
This phase is most obvious in the work carried out in the reign of Henry II. One often finds for example, pointed arches introduced
into structures otherwise Romanesque in character.
3. Early English: 1189 to 1307
This period is the English Equivalent of the High Gothic of Northern France, and is occasionally known as the Lancet style, from
the characteristic shape of the long narrow windows, or as First Pointed.
4. Decorated: 1307 to 77
There is an early phase in which window tracery is usually Geometrical in form, followed by a period of flowing tracery patterns
and surface decoration which is normally called curvilinear. Occasionally the term Second Pointed is used. The French
flamboyant style is in some respects equivalent to later decorated work in England.
5. Perpendicular: 1377 to 1485
Edmund Sharpes nomenclature uses term Rectilinear, based on the observed tendency for large windows to be divided by
horizontal tracery members or transoms. Some would claim this Third Pointed style as purely English development.
6. Tudor: 1495 to 1558
This period is marked by an increasing application of Renaissance detail to buildings, otherwise late perpendicular Gothic.
7. Elizabethan: 1558 to 1603
Whilst the new ideas of the Renaissance took strong hold in this period, a number of traditional medieval characteristics still
appear; for example, the persistence of the Great Hall in house plans, mullioned windows and the Gothic outline of building
masses.
Walls, Columns, Openings, Decoration
Early English Period
Walls retain the massive character of preceding Norman work, but using less interior rubble and more cut stone. The concentration of
roof and vaulting loads on deeper buttresses began the process of reducing the intervening walls to mere enclosing screens.
The three-tier structural bay depended on the simple geometrical arrangement of grouped or single arched openings; internally, the
arcade was usually half the total height and the upper part divided equally between the triforium and clear-storey; where flying
buttresses occur, they were sometimes placed in a subordinate position, out of sight under the timbers of a triforium roof.
Columns were compound, cylindrical or octagonal, sometimes surrounded by detached shafts of Purbeck marble, held by rings of
stone or metal.
Capitals boldly molded to give deep shadows, were often carved with upright stiff leaf foliage; the normal abacus was circular on plan
and not square as was usual in France. The so-called waterholding base is very characteristics.
Decorated Period
There was a further reduction in wall thickness, with wider windows between projecting buttresses in offset stages, these ornamented
with niches, statuary and finials.
As vaulting developed, tall tapered pinnacles became common, even where the absence of vaults rendered them structurally
unnecessary. These pinnacles were frequently linked together by richly decorated or pierced parapets and molded string courses.
Internally, the arcade and clear-storey of a tripartite bay were maintained, while the triforium tended to diminish.
Columns, sometimes of a lozenge-shaped plan, were surrounded by subsidiary engaged shafts, capitals, not so deeply undercut, were
frequently carved with more naturalistic oak, ivy or maple leaves.
Arched openings were generally equilateral and wider than they had been before, and were enriched by somewhat shallower
moldings at wider intervals.
Window tracery developed very rapidly; at first the patterns were simple interlocked designs of circles and arc, bur soon with the
introduction of cusps and raised moldings the essential geometry was merged into web-like curvilinear compositions. Stained glass,
losing the vibrant, mosaic character it had in the 13th century, filled the traceried lights of wide windows with translucent figured pictures,
displayed in architectural canopies.
Perpendicular Period
Late Gothic designs became attenuated, essentially linear, at times over-refined and brittle. As windows grew larger to accommodate
brilliant displays of colored glass, buttresses and the remaining walls (and even columns and arch-soffits were decorated with tracery1.
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Preliminary
-like panels.)
the exposed undersurface of any overhead components of a building such as an arch, ceiling, balcony, beam, cornice,
lintel or vault.
Columns were more slender; moldings often ran without interruption from floor to ceiling or up the shaft and round the arch itself, with
capitals reduced to vestigial form or not present at all. Arches, while they continued to be molded, were simpler, even severe and like
windows tended to be wide, and flat in outline with four-centered or square heads.
Mullions are vertical tracery members dividing windows into different numbers of lights.
Soffits
The Evolution of Gothic Vaulting

A. Early English Vaulting
The pointed arch came into general use in the 13th century and without use being made of stilting or any other contrivances,
surmounted the difficulties created by the intersection of semi-circular vaults of different spans.
Boss
(lump or knob) a projecting ornament at the intersection of the ribs of ceilings, whether vaulted or flat.
Ploughshare Twist the irregular or winding surface, where the wall ribs, owing to the position of the clear-storey windows,
start at a higher level than the other ribs (the diagonal rib is warped like a plowshare).
B. Decorated Vaulting
A general elaboration of vaulting is characteristic of this period, and this is due not only to the greater use of both intermediate and
ridge ribs, as in the nave vault of Exeter Cathedral, but also to the addition of Lierne ribs.
Lierne ribs
(French, lien-tie) a short intermediate rib which does not rise from the impost and is not a ridge rib.
Conoid
having the form of a cone. The term applied to the lower part of a medieval vault where the ribs converge
against the outer wall and form an approximation of an inverted half-cone or half pyramid.
Stellar vault
a vault in which the ribs compose a star-shaped pattern.
C. Perpendicular Vaulting
The intricate stellar vaulting evolved in the late 14th and early 15th centuries led by experimental stages, to the type known as
fan, palm or conoidal vaulting, in which the ribs are formed at equal angles or inverted concave cones and are thus of the
same curve, and these are connected at different heights by horizontal lierne ribs.
D. Tudor Vaulting
The four central arch, so typical of the period seems to have had its origin in the difficulty of making the various ribs in the oblong
vaulting compartments of naves reach the same height.
In an oblong medieval vaulting compartment which had a lancet-shaped window in the nave wall, the diagonal ribs are either semicircular or pointed. For example, struck from two centers in which each side of the arch must be less than the quadrant of a circle;
and because the transverse and wall ribs are shorter than the diagonal ribs. They are still smaller segments of a circle.
In oblong vaulting compartments of the late Gothic vaults, which often had windows in the nave wall crowned with pointed arches
of equilateral or, in early Tudor times, even of the Drop arch form, the diagonal and transverse ribs had to be struck from four
centers in order to accommodate their height to that of the window arch.
Classification and Description of Timber Roofs
Timber outer roofs were almost always used above a vaulted ceiling, in these cases internal appearance was of no account, and there
was hardly any development in the design of such a wooden covering over the period as a whole.
Open roofs, that is those meant to be seen from the underside, show a rich variety from the 13 th century right up to the Tudir times,
generally most elaborate towards the end of the period.
The English open roofs of the middle ages may be classified as;
1. Trussed-Rafter Roofs
Are nearly always pitched averaging 55; they are in rare churches after the 14 th century. The fundamental form of roof in the
South-east was that composed of couples of rafters, each pair separate without a ridge-piece; but as the rafters exercised
outward they were usually joined together by a collar, or a pair of collars, or were stiffened further by braces from collar to rafter.
2. Tie-Beam Roofs
Are found in connection both with steeply-pitched and low-pitched roofs. In early use, the tie-beam represents a Bulk-Tie which
joined the wall-posts of timber and stone buildings was often haphazardly placed in order to prevent the wall plates from spreading.
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Preliminary
a tie-beam joining the wall-posts of a timber roof and serving also to prevent walls from spreading.
a slight convex curvature built into a truss or beam to compensate for any anticipated deflection so that it will
have no sag when under load.
3. The Collar-Braced Roof
Which may be said to originate about 1300 is a natural descendant of the cruck-truss roof of the western half of the country in
which principals of the cruck-type spaced down the length of a building to carry purlins and a ridge, and these the rafters are raised
upon walls instead of starting from the ground.
Crucks
pairs of timber, arched together and based near the ground, erected to form principals for the support of the
roof and walls of timer-framed small houses.
4. The Hammer-Beam Roof
This consists of a series of trusses, repeated at intervals, to support the intermediate purlins and rafters, and its object is to
transmit the weight and thrust of the roof as low down as possible in the supporting wall. The component parts of each truss are
the two principal rafters and hammer-beams with struts, curved braces and collars which vary in number and design
The chief varieties of the hammer-beam roof are;
a. Those with hammer-beams, struts, collars and curved braces.
b. Those in which the collar-beam is omitted and curved braces are carried up to a wedge-shaped strut at the ridge.
c. Those in which short hammer-beams support curved braces instead of struts, with collar-beams above.
d. Those in which curved braces rise from hammer-beam to ridge.
e. Those with an arched rib to which, springing from wall piece to collar gives additional rigidity.
f. Double hammer beam roofs which have a second range of hammer-beams further to stiffen the principals and transmit the
weight through the first range to the wall, they appear from the 15th century onwards.
5. Aisle Roof
These usually reflected the design of the main roofs. Roof pitches changes in concert with those of the high roofs, except that they
quite frequently were at a less angle in order to facilitate clear-storey lighting of the nave.
Mouldings
1. Nail Head
6. Cable
2. Chevron
7. Dog Tooth
3. Beak Head
8. Ball Flower
4. Double Cone
9. Tablet Flower
5. Embattled
10. Billet
Examples
1. Great Churches may have been Cathedrals, attached o monasteries or, later in the middle ages, have had a collegiate
constitution. Because many bishops sees were established with monasteries, close to or within large towns, many churches are
withdrawn into a precinct formed around the usual conventional buildings, dormitories, infirmary, guest houses, cloisters refectory
and the like.
Cloisters covered passages round an open space or garth, connecting the church to the chapter house or refectory.
Refectory the dining hall in a monastery, convent or college.
Presbytery the actual sanctuary of a church beyond the choir and occupied only by the officiating clergy.
Westminster Abbey
The single most important medieval building in Britain. Largest in both area and width 32 meters within the walls. Transepts
remarkable for beauty of moldings and the Five Sister, a name given to lancet windows of North transept. Unique 14 th century
stained glass
Salisbury Cathedral
English Buildings
Monastery, a building complex of a monastic order or a self contained community used by monks.
2. Parish Churches
Some larger parish churches which are cruciform in plan have the tower over the crossing of nave and transepts, a spire usually
octagonal, often crowns the tower. The change from the square to the octagon was affected by means of a broach resting on
angle squinch arches.
Baulk-tie
Camber
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Preliminary
the tapering termination of a tower in Gothic Churches
an octagonal spire rising above a square tower without a parapet, with pyramidal forms at the angles of the
tower.
Squinch Arch a small arch, bracket or similar device built across each angle of a square or polygonal structure to form an
octagon or other appropriate base for a dome or spire.
Castles and Fortifications
A large fortifies stronghold or building, also a centre for administering justice and dispending hospitality. There are two types of
planning: Shell type and Rectangular type.
Manor Houses
At the beginning of the 13th century plans varied, and had not yet settled down to what was to be the orthodox disposition in the
later middle ages. Houses with the 1st floor hall might yet have only the single upper room, be subdivided to provide a solar, or
have the solar as a conjoined room whether on the same axis or placed crosswise; sometimes a chapel is the sole adjunct or there
is a latrine chamber.
There are other variants; but he most significant development is the alliance of the two-storey block with a ground floor hall of
stone or timber, in which case the upper room becomes a solar, and its undercroft provides service rooms (for food preparation,
storage and domestic utensils) to the great common hall. The more pretentious, though not all, of the ground floor halls remained
aisled, and in some cases one end was partitioned to form a service room or rooms, with perhaps a solar above them, reached by
stairs from the hall or externally, the whole being under one roof.
Thus the two types of manor house plan tend to merge. Kitchens normally were separate, outdoors at the interior or lower end of
the hall. As in the Norman period, ground floor halls had a central hearth for an open fire or brazier-actually slightly near the upper
end- the smoke escaping by a louver in the roof timbers above, or through small gablets at the two ends of the roof apex in the
case of tripped roofs.
In the case of the two-floored manor houses, wall fireplaces had been in use since late Norman times. Windows, often transomed
grew larger, and there was some use of glass, though wooden shutters still were normal. Main floor were of stone or tiles, upper
floors of wood (or stone if over vaults), inferior apartments of rammed earth.
The Tudor house, with its increased number and variety of rooms, was usually built around quadrangular court, from which many
rooms were entered direct. Under the changed conditions such features as battlement parapets and fortified gateways were
retained for ornament rather than defense, while the addition of numerous ornamented chimneys provides evidence of the
increased comfort within.
Manor houses were later made bigger with the addition of:
a. Buttery
a butter pantry
b. Oven
c. Pantry
a serving room between kitchen and dining room, or a room for storage of food supplies.
d. Larder
a room where food is stored.
e. Wardrobe
a room for storage of garments
f. Oratory
study, a small private chapel furnished with an altar and a crucifix
g. Scullery
a room, generally annexed
h. Brew House to a kitchen, used to prepare food for cooking, and or as a pantry.
Smaller Houses
Houses of the ordinary people were of the simplest kind, rude one-roomed shelters of wood and thatch. The feudal system
provided quarters for vassals and retainers within the castle walls and close to the manor house or monastery.
Townhouses were generally located on Burgages or narrow strips of land, with a limited frontage on the main street, often going
back to another lane. Usually of timber, they would present to the street a series of saw tooth gables. There might be one or two
rooms (the one nearer the street used for trading) open at the front through a shuttered arch. Occasionally, by leaving part of the
plot open, side lighting could be contrived to the rear apartments, and a simple gallery made to give access to the upper floor.
Colleges, Schools and Almhouses
Colleges were similar in general equipment to monastic establishments, and were based on the plan of the Medieval House, with
hall and rooms grouped around a quadrangle. Halls of residences, or colleges, for communities of teachers and students to
promote discipline and common interests date from the 13th century. The normal arrangements would include a chapel, a
communal dining hall, a library and living apartments arranged with considerable ingenuity in set of large and small rooms,
Spire
Broach Spire
3.
4.
5.
6.
Page 24 of 27

Preliminary
entered from staircases. In addition there might be more ample provision for the head of the college and necessary domestic
buildings, stores, brew houses, etc. An entrance was usually through a gatehouse, giving security to the precinct.
Gothic Architecture in Spain and Portugal: 12th to 16th Century
Influences
The establishment of the Spanish inquisition (1477) in castle and later in other provinces as designed to bring about national unity by
first securing religious unity. This inquisitorial scheme resulted in the expulsion from Spain of both Jews and Moslems, who were
important communities in commercial and industrial life, and Spain was thus materially weakened by their departure.
During the whole of the Medieval Period, until 1492, Spain was divided into different kingdoms under the independent rule of Christian
kings and Moslem Caliphs and Emirs. The Catholic Sovereigns Ferdinand (1479-1516) and Isabella (1474-1504) arrogated to
themselves supreme power, making use of church, nobles and cities and establishing police as instruments of their government,
establishing police against brigandage, annexing the power and money of the military orders, and enforcing military service from the
nobles. They even reduced the cortes of castile to a money-granting machine and gradually crippled commerce and industry through
the control of officials and the imposition of excise duties, thus establishing an inquisition in commerce as well as religion.
Despite the fall of the Moslem Capital of Toledo in 1805, Moorish influence remained a salient aspect of Spanish Art and Architecture
until the final expulsion of the Moors with the fall of Granada in 1492. The Gothic style was most highly developed in Catalonia where,
though mainly on French lines, the grand scale of the single-span vaulted interiors gives it, a specifically Spanish character.
Moorish influence made itself felt in such Moslem features as the Horseshoe Arch and Pierced Stone Tracery, and notably in rich
surface decoration of intricate geometrical and flowing patterns, for which Moslem art is remarkable, while the early Spanish
Churches seem to have been the work of Moorish craftsmen.
Unlike French Gothic, large wall surfaces and horizontal lines are conspicuous, and generally there is excessive ornament due to
Moorish influence without regard to its constructive character.
Examples
Ecclesiastical
Burgos Cathedral (1221-1457)
Is irregular in plan and the most poetic of all the Spanish Cathedrals. The two Western towers, with open-work spire recall
cologne, and a richly treated central lantern or cimborio is a feature of the exterior. The interior has elaborate triforium tracery
massive piers rebuilt to support the high cimborio which was added in 1539-67, and fine transeptal circular windows.
The coro is in the usual Spanish position west of the crossing, which reduces s the nave to a vestibule. Among the side chapels,
which are of extraordinary size, the Octagonal Capilla del Condestable (1482) over 15.2 meters in diameter is especially
remarkable for the beauty and magnificence of its late Gothic detail.
Cimborio
special term for a lantern or raised structure above a roof admitting light into the interior.
Coro
special for choir usually occupied two or more bays of the nave.
Toledo Cathedral (1227-1493)
With five aisles and a range of side chapels, resembles Bourges Cathedral, in general plan, but is wider, with the choir enclosure,
as is usual in Spain, west of the crossing. A singularly shallow chapel, with immense wooden retablo, flanked by tiers of arcaded
sanctuary, terminated by a chevet of double aisles and chapels completing a most impressive interior.
retablo
is a sumptuously ornate form of reredos.
reredos
the screen or ornamental work rising behind the altar.
retable
a ledge or shelf behind an altar for holding vases or candles
The exterior has a low roof, usual in most Spanish Churches, and has a fine ornamental north-west steeple.
steeple
the term applied to a tower crowned by a spire.
spire
the tapering termination of a tower.
Tite Colleges of Sto. Gregorio, Valladolid (1488-96)
Now the town hall, has sculptured faade embellished with statues, heraldic devices and a genealogical tree of Ferdinand and
Isabella, all framed with canopied niches and pinnacles, which allow the influence of Moorish art in church.
Page 25 of 27

Preliminary
Barcelona Cathedral (1298-1448)
Is remarkably fine, with nave vaulted in square and aisles in oblong bays, in the Italian manner, and with characteristics coro west
of the crossing. There is a fine Western lantern on pendentives, slightly projecting transepts surmounted by towers, as at Exeter
and chevet of nine chapels. The thrust of the vault is counteracted by the deep internal buttresses which enclose chapels along
the aisles. The vault as is usual in Spain, is exposed externally and roofed by tiles.
Seville Cathedral (1402-1520)
Is the largest medieval cathedral in Europe and with the exception of St. Peters Rome, it is the largest church in the world. It owes
its plan and size, with nave, double aisles and side chapels, to its erection on the site of a mosque. The cathedral is enormous.
The nave about 13.7 meters wide in the clear, is nearly half as wide as Westminster nave; each of the four aisles is approximately
equal in width to the Abbey nave, and in addition there are surrounding chapels as wide as the aisle, so that with the chapels,
Seville Cathedral is about eight times the width of Westminster nave.
reja
an ornate iron grille or screen, a characteristic feature of Spanish Church interiors.
Secular
Palacio dela Audalencia, Barcelona, with its remarkable court containing a picturesque external stairway.
Ducal, Palace, Guadalajara (1480-92), had a very picturesque court surrounded by two storeys or ornately sculptured arcades,
with twisted columns and multi-foil arches.
La Lonja, dela Seda, Valencia (1482-98), used as a silk exchange, has an unbalanced faade of about 60 meters with central
tower, an east wing with large gateway and two pointed windows, and a west wing with two rows of square headed Gothic
windows surmounted by open galleries.
The Castillo dela Mota, Medina del Camp (1440), is stern in aspect, with circular towers, battlemented parapets, and windowless
curtain walls, and a high tower commands the surrounding country.
The Puerta del Sol, Toledo. Much repaired forms part of the town walls of the ancient city, and with its horseshoe arches,
intersecting arcades, and Moorish battlements indicates that the medieval Spaniards, with craftsman like skill, applied the art of the
time to all secular buildings.
The Puerta Serranos, Valencia (1349). With its medieval fortifications, has two polygonal towers flanking the gateway, above
which is traceried wall paneling and a gallery on enormous corbels.
Gothic Architecture in Netherlands: 12th to 16th Century
Geographical
The Netherlands consists of the basins and delta-lands of the Rhine, Meuse (Maas) and Scheldt, the flat low-lying coastal areas and the
hills of the Ardenas. The fertile land and the great navigable rivers created and maintained a number of medieval states and
prosperous cities, dependent culturally on either France or Germany.
Today, the area is divided between the Kingdom of Belgium and the Netherlands, the later popularly called Holland.
Geological
Belgium has marbles, limestone, sandstone and granite. In Flanders, where clay is abundant a characteristic and beautiful brick
architecture developed; From the forests of the Ardennas and Fagnes came timber not only for building, but also for wood carving for
which Belgium is famous; (used in church paneling).
Holland being wholly without stone except Maastricht, and without forests too, had to import tufa, limestone and sandstone from
Germany and Belgium. This deficiency early caused the Dutch to make bricks from the clay soil, and from them their buildings obtained
a characteristic simplicity, texture and soft coloring, which are enhanced by the reflected light of the seldom-distant water.
Climatic
There are great degrees of heat and cold. An often grey and rainy climate gave to many and large windows in houses and to great
traceried windows in churches and town halls. Window-shutters against driving rain and belts of trees as wind screens are common in
Holland and Flanders, while in the North-East, windows are fewer and smaller and buildings simpler, to withstand the winds which
sweep across the sea and the level land.

Celt and Roman, Frisian, axon, and Frank made up the pattern of ruler and ruled until in the Middle Ages, the Netherlands comprised
Page 26 of 27

Preliminary
many feudal states; all owing some sort of allegiance to France. Though not united politically, these formed a growing cultural and
economic unity by the 13th century, dependent on the common interests and ambitions of the towns rather than on their rulers. The
chief cultural division was represented by the linguistic boundary running from east to west a few miles from Brussels. To the North,
Dutch was spoken, while to the South the Waloons spoke French.
In 1482, the Netherlands became a Hapsburg domain. Charles V became King of Spain, was born at Ghent and prince of Netherlands.
A movement of revolt against Spain began and by the end of the century the outcome was partition, with Protestantism Supreme in the
Northern most seven provinces, forming the Dutch Republic. Spain and Catholicism retained the south.
Medieval architecture followed closely on the social progress of these sturdy, brave and industrious people, and the independent towns
rivaled each other for power and in the arts, much as they did in Italy. Guild houses and town halls of great magnificence, large in
conception and rich in detail, reflect the prosperity and civic pride of such towns as Bruges, Antwerp, Louvain, Ghent, Ypres and
Courtrai in the South and Middleburg, Veere and Gounda in the North. The fame of these and many other cities is a record of the
industry, of unending struggle against the waters, of ventures on land and sea, of commercial acumen and manufacturing enterprises
which made the Netherlands among\g the first in commerce and sea power.
The Spanish rule, later left its mark on Belgian architecture in the form of exuberant and florid decoration. Though the Benedictine,
Cistercian and Premonstratensian orders, the early styles of Italy. The Brabantine style, of mainly French origin, became the major
national style; the architecture of Holland, while depending largely on Brabant and Flanders, developed other regional styles by
assimilation of Westphalian and Rhineland characteristics.
Gothic architecture in the Netherlands was governed by the same principles as applied to the rest of Europe. French Cathedral Gothic
formed its basis, and from this grew the Brabantine Style. From another direction, through Cologne, the Gothic of Reims and Amiens
was the inspiration for the Cathedral of Utrecht in the mid-13th century, while the older traditions and the manners of Westphalia and the
Rhineland continued in the Eastern and Northern parts of Belgium and Holland.
These latter include the long narrow and low-set sanctuary windows and, later the hall churches, in which naves and aisles were
approximately of equal height. In Flanders, a national variant adapted to brick, developed and spread northward along the coast of
Zealand, Holland and Friesland, and far beyond to Scandinavia and the Baltic.
Adaption to brick entailed simplification of detail and ornament, most evident in the Dutch churches; many of these lack vaults or the
vaults are of timber, though sometimes the reason is instability of the ground. Nonetheless, few Dutch or Flemish churches are without
an immense, high and ornate tower, the product of civic rivalry in wealth and splendor.
Not only did the rich towns built vast churches and elaborate town halls, guild halls and trade halls, but also merchants build houses and
warehouses, with stepped gable and many regular windows.
Examples
Ecclesiastical Architecture
St. Gudule, Brussels (1220-1475)
Has a choir which is the earliest example of Gothic in the Netherlands. Typical of the Netherlands is the plan which lacks aisles to the
transepts and a full chevet of chapels include wide chapels flanking the choir.
Antwerp Cathedral (1352-1411)
Is in the mature Belgian Style, with further outside influences. It is remarkable for its great width, a nave flanked by triple aisles, yet the
transepts are aisles and the spread of chapels each side of the choir is typical of the Netherland. Tracery wall paneling, many slender
pier shafts, often without capitals, and huge clear-storey windows marked the period. It is 122 meters high and capped by a three-stage
lantern with pinnacle buttresses
Secular Architecture
Castle of Muilden, 13th Century. In Holland near Amsterdam, relied largely on water for its defense
Clothe Hall and Belfry, Bruges. Has a tower 80 meters high is typical of Flemish brick and stone civic architecture.
Maison des Frances Bateliers (Skippers House), at Ghent are Guild Houses
Source:
Architectural Character and the History of Architecture

George H. Salvan
Arch. Dennis C. de Villa

August 30, 2008
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AR 543: EVALUATION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

LESSON and ACTIVITY PLAN: Week No. 6

Historical and Social

AR 543: EVALUATION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

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St. Sophia Constantinople (Hagia Sophia = divine wisdom)

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Historical, Social and Religious

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Historical, Social and Religious

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Historical, Social and Religious

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Spain and Portugal

The Holy Land

Spain and Portugal

The Holy Land

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The Holy Land

Historical, Social and Religious

Spain and Portugal

AR 543: EVALUATION OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

The Holy Land

Spain and Portugal

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Historical, Social and Religious

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Gothic Architecture in Central Europe: 13th to 16th Century

Historical, Social and Religious

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The Evolution of Gothic Vaulting

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