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1.1 Introduction:
It is widely acknowledged that transfer of technology has played a key role in the economic and
industrial development of any nation. It seems that less Developed Countries (LDCs) can increase
their productivity and efficiency levels through the acquisition of technical knowledge and skills
from the developed countries. The effective transfer of technology enables these countries to
utilize their natural and human resources efficiently through transformation of inputs into outputs.
It also enables than to build up their technological capabilities by importing and adopting foreign
technology. Technology transfer is also seen as an important strategic variable which must be
integrated into the national development planning of LDCs. As the experiences of some East Asian
countries during the past three decades show, these countries could increase their output, upgrade
the skills of their labor force, and accelerate the process of industrialization through the adoption,
adaptation, and absorption of imported technologies.
Technological change has also played key role in the overall economic and industrial growth of
developed countries in the past. The fact that the current developed countries could increase their
technological levels over the Last two centuries indicate that LDCs can also catch up with
technologically advanced countries. It can be said that LDCs in the current situation can take the
most advantage from the availability of existing technological resources and therefore do not need
to reinvent the wheel.
The transfer of technology has introduced high-productivity techniques and in many cases
encouraged technical change in LDCs. The acquisition of foreign technology can also contribute
to improving competitiveness in the local as well as the international markets for these countries.
However, while the development of indigenous technology should be encouraged, technology
transfer can be considered as a vital process of industrialization for LDCs. Despite the great
importance of technology transfer in the process of industrial and technology development of
LDCs, there have been some general problems in the process of effective and successful
technology transfer. These problems, which include mainly the lack of absorptive capacity in the
recipient country and unwillingness of the transferor in transferring real technology and technical
know-how, have led to unsuccessful technology transfer. Therefore, it is necessary for these
countries to promote their local technological capability in order to adapt and absorb foreign
technologies efficiently for their local needs. LDCs should also identify and improve those
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elements of technology in which they are weak. It seems that LDCs prefer to adopt and assimilate
new technologies rather than trying to generate and create them, since, it needs less traditional
R&D, but they still require a high level of technical skills. Unfortunately, there have been few
attempts to formulate and design the appropriate plan and strategies for effective and successful
technology transfer and development. The specific strategy and polity for technology transfer in a
country cannot be separated and isolated (ruin the overall national plan (or its economic, industrial.
and social development. Therefore, the major aims of technology transfer policy should be
concentrated on finding the most appropriate methods to use technology in order to achieve rapid
economic and industrial progress. In this way the LDCs will reduce the technological dependency
on developed conflict in designing appropriate strategies for their technology transfer and
development, LDCs can also draw valuable lessons from the successful experiences of some
Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs) in East Asian and Latin America.
the private accumulation of wealth. The penetration of rich country attitudes, values and standards
also contributes to a problem widely recognized and skilled personnel who were often educated in
the developing country at its great expense. Examples include doctors, nurses, engineers and
economists.
The transfer of technology is a complex phenomenon involving a wide variety of forms including,
the classical, and perhaps the most dominant form which is the transfer by multinational
corporations, in either partly or wholly owned subsidiaries. Another form would be export and
import of capital goods. Although these forms of technology transfer are widely used among the
developed market economics as well, they may not be particularly efficient ways of transmitting
the use of modern technologies between economics at different levels of development. Some
would take the view that they may widen the gap in development between exporters and importers
of technology.
Transferring technology from the developed to the developing countries is an obvious alternative
which should aid the promotion of both economic development and international peace. However,
the situation is not as simple as it seems the main obstacle is the absence of skilled labor force.
Some countries like china and India have these resource, but most other have not. In addition,
social, cultural, and political factors inhibit this transfer. Multinational corporations expedite the
transfer, but they create many additional problems. It is important to examine all these factors
critically to determine an appropriate strategy for economic development.
direction of the transfer, i.e. whether it occurs in a vertical or horizontal manner. From this point
on, our focus is on horizontal transfer of production technology.
Several authors have used the perspective of multinational companies and emphasized the choice
of technology, the channel of technology transfer related to the amount of control that can be
exercised, and the cost of producing in other countries (Al-Ali, 1995; Al-Obaidi, 1993;
Amsalem, 1983; Baranson, 1970; Hirsch, 1976; Hymer, 1976; Mansfield, 1975; Mansfield,
Romeo, Schwartz, Teece, Wagner and Brach, 1982; Stobaugh and Wells, 1984; Teece, 1976;
Teece, 1981;Tsang, 1997; Vernon and Wells, 1991). These focus on one, or at most a few,
strategic issues and how decisions with regard to these have been made. For example Hirsch
(1976) showed that the choice between export and foreign direct investment depends on the
opportunity of a firm to take advantage of its firm specific know-how and the local production
cost. Although the issues treated are fundamental for our understanding of the strategic decisions
for multinational companies, they do not discuss the success or effectiveness of technology
transfer.
Other authors have used the perspective of industrially developing countries and have studied the
appropriateness of technology and the price industrially developing countries were or should be
paying for technology (Bruun and Mefford, 1996; Cooper, 1973; Dahlman, Ross-Larson and
Westphal, 1985; Madu, 1989; Marcelle, 2003; Stewart, 1979; UNCTAD, 1978; UNIDO, 1979;
Wallender, 1979). These studies deal with a few issues for strategic decision making from an
industrially developing country perspective. For example Madu (1989: 121) states that the
MNCs are blamed for transferring inappropriate technology. This is because the technology is
often capital intensive and ill-suited to the local production needs. Although the issues treated
are fundamental for our understanding of the strategic decisions from an industrially developing
country perspective, they are limited in their scope.
Another strand of literature took a more comprehensive viewpoint by looking at the success of
technology transfer, i.e. effectiveness, and identifying a combination of key factors (Agmon and
von Glinow, 1991; Al-Ghailani and Moor, 1995; Chen, 1996; Djeflat, 1988; Godkin, 1988;
Heston and Pack, 1981; Kumar, 1995; Mital, Girdhar and Mital, 2002; Perlmutter and Sagafinejad, 1981; Robinson, 1988; Rosenberg and Frischtak, 1985; Samli, 1985; Yin, 1992). These
studies offer much more insight into the complexity of technology transfer and the numerous
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factors that influence the success of technology transfer, i.e. whether the receiving company is
able to utilize the technology. For example, Samli (1985: 4-8) provides geographical, cultural,
economic and government factors that influence successful technology transfer. Some factors
have been identified as extremely important such as high culture differences (Hussain, 1998;
Kedia and Bhagat, 1988) and tacit knowledge characteristics (Gorman, 2002; Grant and Gregory,
1997b; Howells, 1996; Marcotte and Niosi, 2000) both leading to difficulties in technology
transfer. In general, these studies add to our understanding of the importance of a range of factors
to the success of technology transfer. However, these studies treat factors as distinct and they do
not relate them to specific activities. This leaves us with a collection of factors whose combined
effects on technology transfer activities are not known. They also focus on effectiveness of
technology transfer, i.e. was the technology transferred, rather than the efficiency of technology
transfer, i.e. how many resources were required to transfer the technology.
and it may be beneficial to physically transfer technology as well, but the physical transfer is
usually least important from a technology - transfer perspective.
determined by the general level of industrial development in LDCs. New technologies are more
readily able to be implemented if similar or complementary technologies have been previously
established. Key among these considerations is the capacity of producers within an LDC to serve
as suppliers of parts or services. Whether a transferred technology can be supported by suppliers
10
within the country has a potentially large impact on the competitiveness of production, given the
potentially higher costs of relying on parts from abroad as well as the greater lead times involved.
In addition, toxin- producing industrial processes are potentially much more problematic in LDCs.
In order to control environmental damage, these processes require pollution- abatement
technologies, which are generally less developed in LDCs.
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However, the purchase of a license requires sufficient knowledge, experience, relevant expertise
and manufacturing base for the further in-house technology implementation.
Support Contract
According to this agreement, the technology owner participates in the technology implementation,
providing at each stage of the transfer technical support, as well as personnel training. The
involvement of technology developer in the technology transfer process ensures a closer
cooperation between two parties which favors a complete transfer of all knowledge and skills
related to the technology. In this way, the support contract may be a part of the licensing agreement,
in order to improve the transfer efficiency.
Joint Venture
A joint venture is an agreement concluded between two or more companies in order to execute a
particular business. The joint venture implies mutual assets, management, risks, profit sharing, coproduction, services and marketing. Benefits from a joint venture in case of technology transfer
are the following: long-term cooperation between the parties, motivation of all participants in the
successful transfer, lower costs than if the companies have been working separately. The
disadvantages of a joint venture are often associated with the different vision and goals of both
partners, their inability to be independent in management. Also, companies are not always able to
determine objectively the value of capital contributed by each of them and, therefore, subsequent
profits distribution. (The foreign company provides innovative technology and management
competence, while the local company is familiar with the market and regulation. Finally it is
difficult to determine the value of each asset).
Franchising
Franchising is an agreement where one company grants to another the right to use its trademark
and business model. The buyer of the franchise starts manufacturing and selling the goods
according to the sellers specification. Normally, the company owner of a trademark also shares
its experience in operating and managing the franchised product/technology. The main advantage
of franchising is the fact that the company gets an already-made brand. With the franchised
product, the company acquires a proven business model, knowledge in management and
marketing. The disadvantages are the companys dependence on the technology owner. In most
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cases, the company has to purchase raw materials, equipment and other products from specific
vendors. It must follow internal rules and procedures of the technology owner. Generally, the
company cannot bring the product to other markets as well as sale the franchise. In addition, the
decline of the franchise owner reputation could have an impact on the company that has bought its
franchise.
Strategic Alliance
A strategic alliance agreement is usually concluded between two or more big companies in order
to use specific skills of each of them in the development of new innovative technologies. Strategic
alliance could be in form of joint laboratories, research programs, production and promotion of a
new product. Typically mutual efforts of different partners give better results than an independent
development of a new technology. During joint operations, each company can get the needed
experience in new areas and in different forms of management. The major weakness of strategic
alliances is the complexity in managing companies with different cultures. There will be at least
two teams of managers with different approaches. The companies may have different goals and
strategies in further business development of the new technology.
Turnkey Agreement
In case of a turnkey agreement, the general contractor is responsible for all the procedures related
to technology transfer, such as technology design, financing, equipment supply, construction and
commissioning. The advantages of a turnkey agreement are that the company concludes a contract
only with one supplier who takes full responsibility for the project execution; except a force
majeure, the project will have a fixed price; the supplier guarantees the performance and the
efficiency of technology. The disadvantages could be the following: company should know in
advance all the features and output parameters which the technology should have after its launch;
a complex or large-scale technology requires a deep knowledge in the corresponding field (in this
case an independent expert organization could be employed to determine the technologys features
and output characteristics); transfer price under a turnkey agreement is generally much higher than
with any other method (the more risks the supplier takes, the higher the price is); during the transfer
implementation, a company doesnt have full control over the progress and quality of each stage
of the transfer; contractors financial problems may lead to the project suspension (it is difficult
for company to determine suppliers financial capacity and its ability to self-finance all stages of
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the transfer). One of the ways to reduce the risks of the turnkey agreement is to involve the supplier
in the capital of the new entity. This will motivate the supplier to ensure the quality of the new
technology, as well as it will bring the suppliers experience in the further operational processes.
Equipment Acquisition
Equipment Acquisition is a simple and, therefore, one of the most common methods of technology
transfer. The main disadvantage of this method is the fact that the company limits itself to mere
technical knowledge incorporated in the equipment and does not get any new competences in the
management and production. Moreover, equipment available on the market does not give unique
privilege to the buyer, as this equipment may be purchased by any other competitor.
Management Contract
Technology can be transferred through a competent expert, who could be entice from another
company. This method of technology transfers involves minimum costs. But, generally, it can be
effective only for small projects with relatively simple technology. Furthermore, technology
should not be patented.
Foreign Company Acquisition
A company may acquire a foreign startup which is developing a new technology. As a result, the
company will not only get the technology, but also a team capable to develop it in the future.
Moreover, the acquisition of a foreign firm automatically places the company on the new
international market. Among the main risks of buying an existing firm, is the possible resignation
of key employees after the acquisition. Besides, the founders of the successful startup would agree
to sell it only for a price significantly higher than the market. This increases the risk of the
profitability in the future.
Direct Foreign Investments
Direct foreign investments is one of the main methods of technology transfer at the state level.
Generally, a foreign company invests in developing countries in order to create a new market,
remove export barriers and get an access to cheap labor. In this case, a developing country gets all
the benefits of technology transfer, particularly the development of its own research environment.
Besides, it is a way to create new jobs and raise taxes. However, to attract foreign investors, the
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developing countrys government, generally, has to make some concessions in its policy. As we
can see in practice, without these concessions large international corporations are not motivated in
long term investments in developing countries.
Buy-Back Contract
A buy-back contract is a form of agreement between developing countries and large foreign
companies. Under this agreement, a foreign company supplies industrial equipment in exchange
for profits derived from the sale of raw materials or goods produced on this equipment. This kind
of technology transfer is often used in the construction of new plants in the developing countries.
In that case the state becomes a shareholder in the created enterprise. For a developing country this
represents a possibility to get a high-tech equipment without direct investment in it. Moreover, the
foreign company is responsible for the performance of supplied technologies. Potential
disadvantages of a buy-back contract are the motivation of the foreign company to start
production at least costs which, certainly, will affect the execution quality. Typically, under a buyback agreement the price for a new technology is much higher than in case of direct investments.
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)
OEM can be considered as a form of subcontracting, where a local firm starts manufacturing
according to the foreign company specifications. A foreign company transfers a part of its
technologies and equipment. It conducts training and management reorganization. Afterwards, the
foreign company sells produced goods through its own channels and under its own trademark.
OEM agreement enables local companies to absorb new technologies and to reorganize their
production. With new equipment and skills, these firms can produce new goods for the domestic
market under its own brand. The main drawback of this agreement is the obligation to supply to
the foreign company products at a fixed price which is normally much lower than the market one.
of its population to absorb new technologies and incorporate them into the production process
(Kolfer & Meshkati, 1987). This implies that a successful transfer of technology has a large impact
on the advancement of a nation and it significantly depends on the capacity of people to assimilate,
adapt, modify, and generate new technology. Consequently, educational infrastructure to develop
human capital is the basic component for a successful technology transfer. After accumulating
a high quality of human capital, a recipient of technology should develop an elaborate plan to
increase the willingness of both the recipient and the donor of technology transfer. This plan could
facilitate the transfer of technology by strengthening the collaboration between the donor and the
recipient. Lastly, the recipient should be able to generate new innovations based on the successful
transfer of technology. This model can be shaped as shown in Figure 1.
either sun or rain is helpful for the growth of a tree. Consequently, farmers who are recipients of
technology will be able to produce a plenty of fruit (new innovations) based on a high level of
continuing education and training (fertilizer) and elaborate plans that play a role of sun and rain.
South Koreas successful transfer of technology for its national economic development might have
followed the role-shifting model of technology transfer. South Korea transformed itself from an
agrarian society to one of the worlds most highly industrialized nations. The South Korean
economy has grown remarkably through strong government support and engaged people (i.e., high
quality of human capital) since the early 1960s. Koreans have tried to accumulate a high quality
of human capital through education because Korea has few natural resources. Koreans regarded
the export of its industries as the only means to get above poverty the early 1960s. As a result,
government and business leaders together fashioned a strategy of targeting export-oriented
industries for development in the early 1960s. The strategy involved plans for the successful
transfer of technology that generates new innovations. This strategy was implemented in a series
of economic development plans. Textiles and light manufacturing were the first targeted industries,
followed in the 1970s by such heavy industries as iron and steel and chemicals. Later, the focus
shifted to the automotive and electronics industries.
In the early stage of industrialization, Korea made concrete plans that included multiple steps for
the transfer of technology due to strong government support. In addition, Korea possessed enough
highly educated citizens to assimilate, adapt, modify, and generate this new technology. These
factors made technology transfer in Korea successful, and they ultimately helped to achieve its
remarkable economic growth. As a result, Korea became a donor of technology in high-tech fields,
such as electronic, information technology, and communication.
to them. The debate revolves around 'appropriate technology' versus 'advanced technology.' The
proponents of appropriate technology affirm that developing countries do not need most advanced
technologies as epitomized in Schumacher's 'Small is Beautiful' (Schumacher, 1973). The
argument is that the introduction of advanced technologies into poorer and less developed societies
raises more problems than it can solve, they are very costly relative to the income of the local
population, they require an educational and industrial infrastructure that takes decades to build and
most importantly, they inhibit the growth of indigenous innovation capabilities (Jequier, 1976).
Hokoon Park, President of the Korea Institute for Science and Technology (KIST), argues that it
will continue to be difficult for developing countries to narrow the technological gap with
developed countries because developing countries have weak technological bases and lack
resources for research and development (Park, 2000).
The proponents of advanced technology affirm that developing countries can benefit from
acquiring advanced technologies. They argue that (1) modern science and advanced technology
are inextricably interrelated, (2) advanced technology is critical for economic growth, (3) advanced
technologies can greatly accelerate the alleviation of poverty and underdevelopment, (4) advanced
technology can enhance the overall institutional and organizational capacities for growth and
change (Shahidulah, 1991), and 5) advanced technologies are cleaner, healthier and more efficient.
In the 2001 annual report entitled 'Human Development Report 2001: Making New Technologies
Work for Human Development', the United Nations encourages the transfer of new technologies
to developing countries in order to improve their economic and social systems to overcome
poverty. It warns, however, about the risks of managing these new technologies.
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1. Public Policies
Over the years, technology has been tightly controlled for several reasons. It can, for instance, be
used as a weapon against unfriendly allies. When governments restrict the exportation of certain
technology, as they normally do in the case of defense technology, they protect their allies against
potential enemies.
2. Effective Management
Managers are a complex process, especially in the presence of new technologies. Technology
has to be effectively managed in order to achieve a societys goals. In order for the implementation
of new technology
to be both sensitive to their environment develop the ability to anticipate, diagnose and solve
problems. Less developed countries do not operate in isolation. Their economies and subsequent
social standings are influenced
by what happens in
5. Market Size
Larger firms can afford specialized engineering departments, larger R&D budgets, more
expensive external advice, more complete sources of information, and so on. But what is large
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deal from
industry. It is
a machine
tool firm, for example, is tiny in comparison with plants in other metalworking sectors such as
automobile or consumer durable production. Thus size needs to be considered in relation to the
specific industrial field of activity.
6. The Absorptive Capacity of a Recipient
The level of absorption indicates the competence of an economy that acquires
technology
acquires to utilize or adapt it to its advantage. The lack of complementary assets, particularly
administrative and organizational capabilities of
some countries to
assimilate foreign
The social and cultural values of a country can include traditions, religions and
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of its technological
capability.
11. Human Resource Development Policies
Most economists would probably agree that it is the human resources of a nation, not its capital or
its material resources, that ultimately determine the character and pace of its economic and social
development.
12. Resource Availability
Resource availability may enhancer hinder socio-economic development. Some poor nations
shelter themselves by blaming their impoverishment on a lack of natural and mineral resources.
They consider adequate recourses a necessity for any meaningful socio-economic development.
Most of these countries continue to depend largely on foreign aid to sustain their growing
population.
13. Quality of Life
The LDCs seek technology in order to improve their weak social and economic conditions. The
ultimate aim is to improve their quality of life. Unfortunately, many authors continue to assess the
success or failure of technology transfer by evaluating only the LDCs economic indicators using
measures like GNP. Such measures, including per capita income, are often inadequate as the
structural differences of these countries are rarely made a part of formula.
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22
Internalized transfer takes the form of direct investment and is, by definition, the preserve of
MNCs. It is difficult to measure and assess directly the amounts of technology transferred in this
manner. However, even when measured by payments for royalties and license fees (a partial
measure, since these do not include the cost of technology provided outside of contractual
arrangements), a substantial part of technology payments are estimated to be made intra-firm.
Furthermore, the trend towards the forging of strategic alliances between competing firms for the
development and application of new technologies has created networks within which technology
is transferred, and has tended to blur the distinction between internalized and externalized
technology transfer.
Externalized modes of transfer by MNCs take a variety of forms: minority joint ventures,
franchising, capital goods sales, licenses, technical assistance, subcontracting or original
equipment manufacturing arrangements. MNCs are not the only type of firm that can supply
technology by some of these means. Purely national firms can also transfer technology through
such means. However, MNCs are very important in high-technology areas and in providing entire
packages, including not only the technology but also management, marketing and other factors
that can make the technology work to its best limits. What determines the mode of technology
transfer? This can be answered by reference to a number of variables. The most important of these
are the nature of the technology, in that internalized transfer is more likely in highly complex and
fast-moving technology areas so that a firm can retain control over its competitive advantage as
the developer and owner of the technology in question; the business strategy of the seller, as when
he/she decides that establishing an affiliate with the exclusive global mandate to produce a
particular product line is the best way to exploit its competitive advantages; the capabilities of the
buyer, in that an externalized transfer assumes the existence of a competent licensee, the absence
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of which may require an internalized transfer to a new affiliate (often at higher cost and risk than
licensing to a third party) where projected demand for the product or service involved justifies
such expenditure; and host government policies that may stipulate the licensing of technology to
local partners as the only permitted mode of TNC participation.
From a purely commercial perspective, it may be desirable to allow MNCs a free choice of
means in determining whether to transfer technology internally or externally. However, from a
development perspective there may be certain advantages and disadvantages stemming from the
choice of transfer mode. Naturally, this discussion assumes the possibility of a choice: where no
suitable external recipient exists, an internalized transfer becomes the only feasible way forward.
This can occur either through the establishment of a new affiliate in a host country, or through the
acquisition of a local firm that can be turned into a suitable recipient (UNCTAD, 2001). Given the
existence of a commercially feasible choice, the advantages to development from an internalized
transfer include:
The provision of financial resources along with technology;
The possibility of expanding the technological base of the host economy (though this is not
exclusive to internalized transfer);
The use of advanced technology that may not be available through externalized transfer or
the use of mature technology applied in an international production network;
Greater speed of transfer
Access to the technological assets of a TNC providing essential components as well as
offering learning opportunities for the host economy.
Thus, where a choice exists between internal transfers to foreign affiliates or external transfers to
local technology recipients, governments may wish to intervene to affect the terms of transfer
associated with each modality, as, for example, where incentives are offered to MNCs for the
transfer of advanced technical functions. Another approach is to upgrade the capacity of the host
economy to receive and benefit from technology transfer (UNCTAD, 2001).
/Netherlands), and Toyota Motor (Japan), respectively. Now, it is desirable to describe very briefly
some of the advantages enjoyed by the MNCs in their operation in the LDCs. Most of them are
the results of their enormous size and technical expertise.
The major advantages are:
1) Cost advantages:
Cost advantages arise from MNCs control over the supply of raw materials and other inputs of
production at a favorable price. This is more common in some industries, such as petrochemicals.
In such cases firms either own the sources of supply or have long term contracts with the supplier.
Small firms are not in a position to own these sources or to convince the supplier to undertake a
contract with them.
2) Advantages of product differential:
Massive advertising helps the MNCs to acquire these advantages. New products, which might
differ slightly from the older ones, may be presented as a breakthrough in that field. Such claims,
when backed up by heavy advertising, which only the MNCs can afford to undertake, provide the
firm with a definite advantage over the smaller firms. Other factors are the possession of patents
and the reputation of their trade and brand names. Simply by owning brand names the MNCs can
acquire an unchallengeable position in the market. Challenging such proprietary rights is not only
time-consuming, but also extremely expensive.
3) Advantages of large scale operation:
Large-size MNCs generally have specialized divisions performing different functions. In all their
operations, they enjoy substantial economies of scale. Such advantages could be the result of
a) Already developed facilities of R&D in the home countries of MNCs. Most of the MNCs are
concentrated in the technically advanced industries and are backed by massive R&D programs. At
no substantial additional cost they can utilize the results of this R&D in the LDCs. As the MNCs
operate in a number of countries, the experience gained through R&D and previous operations
makes them much more competitive than the smaller firms. Connected with R&D are the facilities
and capability to undertake feasibility studies, design and plant construction. For erection of a large
industrial plant it is essential that the investor should have access to the necessary "know-how",
expertise and organizational capability. Having acquired this, the MNCs have a distinct advantage
26
over small competitors. Modern management skills also contribute to the cost reduction of the
M`NCs.
b) Access to international advertising and promotion: Many of their products are consumed in the
LDCs by those who are influenced by the taste of developed countries. The M`NCs have the
advantage of a ready market built by the over spills from their advertising in the developed
countries.
c) International economies in organization due to the large-size of operation and development of
modem management techniques, also provides the MNCs with competitive advantages. Why some
firms choose to become MNCs, is an interesting and unresolved question in economics [35].
Clearly, firms that operate in foreign countries are at a disadvantage relative to their locally based
foreign competitors. That is, they face additional costs, including the costs of co-coordinating
activities over long distances that their competitors do not acquire. Economic theory suggests then,
that there must be special advantages to being multinational or else they would stop such
operations. These special advantages could be: Firstly, MNCs might have access to special
technology. Control over this technology would enable the MNCs to compete successfully with
local firms. Secondly: it is possible that there may be increasing returns to scale that accumulate
to a firm that operates plants in many locations.
technology is not available locally. Because no industrial infrastructure exists to produce it;
importation is essential. This would require a substantial amount of foreign exchange, which is
actually short in the country. MNCs are considered as the only organization capable of supplying
a package of modem sophisticated technology and capital. The supporters of MNCs also point
towards the lack of trained manpower in LDCs to run these modern plants. They stress that only
the MNCs are able to set up the operation of these plants as well as to train the local manpower.
The MNCs have many times contributed negatively to the two most urgent problems of the LDCs,
namely, mass poverty and unemployment. Host countries, both developing and developed, have
their own social benefits. They would like to spread out inflationary pressure, create new
employment opportunities, increase their population's living standard, and correct their balance of
payments by increasing foreign exchange earnings and savings. In developing countries, these
problems are very critical and, indeed, the social benefit of their operations has been little as
compared to the cost. A study of 156 manufacturing firms in six LDCs shows that nearly 40% of
these firms have a negative effect on overall operations in the host economies.
(ii)
Changes in the educational system promoted by MNCs once they are established in the
host country, to guarantee their development in said country; and
(iii)
Generation of knowledge spillover and spin-off effects on the rest of the host countrys
economy.
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public research institutes; they produce and develop research and development skills, and provide
technical services to other businesses that may require them (WIR, 2005). They may also
collaborate with educational institutions providing financial assistance or managing research
projects. The impact of multinational corporations on educational systems varies significantly
depending on the context of the host countries and the type of business. However, many of the
MNCs analyzed have defined policies in place to offer strong support to educational systems. The
most common ways of support are: donations of didactic equipment and materials; infrastructure
and technical support; technology supply; training to teachers; creation of education, research and
development institutions; donations of equipment for educational centers, and prizes granted on
research development, among others.
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how
an
organization
can
build
capacity.
inadequately focused in terms of their research and professional orientations. Department members
are often not well trained to conduct research and those who are, do not have access to current
literature and/or do not have adequate resources to conduct their research. There is also a
31
bureaucratic control and hierarchy that influence the organization that acts as a retardant in this
development.
Cultural barriers: The lack of a 'scientific culture' in developing countries is another barrier to
capacity building. Most organizations training methods are teaching-oriented and not oriented to
applied research. Additionally, most of developing countries' national policies focus on health and
education, giving little attention to enhancing capacity to produce, organize, and utilize scientific
knowledge and technology.
How to implement capacity in the organization and the levels of capacity building
Capacity building is concerned with creating or enhancing the ability of society to perform specific
tasks and attain development objectives (Ohiorhenuan and Wunker, 1995). To implement
capacity building, it is important to understand the levels in which capacity building may occur:
(United Nations Development Program, 1998):
The system: This level would cover the entire country or society and all the subcomponents that
are involved, including both formal and informal organizations within the defined system.
The entity: This level is a formal organization, a private operation, or an informal organization.
The individual: This level includes individuals both within entities involved in the management
and delivery of an initiative, as well as those who are beneficiaries or are otherwise impacted by
the initiative.
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of domestic company which operated in developing economy. Furthermore, it aims to study how
the company manages its absorptive capacities toward the foreign technologies. This is particularly
discussed in relation to the knowledge management of the domestic company. The evidences
revealed in this study may enrich the previous findings and contribute to deepening the analysis
on the studies of international technology transfers in developing economies. Moreover, the focus
on the impacted domestic company will give more understanding on the developments of
indigenous TC in a developing economy. This offers a distinctive feature compared to the previous
studies in this field which often did not exclude the case of foreign companies in their
examinations. The results also suggest several important managerial implications regarding the
issue of knowledge management for domestic companies in developing economies.
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communications among trading partners. Moreover, it would be crucial for Chinese firms to stress
the nurturing of indigenous innovation capabilities so as to sustain their performance improvement.
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particularly as it affects economic development. Also, MNEs are developing and building
environmentally-friendly acts into their competitive strategies. There is little doubt that MNCs
have the resources and the competences both to help develop environmental management policies
and programs, and to prevent the rate of environmental deterioration. It is believed that LDCs can
learn valuable lessons from the successful experience of industrial and technological development
in some East Asian and Latin American Newly Industrialized Countries (NICs). The successful
experience of these countries showed that their massive acquisition of appropriate and modern
technology enabled them to increase their productivity and consequently led to their rapid
industrialization. These counties such as China, Cost Arica, Indonesia, Nigeria, Hungary, South
Korea, Taiwan, Brazil and Mexico have been industrialized mostly through borrowing and
transferring foreign technology rather than by generating new products or processes. Although
these countries are diversified in some overall economic indicators such as per capita income, size
of economy and process of their industrialization, the factors, which led to their success can
provide insights for the other LDCs which attempt to follow the same pattern of industrialization.
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References
Cooke, Ian, and Paul Mayes. Introduction to Innovation and Technology Transfer. New York:
Artech House, 1996
Glass, J. A. and Saggi, K. (2002) The Scandinavian Journal of Economics. Multinational Firms
and Technology Transfer. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics Volume 104, Issue 4,
December 2002, 495513,
Monge, R. and Gonzlez, C. (2007) The Role and Impact of MNCs in Costa Rica on Skills
Development and Training: The Case of Intel, Microsoft and Cisco. In: International Labor
Organization in Geneva, Switzerland, 2007.
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Rugraff, E, and Hansen, W. M. (2011) Multinational Corporations and Local Firms in Emerging
Economies. Amsterdam University Press, 2011.
Steenhuis, H. and Bruijn, E. J. (2005) International Technology Transfer: Building Theory from
A Multiple Case-study in the Aircraft Industry. In: Academy of Management Annual Meeting: A
new vision of management in the 21st century, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA. August 5-10, 2005,
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