I.

Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Element- simplest type of matter with unique physical and chemical
properties.
Each Element consists of only one kind of atom
Each Element is unique b/c the properties of its atoms are unique
Substance- matter whose composition is fixed
Molecule- type of matter composed of two or more different elements that
are chemically bound together
Elements are present in fixed parts by mass (fixed mass ratio
Compound is also considered a substance
Properties are different from those of its component elements
Mixture- group of two or more substances that are physically
intermingled (mixtures can vary in their parts by mass)is not a
substance b/c its composition is not fixed
A mixture retains many of the properties of its components
Unlike compounds, can be separated into components by physical changes
II. The Observations that led to an Atomic view of Matter
A. Mass Conservation- most fundamental chemical observation of the 18th
century
Law of mass conservation- the total mass of substances does not change
during a chemical reaction (# of substances can change, and properties
have to, but total amount of matter is constant) *** matter cannot be
created or destroyed
B. Definite Composition
Law of Definite (or constant) composition)- no matter what its source, a
particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same parts
by mass
Fraction by mass (mass fraction)- part of the compounds mass that each
element contributes
Percent by mass (mass percentage)- fraction by mass expressed by a
percentage
Mass of element in sample= mass of compound in sample x (mass of
element in compound/ mass of compound)

C. Multiple Proportions
Dalton- law of multiple proportions- if elements A and B react to form
two compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass
of A can be expressed as a ratio of small whole numbers
III. Daltons Atomic Theory
A. Postulates of the Atomic Theory
1. All matter consists of atoms
2. Atoms of one element cannot be converted into atoms of another
element. In chemical reactions, the atoms of the original substances
recombine to form different substances.
3. Atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and are
different from atoms of any other element
4. Compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of
atoms of different elements
B. How the Theory Explains Mass Laws
Mass conservation- postulate 1, 2 and 3does not allow for mass change
Definite composition- postulate 4 and 3fixed fraction of mass
Multiple proportions- postulate 1
IV. The Observations that Led to the Nuclear Atom Model
A. Discovery of the Electron and Its Properties
Cathode- negative electrode
Anode- positive electrode
Cathode ray- ray that could be seen striking the phosphor coated end of
the glass tube
Cathode ray particles were later named electrons
1897-J.J. Thomson estimated the electron weighed less than 1/1000 as
much aas hydrogenshocked because, according to this atoms are even
further divisible
mass of electron- (-9.109x 10-28)
1909- Robert Millikan measured charge of the electron (-1.602 x 10-19)
B. Discovery of the Atomic Nucleus
Rutherford- (gold foil) an atom is mostly space occupied by electrons
Nucleus- tiny region in the center of atom that contains all positive charge
and essentially all mass of the atom (99.97%) (1 quadrillionth of the volume)
1932- James Chadwick discovered neutron

V. The Atomic Theory Today

A. Structure of the Atom
B. Atomic Number, Mass Number, and Atomic Symbol- mass # is superscript,
atomic number is subscript
C. Isotopes and Atomic Masses of the Elements

all isotopes have nearly identical chemical behavior

amu is 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom (1.66054x10-24)

mass spectrometry- method for measuring the relative masses and
abundances of atomic-scale particles very precisely
isotopic mass- mass of isotope relative to the mass of the standard carbon12 isotope
atomic mass- weighted average of masses of the naturally occurring
isotopes
D. A Modern Reassessment of the Atomic Theory
VI. Elements: A First Look at the Periodic Table

Lavoisier- 23 elements

1870- 65 elements

1925-88 elements

1871 Dmitri Mendeleev published periodic table of elements

1. each element has a box w/ atomic number, symbol and atomic mass
(boxes are in order of increasing atomic number)
2. periods are horizontal rows (1-7), groups are vertical columns (1-8 w/
either A or B)
3. 8A groups contain representative elements, 10 B groups are transition
elements (bottom part, 2 horizontal series fit between 3B and 4B)
4. metals- shiny solids at room temp. (mercury is the only liquid), conduct
heat and electricity well, can be tooled into sheets and wires
5. nonmetals- gases or dull brittle solids at room temp (bromine is only
liquid), conduct heat and electricity poorly
6. metalloids- elements that have properties between those of metals and
nonmetals
7. Organic chemistry- studies compounds of carbon (fuels, dyes, drugs,
polymers)
8. Inorganic chemistry- compounds of all other elements
1A Alkali Metals (not hydrogen)
2A Alkaline Earth Metals
7A- Halogens
8A- Noble gases
3A(13)- 6A usu. Named for first element in group

VII.

Compounds: Introduction to Bonding

Ionic compounds- transferring electrons from the atoms of one

element to those of another

Covalent compounds- sharing electrons between atoms of

different elements

Chemical bonds- forces that hold the atoms of elements together

in a compound
A. The Formation of Ionic Compounds

Ion- charged particle that forms when an atom gains or loses one
or more electrons

Binary ionic compound- ionic compound composed of just 2

elements

Cation- positively charged ion

Anion- negatively charged ion

Metal atoms electrons nonmetal atoms

*** All binary ionic compounds are solids

monatomic ion- cation or anion derived from a single atom

the energy of attraction or repulsion between to particles is

directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely
proportional to the distance between them

Ionic compounds possess no net charge

Elements gain and lose electrons to form ions with as close to the
same number of electrons as an atom of the nearest noble gas
B. The Formation of Covalent Compounds

Polyatomic ions- consist of two or more atoms bonded covalently

and have a net positive or negative charge
C. The Elements of Life- page 63-64

VIII.

Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Masses

A. Types of Chemical Formulas- element symbols and numerical subscripts

Empirical formula- relative number of atoms of each element in

the compound

Molecular formula- actual number of atoms of each element

Structural formula- number of atoms and the bonds between

them
B. Some Advice about Learning Names and Formulaspage 65

Members of a periodic group have the same ionic charge

A-group cations, ion charge= group #

Anions, ion charge= group # minus 8

C. Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds

Formula unit- relative numbers of cations and anions in the

compound

Oxoanions- those in which an element, usu. Nonmetal, is bonded

to 1+ oxygen atomsrules bottom of pg. 68

Hydrates- have specific # of water molecules assoc. w/ each

formula unit

binary acid- forms when gaseous compounds dissolve in water

oxoacidpage 69
D. Names and Formulas of Binary Covalent Compounds- formed by combo of 2
elements, usu. nonmetals
E. An Introduction to Naming Organic Compounds pg. 71

Hydrocarbons- have only hydrogen and carbon

Alkanes- kind of hydrocarbon, named with a root followed by

suffix ane
F. Molecular Masses from Chemical Formulas

Molecular- made of molecules, so molecular mass

Formula mass- same as molecular, but for ionic compounds

IX. Mixtures: Classification and Separation

Homogenous mixturesolution

Aqueous solutions- solutions in water