Phonetics and Phonology II.

A tone unit is a stretch of discourse that carries the systemically (belonging to a

system) opposed (when a speaker selects a feature automatically doesnt
select another) features of intonation.

The systemically opposed features of intonation are three systems operating

simultaneously (each selection from each system implies a meaning
increment):
1. PROMINENCE: How in spoken discourse we highlight certain words.
2. TONE: Melody or movement of the voice.
3. KEY AND TERMINATION: Pitch level variations.

Parts of the tone unit:

Proclitic segment + Tonic segment + Enclitic segment
(Does not have p)
(Does not have p)
Mary

+ BROWN is a GOOD + teacher

BROWN: Determines the beginning of the tonic segment.

GOOD: Determines the end of the tonic segment.

Tonic segment: Is the stretch within the tonic unit which is delimited by where
all the tone choices/intonational selection occurs.

Onset syllable: BROWN, containing prominence and maybe key.

Tonic syllable: GOOD, containing prominence, tone and maybe termination.

Chapter 2. David Brazil. Prominence.

Prominence has been characterized as the feature that determines the
beginning and end of the tonic segment. Its the meaning selection in which the
speaker is involved. Prominence as an act of SENSE SELECTION (meaning
selection), the speaker selects from a set of possibilities available in a context
of interaction. Senses are mutually exclusive: The choice of one sense
excludes the possibility of the others.
Selection: When we speak of a paradigm in a linguistic context, we normally
have in mind just such a set of conditions which, residing in the system of the
language, reduce the number of items that could fill the third slot into one. What
imposes the limitation is an extralinguistic factor.
Existential paradigm: The set of possibilities that a speaker can regard as
actually available in a given situation. The members are mutually exclusive. The
speaker excludes other senses. Its context bound (subset of the general
paradigm).
Existential synonymy: The same sense is represented (different ways of
expressing the same sense). When two words can be used to represent the

same existential sense.

General paradigm: Set of possibilities given by the language system, any word
that collocates in that particular slot (language bound, Grammar limitates this).
Context of interaction: Knowledge that the speakers share. Any utterance is
produced in a unique here-and-now, and it becomes a unique context of
interaction, which is permanently modified.
Exploitation of the system (could be: Prominence, Tone, etc.): The speaker
may say something with prominence but not in a right way, in a way that does
not match the situation of communication. All intonational choices are available
for exploitation. There is no actual need to make an item selective again.
Sense dimension: Speakers select a sense which is more appropriate for a
particular context. The only words which could replace another one, without
projecting an incompatible context of interaction, would be words from the same
sense dimension. The existential paradigm comprises not all possible physical
replacements but only those whose values belong to the same sense
dimension.

Chapter 4. David Brazil. Tone: Proclaiming and Referring.

The tone occurs on the tonic syllable.

The meaning is associated with the tone: TONE+MEANING=PHONOLOGICAL

ASPECT.

There isnt a one to one correspondence between grammatical form and tone.

Brazil associates a particular meaning/communicative value with each of the

tones. Each intonational choice adds/constitutes a meaning increment.

Brazil is concerned with establishing the relationship between tones and the
language system.

Grammatical order does not affect the meaning potential of intonational

choices. P/R meanings will still apply if the order of the grammatical
constituents is reversed.

Referring tone: It is used to refer to shared information or information already

in play in the conversation. Information already present in the common ground.
When a speaker uses a referring tone, he is indicating that this part of the
discourse will in no way alter the state of speaker/hearer convergence that our
diagram encapsulates. By using an R tone, the speaker is saying nothing that
will constitute a step forward.

Proclaiming tone: The matter of the tone unit having a proclaiming tone is
presented as not yet present in the common ground. The speaker declares his
expectation that this will increase the area of convergence; this is the part that
tells the hearer something he didnt already know. By using a P tone, the
speaker is furthering the process of changing the hearers world view. A step

forward in the cumulative process.

State of convergence: Its the context of interaction to which all intonation
choices are related. The context of interaction is to some extent a product of the
ongoing conversation: Referring tone can be seen to make retrospective
reference to elements in the recorded text. But what a speaker may legitimately
regard as being in play is not limited to what has been previously mentioned (it
can be something: In play, self evident, shared by speech community or world
known).
Cumulative process: Verbal communication is a linear and cumulative process
which has its intended outcome an increase in the area of speaker/hearer
convergence.

Chapter 5. David Brazil. Tone; Dominance and control.

The choice of the plus tones are related to speakers roles and also to the
competition that every speaker has (to a permanent competition that is typical
of interaction).
To explain why a speaker uses a plus tone we have to take in account which
participant is in control of the discourse or is exercising linguistic dominance
(discourse control). The speaker claims dominance or talks on a dominant
stance or position.
The r+ implies an assumption of common ground + linguistic dominance.
DISCOURSE CONTROL 1: When a speaker uses an r+ tone, he signals a
desire to continue speaking; there is a strong expectation that there is more to
follow. To keep the floor, the wait for me to finish.
E.g: Counting out activity; telling stories; any other situation in which the
speaker shows a desire not to be interrupted.
DISCOURSE CONTROL 2: Pressure upon the interlocutor to continue. The
speaker sets an expectation that the other part will speak. Speaker passes the
floor. Dominance is manifested as a pressure on the other part to speak.
REMINDING: The speaker wishes to reactivate common ground as an open
recognition that the hearer needs to be reminded of something.
The p+ tone is used when the speaker says something and at the same time
realizing that. Implies the presentation of information which is new to the
speaker when he proclaims it. Linguistic dominance.

Social significance of tone.

Circumstances in which is difficult to establish a sense selection: Fillers,

connectors (well, frankly, actually, usually). THERE IS NO SENSE
SELECTION.
The only reason of making these words prominent is that we need a tonic
syllable to produce tone.

TOGETHERNESS: The speaker speaks on behalf on the participating WE.

Both speaker and hearer worlds merge when using a REFERRING TONE.
The speaker includes the hearer in the area of convergence. Linguistic social
meaning.

SEPARATENESS: The speaker excludes the interlocutor from the area of

convergence. He sets the hearer apart by using a PROCLAIMING TONE.

Chapter 6. David Brazil. Tone: Questions and Social elicitations.

Elicitations: To try to obtain information, by asking a question or by producing

an utterance that its meant to function as one.

There are two reasons to ask a question: 1) To FIND OUT = We dont know (P
TONE). 2) To CONFIRM INFO, TO MAKE SURE, TO CONFIRM OR DENY
ASSUMPTIONS (R TONE).

What determines the tone will be the amount of information that the speaker
has about the answer.
There are four types of questions:

1. DECLARATIVE MOOD QUESTIONS: The statement functions as a

question. E.g.: You prefer that one
2. YES-NO QUESTIONS: Polar questions. E.g.: Do you prefer that one?
3. WH-QUESTIONS (INFORMATION QUESTIONS): E.g.: Which one do
you prefer?
4. SOCIAL ELICITATIONS: They serve to remove uncertainty in the mind
of the speaker. In reality, many real-life elicitations have the pursuit of
world-view convergence as only a very minor part of their purpose. E.g.:
How are you? Phatic questions have some kind of social bridge-building
as their aim; it is therefore to be expected that they will customarily have
a REFERRING TONE, the tone choice that insinuates togetherness.
5. ECHO QUESTIONS: A question which echoes the lexis and grammar of
an utterance previously mentioned. They usually indicate that what has
been heard is in some way contrary to expectations. E.g.: An inspector
called. An inspector? What kind of inspector?