Propaganda Defined

Chapter2ofHowPropagandaMatters(PrincetonUP,forthcoming)
JasonStanley
Preface
Introduction:TheProblemofPropaganda
1.PropagandaintheHistoryofPoliticalThought
2. Propaganda Defined
3.PropagandainLiberalDemocracy
4.LanguageasaMechanismofControl
5.Ideology
6.PoliticalIdeologies
7.TheIdeologyofElites:ACaseStudy
Conclusion

TheReportontheGovernabilityofDemocraciestotheTrilateralCommission,
publishedin1975,wastitled(ofcourse)TheCrisisofDemocracy.1Itwas
coauthoredbyMichelCrozier,SamuelP.Huntington,andJojiWatunuki,described
asexpertsonthetopic.Crozierwasasociologyprofessorandresearchdirectorat
CNRSinParis,HuntingtonwasaprofessorofgovernmentatHarvardUniversity,
andWatunukiwasaprofessorofsociologyatSophiaUniversityinTokyo.Inhis
reportonEurope,Crozierwritesthatteachers,evenmorethanotherintellectuals,
[are]directlyconfrontedwiththerevolutioninhumanrelationsthatperturbstheir
traditionalmodeofsocialcontrol.Crozierwarnsthatwithitsculturaldriftsociety
haslostthestimulatingmoralguidanceitrequires,withtheconsequencethatthe
transmissionofsocial,politicalandculturalnormshasbeenverydeeply
perturbed.2
SamuelHuntingtonscontributiontothereportcontrastedthevitalityof
democracywiththegovernabilityofdemocracy,andraisedthequestionof
whetherthedemocraticsurgeofthe60shadswungthependulumtoofarinone
direction.3Huntingtonworriesaboutthepotentialofthedemocraticsurgeto
weakenauthority,andnotedthatithadresultedin,forexample,university
studentswholackedexpertisebecominginvolvedindecisionmakingintheir
institutions.4Huntingtonarguesthateffectiveleadershipinademocracyrequiresa
peoplewhohavetheproperobediencetoauthority,andworriesaboutthe
underminingofsuchobediencecausedbyanexcessofdemocraticexpression.5
Huntingtonworriesabouttheincreasingpowerofthenationalmediaanditsrolein
challengingpoliticalauthority.6HuntingtonarguesthattheproblemsoftheUnited
Statesinthe1970sresultfromanexcessofdemocracy,andrecommendsclaims
ofexpertise,seniority,experience,andspecialtalentsinordertooverridethe
claimsofdemocracyasawayofconstitutingauthority.7

HuntingtonsrecommendationfortheUnitedStateswastotrytoreinstallsome
measureofobediencetoauthoritybymakingvariouscentraldomainsinlife,ones
thatshouldbegoverneddemocratically,thedomainofexperts,whoareemployed
tomakethemassesfeelunqualifiedtoweighinoncentraldecisionsabouttheir
lives.Huntingtonisrecommendinginstallingobediencetoauthorityinnegatively
privilegedgroups,bymakingthemfeelunqualifiedtomakeautonomousdemocratic
decisionsinthefaceofselfproclaimedexpertsofvarioussorts.Huntingtonis
recommendingepistemic authority,intheformofexperts,asameanstoinstill
practical authorityoverthemasses.Huntingtonssuggestionforhandlingthe
excessofdemocracyinthe1960sistoemploythevocabularyofscientific
expertiseinapoliticalway,ineffectusingepistemicidealsasformsofcoercion.
Suchmixturesofepistemicandpracticalauthority,whereepistemicauthorityis
usedtogainpracticalauthorityoverthedomainofdemocraticallyautonomous
decision,tendstounderminetheepistemicideals.Itleadstodistrustofthosewho
selfpresentasscientificexperts,evenwhentheywanttowarnusaboutthe
importanceofvaccinesorclimatechange.Mypurposeinthischapteristoexplain
whatitisforacontributiontobepropagandisticinthisandsimilarways.
Inthischapter,Iprovidemycharacterizationofpropaganda.Sincepolitical
propagandacanoccurinallpoliticalsystems,mycharacterizationisperfectly
general,intendedtocaptureinstancesofpropagandaregardlessofpoliticalsystem.
Thechapterisstructuredaroundargumentsagainsttwoclaimsaboutthenatureof
propaganda,whichonemightbetemptedinitiallytoadopt.Thefirstclaimabout
propagandaisthatapropagandisticclaimmustbefalse.Thesecondclaimabout
propagandaisthatapropagandisticclaimmustbemadeinsincerely
Iwillargueagainstbothoftheseconditionsonpropagandainthisbook.Infact,I
arguethateventhespeciesofpropagandaIcalldemagoguerycanconsistinclaims
thataretrueandmadesincerely.Iprovideapreliminaryargumentagainstthefirst
claimhere,thatpropagandisticclaimsmustbefalse;theargumentiscompletedin
chapter4Igiveacompleteargumentinthischapteragainstthesecondclaim,by
showingthatpropagandacanbedeliveredperfectlysincerely.Thereasonwhy
propaganda,andevendemagoguery,canbedeliveredsincerelyisbecauseofthe
relationbetweenpropagandaandflawedideologicalbelief.Thisisarelationthat
canonlybeadequatelyexplainedbyrejectingtheconditionthatpropagandamust
beinsincerelydelivered.Itwillturnoutthat,giventherelationbetweenideology
andpropaganda,itwilloftennotbeclearatthetimewhenaparticularcontribution
topublicdebateispropaganda.Chargesofpropaganda,andevendemagoguery,will
thereforeinvariablybepolitical.Iconcludethechapterwithadefenseofthis
consequence.
Itisusefultodistinguishtheobjectoftheaccountthatfollowsfromrelatedtargets.
Acertainkindofpropagandaisemployedcharacteristicallybydemagogues;thisis
demagoguery.AdemagogueisthetyrantPlatodescribesinthelastpartofbook8of
The Republic,onewhosowsfearamongthepeopleandthenpresentshimselfasthe
peoplesprotector(565e),allthewhileintendingtoexploitthem.Perhapsthe
2

conceptofademagogue,asPlatointendsit,bringsinsinceritywithit;perhaps,that
is,ademagogueissomeonewhoengagesininsincerepropaganda.Iamnothere
interestedinthisquestion.Thethreatthatademagogueposestoliberaldemocracy
doesnotrequireabooklengthtreatise.ThethreatIdiscussisratherdemagogic
propaganda,whichisthemethodcharacteristicallyusedbydemagoguestoseizeand
retainpowerinaliberaldemocraticstate.
Herearetwoinitiallyplausibleassumptionstomakeaboutpropaganda.Thefirstis
thatpropagandaisfalse.Icallthisthe falsity conditiononpropaganda.Thesecondis
thatpropagandamustbedeliveredinsincerely.Icallthisthe insincerity conditionon
propaganda.Beforepresentinganddefendingmyowncharacterization,Iwillreject
boththefalsityconditionandtheinsincerityconditiononpropaganda.Atrueclaim,
utteredwithsincerity,canbepropaganda,andevendemagoguery.
Ibeginwithasketchofanargumentagainstthefalsityconditiononpropaganda;
thenecessarydetailstocompletethecaseagainstthefalsityconditionaregivenin
chapter4.Thereareobviouscasesofdemagogicspeechthatinvolvetheexpression
oftruths.Imagine,forexample,anonMuslimpoliticianintheUnitedStatessaying,
ThereareMuslimsamongus.Theassertionistrue;therearemanyMuslimsinthe
UnitedStates.Buttheclaimisclearlysomekindofwarning.Thespeakerisraising
thepresenceofMuslimstotheattentionofhisaudiencetosowfearaboutMuslims.
Therefore,evendemagogicclaimscanbetrue.
Itisnaturaltothinkthatthisargumentistooquick.Onemightreplythatthereare
Muslimsamongusexpressesatruth.Butthereasonitispropagandaisthatit
communicatessomethingfalse.Theclaimispropagandabecauseitcommunicates
thatMuslimsareinherentlydangeroustoothers,whichisfalse.Thefalsity
condition,properlyunderstood,istheclaimthatsomethingispropagandabecause
itcommunicatessomethingfalse,eitherbyexpressingitdirectlyorby
communicatingitindirectly.
Herearetwopointstomakeinreply,whichwillbedevelopedatlengthatvarious
pointsinthebook.First,Iwillgiveexamplesofpropagandainwhichsomeoneis
beingmisleading,ratherthanstatingsomethingfalse,orevenimplicatingsomething
false.Oneexpressesatruth,andreliesontheaudiencesfalsebeliefsto
communicategoalsthatareworthwhile.8Falsityisimplicatedinsuchcases,butnot
bymeansoftheexpressionorcommunicationofafalsehood.Iarguethat
propagandadependsforitseffectivenessonthepresenceofflawedideological
belief.Butitsimplydoesnotfollowthattheflawedideologicalbeliefthatmakes
someclaimeffectiveaspropagandaisexpressedorcommunicatedinthatclaim.9
Secondly,asIwillexplaininsubsequentchapters,thereisaperfectlynaturalwayof
thinkingoftheeffectsofpropagandaaccordingtowhichitcaninvolvethe
expressionoftruthsandthecommunicationofemotions.Ifemotionsarenottrueor
false,thenpropagandaneednotbefalse.Infact,thecaseofthereareMuslims
amongus,usedtoelicitafearofMuslims,isacaseofexactlythisstructure.10
Fourth,aswillalsoemerge,toomanyutterancesatleastindirectlyconvey
3

somethingfalse.Sothefalsityconditiondoesnotreallyexplainwhatisdistinctive
aboutpropaganda.
Inowmovetotheargumentagainsttheinsincerityconditiononpropaganda.
Understandingthatpropagandacanbesincereisnecessarytounderstandthe
relationbetweenpropagandaandideology.
KlempererreportsthatordinaryGermansoftenconstruedHitlersappealtothe
Jewishpeopleasenemyasaharmlessemploymentofpropaganda.Forexample,
herehewritesofayoungstudentwhohadlivedinhishomeforseveralyears,and
whomhehadbefriended,whobecameenamoredoftheNationalSocialists:
Ibegantohaveseriousdoubtsabouttheextentandstrengthofhiscommonsense.I
triedadifferenttackinmyattempttomakehimmoreskeptical.Youhavelivedin
myhouseforanumberofyears,youknowthewayIthink,andyouhaveoftensaid
yourselfthatyouhavelearnedsomethingfromusandthatyourmoralvaluesaccord
withourshow,inthelightofallthis,canyoupossiblysupportapartywhich,on
accountofmyorigin,deniesmeanyrighttobeaGermanorevenahuman
being?Youretakingitallmuchtooseriously,Babba.Thefussandbotherabout
theJewsisonlythereforpropagandapurposes.Youwait,whenHitlerisatthehelm
hellbefartoobusytoinsulttheJews.11
TheyoungstudentwhohadlivedwithKlempererdefendedhissupportofthe
NationalSocialistsbyclaimingthatHitlersvarioushorrificrepresentationsofJews
wereonlythereforpropagandapurposes.KlemperernotesthatHitleronlyever
speaksofJewsinoneoftwostyles,scornfulderisionorpanicstrickenfear.12In
thefirststyle,HitlerrepresentsJewsaslessthanhuman(forexample,whenhe
comparesthemtomaggotsinarottingcorpse).Inthesecondstyle,Hitler
representsthemasbeingafundamentalthreattosafetyandstability.Bybeingonly
thereforpropagandapurposes,Klemperersyoungstudentacquaintancemeant
thatHitlersnegativeportrayaloftheJewswasonlyintendedtorallypolitical
support.Thismayappeartomotivateasenseofpropaganda,orthespeciesofit
thatinterestsushere,accordingtowhichitmeanssomethingliketheproductof
consciousintentionstodeceivebyinterestedparties.13Inthissenseof
propaganda(andperhapswithpropagandagenerally),propagandaisby
definitioninsincere.IfHitlersanalogybetweenJewsandmaggotsinarotting
corpseispropagandainthissense,thenbydefinitionHitlerdidntbelievethatthe
analogywasagoodone(since,bydefinition,hewouldhavebeenengagedindeceit,
thatis,makingananalogyhebelievedtobepoor).
Itisstraightforwardtoshowthattherearesomeparadigminstancesofpropaganda
thatareinconsistentwiththeinsinceritycondition.Butitisamatterofnosmall
importtoourunderstandingofpropagandatoexplainwhatiswrongwiththe
insinceritycondition.Explainingwhatiswrongwiththeinsincerityconditionon
propagandawillrevealtheimportantconnectionbetweenideologyand
propaganda,whichanyaccountofpropagandamustexplain.Thesuperficial
connectionisthatsomeoneinthegripofaflawedideologywilloftenexpressitin
propaganda.Sincemanyparadigmcasesofdemagogicspeechorimageryareofthis
4

sort,anyviewthatendorsestheinsincerityconditionwillbeinconsistentwithmany
paradigmcases.Whatthisrevealsisthattheinsincerityconditionfailstorespect
thedeepconnectionbetweenideologyandpropaganda.
Letsbeginbyseeingthattheinsincerityconditiondoesnotfitparadigmcases.
KlempererpointsoutthatitdoesnotfitHitlersdemagogicuseofantiSemitism:
ButwhilstHitlersantiSemitismisacorrespondinglybasicfeeling,rootedin
themansintellectualprimitiveness,theFuehreralsopossesses,seemingly
fromtheoutset,alargemeasureofthatcalculatingguilewhichdoesntseem
toaccordwithanunsoundmind,butsooftenseemstogohandinhandwith
it.Heknowsperfectlywellthathecanonlyexpectloyaltyfromthosewho
inhabitasimilarlyprimitiveworld;andthesimplestandmosteffective
meansofkeepingthemthereistonurture,legitimizeandasitwereglorify
theinstinctivehatredoftheJews.Intheprocessheplaysonwhatisthe
weakestspotintheculturalthinkingofthenation.14
Inshort,HitlerwasinfactanantiSemitewhosincerelybelievedthateverythinghe
saidabouttheJewswasaccurate.Ofcourse,HitlerdidnotliterallybelievethatJews
weremaggotsinarottingcorpse.Thisisametaphor,meanttoconveythatJews
areadeadlypublichealthmenace.Thequestionofsincerity,givenametaphorical
utteranceinvolvingananalogy,iswhetherornotHitlerbelievedthattheanalogy
wasapt.HitlerwasutterlysincereinhisbeliefthatJewswereadeadlypublichealth
menace,andclearlydidbelievetheanalogywasapt.Simultaneously,evenheknew
thathisappealtoantiSemitismwasmeantstrategically.ItisonethingifHitlerdid
notintendmanyofhisantiSemiticpronouncementstobestrategicpoliticalclaims.
Butheclearlydidsointend.Theseareparadigmcasesofpropaganda.Soweshould
wanttheaccountofpropagandatoclassifythemassuch.Onthereasonable
assumptionthatpropagandaistheintendedsubjectofhisbook,Klempererrejects
therestrictionofthenotionofpropagandatoinsincereclaims.Hitlersanalogies
weresincere,andyetalsointendedtoattractpoliticalsupport.
Thereareparadigmcasesofpropagandathataredeliveredsincerely.Thereisalsoa
theoreticalexplanationwhymanyparadigmcasesofpropagandaareonesinwhich
theclaimsaremadesincerely.Thetheoreticalexplanationinvolvestheconnection
betweenpropagandaandideology.Thegenuineproblemwiththeinsincerity
conditionisthatitfailstorespecttheconnectionbetweenpropagandaandideology.
Flawedideologiescharacteristicallyleadonetosincerelyholdabeliefthatisfalse
andthat,becauseofitsfalsity,disruptstherationalevaluationofapolicyproposal;
asRosennotesaboutHumesnotionofirrationalbelief,aflawedideologicalbelief
leadstoanunwillingnesstoamendimmediatejudgmentinlightofreflection.15
Manyparadigmdemagogicclaimsarestatementssincerelyassertedbysomeonein
thegripofafalsebeliefcausedbyaflawedideology.Presumably,muchNazi
propagandawasofthissort.Iassumehere,asthroughoutthiswork,thatany
accountofpropagandamustexplaintheconnectionbetweenpropagandaand
ideology.
5

Manyandperhapsmostpropagandisticclaimsaremadebythoseinthegripofa
flawedideology.Theinsincerityconditioncannotexplainthis.Sotheinsincerity
conditionisfalse.Anyaccountofpropagandamustexplainhowpossessionofa
flawedideologycanleadtothetendencytoengageinpropaganda.Anaccountof
propagandathatincorporatestheinsincerityconditioncannotdothis.Sowemust
rejectit.16
KlemperersdescriptionoflifeundertheThirdReichrevealsthedistinctivedangers
ofpropagandaintotalitariansocieties.Intotalitariansocieties,thereisanofficial
ministryofpropaganda.Becauseofthat,itiseasyinsuchsocietiesnottotake
propagandaseriously.Butbecausepropagandacanbesincere,thedanger
propagandaposesintotalitariansocietiesisthatit is not taken seriously.Thedanger
propagandaposesindemocraticsocietiesisentirelydifferent.Partofthe
propagandaofstatesthatconsiderthemselvesliberaldemocraciesisthattheydo
notallowpropaganda.Sothedistinctivedangerpropagandaposesinliberal
democraciesisthatitisnot recognized as propaganda.Wheneffectivepropagandais
demagogic,itunderminesthedemocraticlegitimacyofthegoalitisusedto
motivate.17
Thereisnoproblemintotalitariansocietiesrecognizingsomethingaspropaganda.
Claimsthatarepropagandaarethosethatemergefromtheministryofpropaganda.
Theproblemintotalitariansocietiesliesinfiguringoutwhichpiecesofpropaganda
aretobetakenseriously.18Itisonlynaturalinliberaldemocraticsocietiestotakeat
leastthenewsmediaseriously.Theproblemindemocraticsocietiesliesinfiguring
outwhichapparentlynonpropagandisticclaimsareinfactpropaganda.
Ihavegivensomeexamplesofpropaganda,togetherwithsomeimpressionistic
characterizations.Whatemergesistheideathatdemagogiccontributionsemploy,
whetherintentionallyorunintentionally,flawedideologiestocutoffrational
deliberationanddiscussion.Incharacteristiccases,theydosobyusingtheflawed
ideologiestooverwhelmaffectivestates.Butmorecanbesaidabouttheproperties
ofaclaiminvirtueofwhichitisaninstanceofpropaganda,andmorecanbesaid
aboutwhatmakesaparticularinstanceofpropagandaaneffectiveinstance.And
thatismyaimintherestofthischapter.
Itisnaturaltothinkofrepresentationsthemselvesaspropaganda.Butmyfocusis
ratheronclaims,orarguments,andrepresentationsonlyinsofarastheyplayarole
intheseclaimsorarguments.AnimageshowingSaddamHusseinasalittleboywho
needstobepunishedplaysaroleinapropagandisticargumentthatAmericashould
invadeIraq.Theimagefunctionspropagandisticallyintheargument.Mytaskisto
explainwhenargumentsforcertaingoalsorcertaintheoriesarepropagandistic
ones.Thiswillinvolvetalkingaboutrepresentations,butonlyastheyplaya
propagandisticroleincertainarguments.
InhisbookThe Phantom Public,WalterLippmannwrites,

Sincethegeneralopinionsoflargenumbersofpersonsarealmostcertainto
beavagueandconfusingmedley,actioncannotbetakenuntiltheseopinions
havebeenfactoreddown,canalized,compressedandmadeuniform.The
makingofonegeneralwilloutofmultitudeofgeneralwishesisnotan
Hegelianmystery,assomanysocialphilosophershaveimagined,butanart
wellknowntoleaders,politiciansandsteeringcommittees.Itconsists
essentiallyintheuseofsymbolswhichassembleemotionsaftertheyhave
beendetachedfromtheirideas.19
KlempererwritesoftheLanguageoftheThirdReich(LTI),Itsentirevocabularyis
dominatedbythewilltomovementandtoaction.20Indeed,alltherhetoricofthe
LTIcanbetracedbacktotheprincipleofmovement.21ThegoalofLTIwas
encouragecitizenstorushoverdeliberationandintodirectaction.
Propagandaisnotsimplyclosingoffrationaldebatebyappealtoemotion;often,
emotionsarerationalandtrackreasons.Itratherinvolvesclosingoffdebateby
emotionsdetachedfromtheirideas.Accordingtotheseclassicalcharacterizations
ofpropaganda,formedinreflectinguponthetwogreatwarsofthetwentieth
century,propagandaclosesoffdebatebybypassingtherational will.Itmakesthe
statemoveasone,stirredbyemotionsthatfarsurpasstheevidencefortheir
intensity.Itisinthiswaythatallpropagandaunitescitizensasone.Propagandais
manipulation of the rational will to close off debate.22ThisiswhatIwillcallthe
classical sense of propaganda.
Lyingtooisabetrayaloftherationalwill.Butitisadifferentkindofbetrayalofthe
rationalwillthanpropaganda.Atleastwithlying,onepurportstoprovideevidence.
Propagandaisworsethanthat.Itattemptstounifyopinionwithoutattemptingto
appealtoourrationalwillatall.Itbypassesanysenseofautonomousdecision.
Thereisamorenuancedversionoftheclassicalsenseofpropaganda.Itisanotion
thatanimates,forexample,NoamChomskysworkonpropaganda.23Thisis
propagandaasbiased speech.Propagandaisspeechthatirrationallyclosesoff
certainoptionsthatshouldbeconsidered.Thisisrelatedtotheclassicalsenseof
propaganda,butdoesnotrequireasagoalimmediateaction.Actioncouldbe
reachedbyseveralstepsofpropaganda,inthesenseofbiasedspeech.Ishallcall
thispropaganda as biased speech.
Iamnotopposedtothesemodelsofpropaganda.PerhapsthenotionsIdiscussare
versionsthereof.Butthesetwomodelsofpropagandadonthelpusexplainthe
attractionsofpropaganda,noritsrelationtoideology.Inwhatfollows,Idistinguish
twotypesofpropaganda.Ileaveopenthenatureoftheirrelationbothtothe
classicalconceptionofpropagandaandtopropagandaasbiasedspeech.
Myconcerninthisbookiswithliberaldemocracy,ratherthanwitheitherthe
extremeauthoritarianstatediscussedbyKlempererorthestillquiteundemocratic
momentduringWorldWarIthatmotivatesLippmannscharacterization.

Authoritarianstatesclearlyhavepropagandaanduseitunabashedly,asKlemperer
testifies.Butliberaldemocraticculturesseemonthesurfacefreefrompropaganda:
politiciansandtelevisionhostsshyawayfromtheclaimthattheyaredelivering
overtpropaganda.Inliberaldemocracy,propagandastandardlyoccursmasked.
Supposeweareinastatethatputativelyfollowsliberaldemocraticideals.Butthe
realitydivergesdeeplyfromthoseideals.Forexample,perhapsthecitizensdonot
treatoneanotherwithequalrespect,ofthesortgoverningconversationorfree
marketexchangebetweenequals.Whatwillbeneededtokeepthestatestable,to
keepthecitizensfromfomentingdissent,issomewaytohidethegapbetween
illiberalrealityandprofessedliberalideals.Forexample,perhapstheliberal
democraticidealsareusedtorefertoapoliticalsystemthattoleratesmassive
politicalinequality(assomethinkwhenliberalismisusedtoreferto
neoliberalism).Propagandainthiscontextismorecomplicated.Theliberalideals
themselvesarepropagandisticallyused.
TheGermanpoliticaltheoristCarlSchmittarguedin1927thatallpolitical
concepts,images,andtermshaveapolemicalmeaning.Theyarefocusedona
specificconflictandareboundtoaconcretesituation;theresult(whichmanifests
itselfinwarorrevolution)isafriendenemygrouping,andtheyturnintoemptyand
ghostlikeabstractionswhenthissituationdisappears.Schmittthinksthatpolitical
conceptslikeconstitutionalstateandeconomicplanningonlyhaveapolemical
meaning.Inshort,Schmittthinkstheyareonlyeverusedtomotivatepeopleto
action,inacharacteristicallypropagandisticway(forexample,callingtheIraqWar
in2003OperationIraqiFreedom).OnSchmittsview,theliberaldemocratic
vocabulary,aswithotherpoliticalvocabulary,workslikepropaganda.
Schmittsviewisthattheonlyuseofpoliticalvocabularyisaspropaganda,tobypass
therationalwilltowarorrevolution.Thisviewdoesnotneedtobeaccepted.We
canstillrecognizethatheisrightthattheliberaldemocraticvocabularyisoften
usedpropagandistically,instateswhosepracticesfalltooshortofitsideals.Itisnot
atypicaltoredefinedemocracysothatitdoesnotincludeequalrespect,butrather
marketefficiency.Itisnotatypicaltocallsomethingthatisnotawarforfreedomat
allawarforfreedom,ThisisthekindofpropagandaIwanttofocusoninthis
book.Tosaythatthedemocraticconceptscanbepropagandisticallyusedisnotto
saythattheycannotalsobeusedstraightforwardly.ButIspeculatethatitisthe
propagandisticuseoftheliberaldemocraticvocabularythatisresponsibleformany
casesinwhichwedonotnoticegapsbetweenidealsandreality.
Theclassicalconceptionofpropagandaandtheconceptionofpropagandaasbiased
speecharetooroughtohelpusunderstandthedistinctivenatureofthe
propagandisticuseofpoliticalconcepts.Webeganthischapterwithadiscussionof
SamuelP.Huntingtonscallforclaimsofexpertise,seniority,andexperienceasa
waytooverridedemocraticclaims.Thisisnotsomethingwecanexplainwith
Lippmannscharacterization.Huntingtoniscallingforthelanguageofobjective
sciencetobestrategicallyused.Inparticular,heiscallingforpeopletoclaim
expertiseovermattersofvalue,withtheresultthatcitizensdefertheirautonomous
8

judgmenttothesesocalledexperts.Thisistouseanattractiveandadmirableideal,
theidealofobjectivity,inanonobjectiveway,awaythattendstounderminetrustin
objectivity.Weneedanarrowercharacterizationofpropagandathatcomescloser
tothis.
Howcouldonegrowupnaivelyintoadulthoodinastatethatprofessestofollow
liberaldemocraticideals,butinwhichthereisoverwhelminglyilliberalpractice?To
maintainstability,thepropagandisticuseoftheliberaldemocraticidealswillbe
requiredtocoverupthesignificantgapbetweenidealsandreality.Thisisthe
speciesofpropagandathatcentrallyconcernsmeinthisbook,thekindthat
characteristicallymasksthegapbetweenthegivenidealandrealitybythe
propagandisticuseofthatveryideal.Failuresofdemocracycouldbehiddenbythe
propagandisticuseoftheveryvocabularyofliberalism.
Thiskindofpropagandaiswhatonemaythinkofasmasking propaganda.Butthere
areformsofpropagandathatarenotmasking.Propagandathatextolsthevirtueof
Aryanismis,forexample,notoftheformthatcentrallyinterestsme.Butwecan
obtainageneralconceptionofpropaganda,ofthekindthatismostinterestingand
importantandofthemoreobviouskind,byreflectingonthenotionofanideal.
Propagandainthesenseofthisbookessentiallyexploitsanideal.Theidealcanbe
aesthetic,healthrelated,economic,orpolitical.Advertisingisakindofpropaganda
thattypicallyexploitsanaestheticidealoranidealofhealth.Givenmyfocusinthis
book,Iwillconcentrateonpoliticalideals.Iwillcharacterizepropagandausing
politicalideals,bearinginmindthatthecharacterizationismeanttobegeneral
acrossdifferentdomains.
Differentpoliticalsystemsarecharacterizedbydistinctpoliticalideals.Forexample,
amonarchyinvolvesapoliticalidealofobediencetoauthority,inthetypical
example,amonarch,suchasakingoraqueenorapharaoh.Liberaldemocracy,as
wehaveseen,centrallyinvolvesthepoliticalidealsoflibertyandequality.
Thehomeofthestudyofpoliticalpropagandagenerallyisinitsapplicationtopublic
political discourse.Thenatureofpublicpoliticaldiscoursedependsuponthe
politicalsystem.Inamonarchy,publicpoliticaldiscourseis,forexample,
pronouncementsbyaking,queen,orpharaoh.Inademocracy,publicpolitical
discourseiseitherinpoliticaldebateinelections,betweenrepresentativesinthe
chambersofgovernmentseekingtopasspolicy(suchasCongressandtheSenate),
andinmediadiscussionsofeither.Publicpoliticaldiscourseisbestthoughtofin
contrasttothediscourseofprivatecitizensintheirhomes.Itisdiscoursethatisin
somesenseofficial,andthattakesplaceinthecontextsthatareofficialcontextsof
publicpoliticalclaims,whichdependonthepoliticalsysteminquestion.
Iamnowreadytointroducemyproposedcharacterizationsofthevariousspecies
ofpropaganda.ThetwobasickindsofpropagandathatIinitiallydistinguishare
structurallydistinct,andtogetherexhaustthecategoryofpropagandaasI
characterizeit.Iaminterestedinthisbookinpoliticalpropaganda,soIwillrestrict
myattentiontothatcategory.
9

Theessenceofpoliticalpropagandaonmyapproachisthatitisakindofspeechthat
fundamentallyinvolvespolitical,economic,aesthetic,orrationalideals,mobilized
forapoliticalpurpose.Propagandaisintheserviceofeithersupportingoreroding
ideals.Thefirstdistinctionbetweenkindsofpropagandahastodowithwhetheror
notiterodesorsupportstheidealsitappearstoembody.Thisisthedistinction
betweensupportingandunderminingpropaganda.
Supporting Propaganda:Acontributiontopublicdiscoursethatispresented
asanembodimentofcertainideals,yetisofakindthattendstoincreasethe
realizationofthoseveryidealsbyeitheremotionalorothernonrational
means.
Undermining Propaganda:Acontributiontopublicdiscoursethatis
presentedasanembodimentofcertainideals,yetisofakindthattendsto
erodethoseveryideals.24
Underminingpropagandainvolvesakindofcontradictionbetweenidealandgoal.
Itsanargumentthatappealstoanidealtodrawsupport,intheserviceofagoal
thattendstoerodetherealizationofthatideal.
Iwillrestrictattentionforthemomenttopropagandathatsupportsorundermines
apolitical ideal(wherethisisbroadlyconstrued).Supportingpropagandacanbe
usedintheserviceofworthygoals,neutralgoals,orunworthygoals.Thegoalof
supportingpropagandaistoincreasetherealizationofapoliticalideal.Itdoesso
notbydirectlyprovidingareasonthatincreasestheprobabilityofthetruthor
virtueofthepoliticalideal.Itdoessoindirectlybyseekingtooverloadvarious
affectivecapacities,suchasnostalgia,sentiment,orfear.Theseemotionaleffectscan
leadtothediscoveryofreasons,reasonsthatinturnwillsupportthepoliticalideal
inacharacteristicallyrationalway.Butsupportingpropagandadoesnotsupportthe
goalthathelpstorealizetheidealviabeliefsthatappealsolelytowhatImmanuel
Kantcallsthe rational will:thefacultyrationalbeingshaveofactinginaccordance
withrationallaw.25Supportingpropagandaisintendedtocloseoffpossibilitiesand
moveemotionbehindagoalthatfurthersanexplicitlyprovidedideal.
ThedefinitionIhavegivenofunderminingpropagandaisveryspecific.Itrequires
thecalltoactiontobeonethatrunscountertotheverypoliticalidealitisexplicitly
representedasembodying.DanielPutnam(inpersonalcorrespondence)suggested
tomeamoreexpansivecharacterizationofpropaganda,accordingtowhichone
politicalidealisbeingdeployedtoweardownanotherpoliticalidealheldwithinthe
samepoliticalsystem.Consider,forexample,thepoliticalidealofliberty.Thisisa
politicalidealoftheUnitedStates.AnotherpoliticalidealoftheUnitedStatesis
opportunity.ThisisalsoapoliticalidealoftheUnitedStates.Onemightcharacterize
asaninstanceofpropagandaanappealtolibertyintheserviceofwearingdownthe
politicalidealofopportunity(say,anappealtocuttaxesbecauseofeconomic
liberties,theconsequenceofwhichistoreduceopportunityforimpoverished
10

citizens).Thiswouldnotbeaninstanceofsupportingpropagandaaccordingtothe
characterizationIhavegiven.Hereisamoreinclusivecharacterizationof
underminingpropagandaaccordingtowhichitdoescountasundermining
propaganda:
Undermining Propaganda2:Acontributiontopublicdiscoursethatispresentedasan
embodimentofcertainpoliticalideals,butisofakindthattendstoerodeapolitical
idealthatbelongsinthesamefamily.
Myworrywiththismoreinclusivecharacterizationisthatitthreatensto
overgeneralize.Sometimespoliticalidealssimplydoconflict;infact,manyholdthat
thereissuchaconflictbetweenlibertyandequality.MyconcernwithPutnams
proposeddefinitionisthatitwillentailthatwhatare,infact,examplesofgenuine
conflictbetweenpoliticalidealsaremisclassifiedasunderminingpropaganda.
ThecharacterizationsofpropagandaIhavegivenarecharacterizationsofwhatitis
forcontributions,paradigmaticallyutterancesorimages,tobepropaganda.Butwe
alsospeakofnewspapersandschoolsasbeingvehicles of propaganda.
Itistemptingtodefineavehicleofpropagandaasfollows:
Vehicle for the Production of Propaganda:Asiteormechanismforthe
productionofpropaganda.
Amediasourceoraschoolcanbeavehicleofpropaganda,eventhoughitnever
producesactualinstancesofpropaganda.Itcan,forexample,beavehicleof
propagandainvirtueofwithholdingcrucialinformationthat,byitsnature,itis
supposedtoprovide.Anewsstationthatrepresentsitselfasprovidingallthe
relevantnewsforpoliticaldecisionmakingis,intuitively,avehicleofpropagandaif
itregularlywithholdshighlyrelevantnewsforpoliticaldecisionmaking.Aschoolis
avehicleforpropagandaifitrepresentsitselfasprovidingalltherelevant
informationforbeinganinformedcitizen,yetregularlywithholdsinformationfor
beinganinformedcitizen.Thesearethekindsofvehiclesofpropagandaweshould
expecttofindinliberaldemocracies.Characterizingvehiclesofpropagandainthis
senseisthereforeofcrucialimportancetotheaimsofthisbook.
Hereisthecharacterizationofasenseofavehicleofpropagandathatisperhaps
moreusefulfortheorizingaboutpropagandainliberaldemocracy:
Vehicle of Propaganda:Aninstitutionthatrepresentsitselfasdefinedbya
certainpoliticalideal,yetwhosepracticetendstounderminetherealization
ofthatideal.
Aschoolinaliberaldemocracyisintendedtomakeitsstudentsintoinformed
citizenswhohavetheinformationnecessaryforinformedparticipationinpolitical
deliberation.Supposetheschoolintentionallyleavesoutcertaininformation,for
example,aboutthecountryssystematicinjusticetowardcertaingroups.The
11

studentsitproducesthereforehaveincompleteinformation,butbelievethe
informationtobecomplete.Theschoolthereforeunderminestheidealofhaving
fullyinformedcitizens.Aschoolthatproducespartiallyinformedcitizenswho
believetheyarefullyinformedisavehicleofpropaganda,even if it never produces
any actual propagandistic claims.Similarly,ifatelevisionnewsstationornewspaper
presentsitselfasreportingallrelevantnewsforpoliticaldecisionmakingina
country,yetwithholdscrucialinformationfordecisionmaking,ittooisavehicleof
propaganda,evenifitneverproducesanyactualpropagandisticutterances.Itisa
vehicleofpropagandainvirtueofunderminingthepoliticalidealitrepresentsitself
asembodying,thatoffullyinformingitsaudience.26
Ihavenowcharacterizedtwodifferenttypesofpropaganda,aswellastwowaysin
whichinstitutionscanserveasmechanismsfortheproductionofpropaganda.My
topicinthisbookispoliticalpropaganda,propagandathatexploitspoliticalideals,
ratherthanotherkindsofideals.Butmanyformsof advertisingareobviouslycases
ofpropagandaandcountassuchaccordingtothecharacterizationIhavegiven.An
advertisementthatuses,forexample,theidealofgoodhealthintheserviceof
sellingaproductthatundermineshealthispropagandaandcountsassuch
accordingtomycharacterization.Forexample,anadvertisementthatusespictures
ofhealthyrockclimberstosellanunhealthybeverageorfooditemusestheidealof
goodhealthintheserviceofagoalthatcanbeeasilyseentoundermineit.Somany
advertisementssimplyareinstancesofpropaganda.
However,anotherclassofadvertisementsseekstoassociateagoalwithanideal
thatissimplyirrelevanttothatideal.Forexample,advertisementsstandardlyuse
aestheticidealstopromoteaproduct,possessionofwhichisirrelevanttothe
furtherrealizationofthataestheticideal.Anadvertisementthatsuggeststhat
purchasingacertainkindofcarwillmakeonemoreattractiveisanexampleofthis.
Ifwebearinmindthatmanythingswewouldcalladvertisementsare
straightforwardlyinstancesofpropaganda,itisstillusefultoisolateatheoretical
categoryofadvertisingthatcapturesthisclassofadvertisements:
Advertising:Acontributiontopublicdiscoursethatispresentedasan
embodimentofcertainideals,butintheserviceofagoalthatisirrelevantto
thoseveryideals.
Commercialadvertisingisanattempttoattachpossessionoftheproductadvertised
toanattractiveideal,whenpossessingthatproductisinthenormalcaseirrelevant
toachievingthatideal.Effectiveadvertisementexploitsflawedideologythat
connects,forexample,materialpossessionstoaestheticworth.
Underminingpropagandabyitsnatureunderminesapoliticalideal.Itunderminesa
politicalidealbyusingittocommunicateamessagethatisinconsistentwithit.AsI
willexplainbelow,itisabletoachievethetaskbyexploitingalreadyexistingflawed
ideological belief,andevencontributingtotheformationofsuchbelief.It is flawed
ideological belief that masks the contradictions of undermining propaganda.
12

Flawedideologicalbeliefmasksthecontradictionsofunderminingpropagandaby
erectingdifficultepistemicobstaclestorecognizingtendenciesofgoalstomisalign
withcertainideals:forexample,obstructionstounderstandingliberaldemocratic
conceptsandwhattheyentail.Inchapters5and6,thechaptersonideology,wewill
investigatethenatureoftheseepistemicobstacles,andexplainwhytheyareso
difficulttosurmount.
Underminingpropagandaisthusfar more complicatedthansupportingpropaganda.
Judgingthemoralaswellasthepoliticalacceptabilityofaninstanceofundermining
propagandaiscorrespondinglyavexedandcomplexmatter.Buttherearemany
otherfactsatplayinevaluatingtheacceptabilityofauseofundermining
propaganda.Wecan,afterall,evaluatemorallyandpoliticallythemeansbywhich
someoneseekstoachieveagoal.Wemustnotignorethepossibilitythat
underminingpropagandaisademocraticallyunacceptablemeans,evenincasesin
whichthemessageorgoalisworthy(orthepoliticalidealbeingunderminedis
unworthy).
ImmanuelKantfamouslyarguedthatlyingwasthegreatestviolationofmansduty
tohimself.27Kantrejectedevenlyingforanoblepurpose,categoricallyrejectingthe
spreadofuntruthfulnessintorelationshipsbetweenpersons.Ihavearguedthat
propagandacanbebothsincereandtrue.Nevertheless,insofaraspropagandaof
eithervarietyisamethodtobypasstherationalwillofothersintheserviceofsome
goal,theKantianwouldregardpropagandaineithersenseasamoralviolation.In
theKantiansense,propaganda,regardlessofgoals,isnotmorallyacceptable.The
ethicalbasisofKantianphilosophyhasanundeniablepurchaseonourintuitive
moraljudgments,andthisisnodoubtthesourceofthesensethatpropaganda,
regardlessofitsgoal,ismorallyproblematic.ForKant,therationalwillisminimally
onethatoperatesindependentlyofaliencausesandissubjecttorationalprinciples.
Butpropagandarunscountertorationalprinciples.Insofarasaformofpropaganda
isakindofmanipulationofrationalbeingstowardanendwithoutengagingtheir
rationalwill,itisakindofdeception.28
IdonotherepresupposeaKantiantheoryofmorality.Butevenprescindingfroma
moralevaluationofpropagandaassuch,onemustworrythatmostargumentsthat
employunderminingpropagandaaredemocraticallysuspect.
Letsnowlookatsomeexamplesofsupportingandunderminingpropaganda.
Examplesofsupportingpropagandaaresimpletoprovide.Oneexampleof
supportingpropagandaistheuseofacountrysflag,ortheappealtoaromantic
visionofthecountryshistory,tostrengthenpatriotism.Asecondexampleis
deliveringaveryfrighteningpublichealthwarningtoraiseexcessivefearsabout
(forexample)smoking,withthegoalofincreasingpublichealthbytheuseof
exaggeratedfear.Athirdexampleisappealingtopastwrongsagainstagroupto
strengthenethnicprideandselfidentification.Forexample,SlobodanMilosevic,the
formerpresidentofSerbia,regularlyappealedtothedefeatofSerbiansintheBattle
13

ofKosovotoinstillasenseofhistoricalgrievanceinthoseofSerbianethnicity,
therebystrengtheningtheirethnicidentification.
Ihavesaidthatpropagandaisinvariablydemocraticallyproblematic.Aswillemerge
inthenextchapter,thereisakindofunproblematicandindeednecessaryformof
propaganda.Thereasonitisnecessaryisthatitisnecessarytoemploywhenthere
areundemocraticfeaturesofastatethatneedtobeaddressed.Soitisnotitselfpart
ofdemocraticdeliberation,properlyconceived.Buttherearecertainexamplesof
supportingpropagandathatareperfectlyacceptableinademocracy.Forexample,
cigarettepacksinmanydemocraticcountriescarrystarkwarnings,suchas
cigaretteskill.Theseareclearlyintendedtooverwhelmaffectivecapacitiesto
furthertherealizationofideals,inthiscase,theidealofhealth.Butpropagandistic
warninglabelsoncigarettesseemdemocraticallyacceptable,inawaythat
Milosevicspropagandaisnot.Whatisthedifference?
Wecanthinkofaministryofhealthastaskedtolookoutforthephysicalhealthofa
democraticnationwhenitscitizensdonothavetimetodotherelevantresearch.In
asense,therefore,wetasktheministryofhealthwithgivinguswarningsthatwill
conveyamessagethatwillhavetheeffectofdoingalltheworkofinformingus
abouttherelevanthealthissue.Inthecaseofwarninglabelsoncigarettepacks,
presumablytheideaisthatwehavetacitlygrantedourpermissiontotheministry
ofhealthtotakesuchsteps.Ifwehavenottacitlygrantedourpermissioninthis
manner,thensuchwarninglabelsaredemocraticallyproblematic.29
Letusnowturntosomebasicexamplesofunderminingpropaganda.Hereisthe
first.CarlHartdiscussesstumblingacrossexplicitracistideologysurroundingblacksand
cocaine,intheearlypartoftheTwentiethCentury.Hecitesthefollowingpassagefrom
1914,byamedicaldoctorintheNewYorkTimes,expressingtheviewthatBlackshave
anexceptionalreactiontothatdrug:
Mostofthenegroesarepoor,illiterate,andshiftlessOncethenegrohasformed
thehabitheisirreclaimable.Theonlymethodtokeephimawayfromthedrugis
byimprisoninghim.Andthisismerelypalliativetreatment,forhereturnstothe
drughabitwhenrealized.30
Crackcocaineisadegradedformofthedrugfavoredbywealthyeliteincities.Yet
duringthedrugwarinthe1980sand1990s,politicianssuccessfullyarguedfor1001
sentencingdisparitiesbetweenthedegradedformthaturbanBlackscouldafford,andthe
purerversionfavoredbywealthywhites.Hartpersuasivelyarguesthatitisthisflawed
ideology,soexplicitintheearlypartofthe20thcentury,whichoperatedtacitlyduringthe
worstdaysofthedrugwar,whenpoliticiansconvincedcitizensthatthesesentencing
disparitiestobeconsistentwithlawandorder.Theflawedideologyofblack
exceptionalismwithregardtoreactionstodrugsmasksthecontradictionbetweenthe
attractiveidealoflawandorder,orjustice,andtheotherwiseobviouslyunjustsentencing
disparitiesbetweenthedegradedversionofthesubstanceusedbypoorBlacks,andthe
purerversionfavoredbywealthWhites.Thegoalofestablishingthesentencing
14

disparitiesisnotconsistentwithlawandorder,buttheidealusedinserviceofthat
goalislawandorder.
Hereisasecondexampleofunderminingpropaganda.AccordingtoJamesHoggan,
inhisbookClimate Cover-Up,theAmericanPetroleumInstitutecreatedateamto
assembleaGlobalClimateChangeCommunicationActionPlan.Accordingto
Hoggan,Thedocumentplainlystatesthatitspurposeistoconvincethepublic,
throughthemedia,thatclimatescienceisawashinuncertainty.31StephenMilloy
wasafoundingmemberofthatteam.HogganreportsthatMilloynowappearson
FoxNewsasajunkscienceexpert.Milloyhasspenthisentirecareerinpublic
relationsandlobbying,takingmoneyfromcompaniesthatincludeExxon,Philip
Morris,TheEdisonElectricInstitute,theInternationalFoodAdditivesCouncil,and
Monsantoinreturnforhisworkdeclaringenvironmentalconcernstobejunk
science.{~?~thinspace}32Milloysassertionsarepresentedasembodyingtheideals
ofscientificobjectivity.However,anyonenotconvincedbytheideologyofthe
corporatefundedanticlimatesciencemovementwouldrecognizethattheyclearly
conflictwiththeidealsofscientificobjectivity.33
Hereisathirdexampleofunderminingpropaganda.AposterfromtheCultural
RevolutioninChinastates:Translatedliterally,
itmeansChairmanMaosproletariatrevolutiontriumphstenthousandyears!
Slightlymoreloosely,LetChairmanMaosproletariatrevolutiontriumphforever!
Herearetheliteralcorrespondencesbetweenthephrases:

ChairmanMaos

Revolution

Proletariat
Triumph

Tenthousandyears;metaphorically:forever

Thephrasethatisproblematicis,or,literally,tenthousandyears.For
thousandsofyearsitwasusedmainlyinthesentence,
whichcitizenswouldshouttowardtheemperor.Literally,itsays,Emperorten
thousandyears[repetitionignoredhere],meaningofcourse,Longlivethe
emperor!Thewordisdirectlyassociatedwiththelongruleofanemperor.
Hereiswhatishappening.Thepoliticalidealofamonarchyisobedienceto
authority.Revolutionisbeingtakenastheembodimentofobediencetoauthority.
Butitiseffectivebecauseoftheexistenceofaflawedideologyconnectingrevolution
tothewillofastatethatmakesdecisionsononesbehalf.Thosewhopossessthis
flawedideologywouldnotseetheclearcontradictionbetweenrevolutionand
obediencetoauthority.
Hereisafourthexample.IntheUSSupremeCourtdecisionCitizens United v. Federal
Election Commission,writtenin2010,theUSSupremeCourtdecidedthattherights
intheUSConstitutionextendedtocorporations.TheCourtpresentedthedecision
asifextendingfreespeechandotherrightstocorporationswasliketheCivilRights

15

Act,namely,anextensionofrightstohithertounrecognizedpersons.Itwas
thereforepresentedasanembodimentoftheprinciplesofdemocracy.Yetthe
unlimitedcorporatedonationsthatCitizensUnitedgaverisetoarethemselvesan
existentialthreattodemocracy,promisingtohandoverthemechanismof
governmenttocorporationsthatdothebulkoffundingforpoliticalcampaigns.34
Hereisafifthexample.IntheUnitedStates,someChristiantelevangelistshave
promotedwhathascometobeknownastheProsperityGospel.Accordingtothis
doctrine,Jesusshowshisfavorbydispensingwealth.AcceptingJesusisthewayto
acquireprosperity.Ifonewantsprosperity,oneshouldaccepttheChristianfaith.
Thus,thegoalofprosperityisadvancedasanembodimentofChristianfaith.Yet
Jesusisasclearaspossiblethatthiscouldnotbecorrect.IntheGospelofMatthew,
Jesusmakesclearthatitisthepoorandpersecutedwhoareblessed,notthe
wealthy.Onlybyacceptingaflawedideologylinkingthematerialistvaluesof
capitalismtothedoctrinesofChristianitycouldonefailtoseetheobvious
inconsistencybetweenthedoctrinesespousedbyJesusandthegoalofprosperity.
Hereisasixthexample.IntheNationalSocialistpress,theJewsweredescribedasa
publichealththreat,asinHitlersclaimthatJewsaretheBlackDeath.Theclaim
thatJewsaretheBlackDeathisclearlyapublichealthalert.Itmakesanassertion
thatpurportstobetrueandprovidesagenuinereasonthatreasonablepeoplemust
takeintoaccount.PeopleinthegripofaflawedantiSemiticideologydeliveredthe
claimsincerely.However,manyGermansatthetimeinfactwereJewish.Thepublic
healththreatwasinconsistentwiththehealthofagroupofcitizensofthatcountry.
Sothecontentoftheclaimwasclearlyinconsistentwiththepoliticalidealsit
representeditselfasembodying.35
Hereisaseventhexample.In1935,W.E.B.DuBoispublishedthebookBlack
ReconstructioninAmerica:18601880.Init,DuBoischallengesthethenprevailing
view,exemplifiedbytheColumbiaSchoolofhistorians,JohnBurgessandWilliam
Dunning,thattheendofReconstructionwasbroughtaboutbyincapacityoffreed
Blackcitizenstogovernthemselves.DuBoissalternativeaccountofthefailureof
Reconstructionisthatwhiteeconomicelitesexploitedtheracismofpoorwhitesto
preventpoorwhitesandnewlyfreedBlacksfromjoiningtogetherinalabor
movementwithunifiedclassinterests.Thoughittookseveraldecades,theaccuracy
ofDuBoissaccountofwhyReconstructioncametoanendhaslongsincebeen
widelyacknowledged.Atthetime,DuBoisscorrectreadingwasdisregarded,in
favorofamanifestlyracistinterpretation.Inthefinalchapterofthebook,DuBois
arguesthatBurgessandDunningsviewundermineshistory,bytwistingitsidealsof
truthandnarrativeaccuracytotheserviceofdominanceandpower.Thechapteris
calledinThePropagandaofHistory,andinithewrites:
Ifhistoryisgoingtobescientific,iftherecordofhumanactionisgoingtobeset
downwiththataccuracyandfaithfulnessofdetailwhichwillallowitsuseasa
measuringrodandguidepostforthefutureofnations,theremustbesetsome
standardsofethicsinresearchandinterpretation.
16

If,ontheotherhand,wearegoingtousehistoryforourpleasureandamusement,
forinflatingournationalego,andgivingusafalsebutpleasurablesenseof
accomplishment,thenwemustgiveuptheideaofhistoryeitherasascienceoras
anartusingtheresultsofscience,andadmitfranklythatweareusingaversionof
historicalfactinordertoinfluenceandeducatethenewgenerationalongtheway
wewish.36
DuBoisherecriticizesBurgessandDunning,andwhitehistoryofthe
Reconstructionmoregenerally,aspropaganda.Itispropaganda,becauseitappeals
totheidealsofhistoryintheserviceofgoals,powerandinterest,whichundermine
theidealsoftruthandscience.
ThesevenexamplesofunderminingpropagandaIhavegivenareuniformly
negative.Itisworthwhiletolookatexamplesofunderminingpropagandathat
targetsaproblematicideal.InhispaperCriteriaofNegroArtfrom1926,DuBois
callsontheblackartisttoengageinpropagandatorepresentthehumanityand
valueofherpeople.Yethearguesthattheblackartistcannotsimplypresentthe
caseforblackhumanitydirectly:
Supposeyouweretowriteastoryandputinitthekindofpeopleyouknow
andlikeandimagine.Youmightgetitpublishedandyoumightnot.Andthe
"mightnot"isstillfarbiggerthanthe"might".Thewhitepublisherscatering
towhitefolkwouldsay,"Itisnotinteresting"towhitefolk,naturallynot.
TheywantUncleToms,Topsies,good"darkies"andclowns.37
DuBoisrecognizesthatsimplydirectlyappealingtowhitesbyshowingthemthe
blackperspectivewillnotwork.Anindirectmethodisrequiredtostirwhite
interest,onethatappealstowhitefolk,yetwillsomehowcallattentiontothe
Blackperspective.DuBoisiscallingforacertainkindofunderminingpropaganda.
AccordingtothemusicologistIngridMonsonsanalysisofJohnColtranesversionof
MyFavoriteThings,apopularChristmassongfromthaticoniccinematic
celebrationofwhiteness,The Sound of Music,isawayoftakingawhiteaesthetic
idealandusingittorepresenttheblackAmericanvoiceandexperience.38Ifso,itis
anexampleofDuBoissappeal.
Monsonwrites:
[Coltranes]transformationofMyFavoriteThings,orwhatGateswould
termsignificationuponthetune,invertsthepieceonnearlyeverylevel.{AU:
Isuggestmakingthisedittoacommasilentlyforreadability.}Itmakesthe
interludes,nottheverse,thesubjectoftheperformance;ittransformswaltz
timeintoapolyrhythmicallytexturedsixfeel;andittransformsa
sentimental,optimisticlyricintoavehicleforamorebrooding
improvisationalexploration.Sincethelyricswouldhavebeenonthesheet
musicthesongpluggerbroughttothequartet,Coltranewouldhavebeen
wellawareoftheemphasisonwhitethingsinthelyricgirlsinwhite
17

dresses,snowflakesoneyelashes,silverwhitewinters,creamcoloredponies.
In1960ayearoftremendousescalationintheCivilRightsmovementanda
timeofgrowingpoliticizationofthejazzcommunitytherewascertainly
thepossibilitythatColtranelookeduponthelyricswithanironiceye.39
MonsonspersuasiveanalysisofColtranesMyFavoriteThingsrepresentsitasan
exemplarofDuBoisscall.Coltranetakesthesongandgivesitapowerful
subversivetwist,presentingawhiteaestheticidealinafashionthatsubvertsitto
revealblackexperienceandblackidentity.40
AfterthekillingofMichaelBrowninFerguson,Missouri,inthesummerof2014,the
singerLaurynHillreleasedasongshehadbeenplayinglivecalledBlackRage.The
songisalsoaversionofMyFavoriteThings.MyFavoriteThingscontainslines
likecreamcoloredponiesandcrispapplestrudels;LaurynHillsversioncontains
lineslikerapingsandbeatingsandsufferingthatworsens.Whetherornot
ColtraneintendedhisversionofMyFavoriteThingstobepropagandainthesense
ofDuBoisscallinCriteriaofNegroArt,itisundeniablethatLaurynHillexplicitly
intendedittobeso.Asongextollingfavoritethingsthatareraciallyandculturally
whitebutassumedtobeuniversalisusedtoexplainthedamagingconsequenceson
Blacksoftheracialideologyinwhichthataestheticidealisembedded.
DuBoissdoesnotrestricthiscalltoemploypropagandatoimpelwhitesto
recognizetheperspectivesofblackcitizenstotheaestheticrealm.Therhetorical
structureDuBoisdescribesinCriteriaofNegroArthashadinfluenceindiverse
areasofintellectualproduction.Agoodexemplarinthefieldofphilosophyis
TommieShelbyspaperJustice,Deviance,andtheDarkGhetto,publishedin2007.
Thetopicofthepaperisthemoralcriticismsofblackinnercityghettoyouth,and
itexplainswhatconstitutescertainformsofdeviance,namely,crime,refusingto
workinlegitimatejobs,andhavingcontemptforauthority.41Inshort,thepaper
concernstheidealofobediencetoauthorityandthepursuitoflegitimatelegalwork,
takenunrestrictedly.Thepaperfocusesontheformsofdevianceinvolvedin
deviatingfromtheseideals.Butinfocusingonthoseformsofdeviance,itendsup
demonstratingthattheunrestrictedformoftheidealmustberejected.
Thepaperispresentedasanattempttojustifyawhiteideologythatwearein
conditionsofjustice,andsotheidealsofobediencetoauthorityandpursuitof
legitimateworkcanbeexceptionless.However,whatthepaperinfactdoesis
underminetheexceptionlessideal,byrejectingthepresuppositionthatweareina
juststate;theconditionsofthedarkghettorepresentafailureofreciprocity.So,
forexample,blackrefusaltotakemenialjobsisnotaformofdeviantlaziness,but
arejectionofanunjustsocialorder.ThisisanexampleofthestructureurgedbyDu
Bois.Shelbyspapertargetstheexceptionlessgeneralizationthatoneshouldbe
obedienttoauthorityandpursuelegitimatework.Itseemsatfirsttorelyonthat
generalization,andpursuethequestionofhowitisbeapplied.Shelbysdiscussion
howevereventuallyrevealsthatitisfalsebyrejectingtheidealizingpresupposition,
usingtheexampleoftheunjustconditionsinthedarkghetto.
18

DuBoisscallforpropagandaisdesignedtodealwithsituationsinwhicha
dominantgroupissufferingunderaflawedideologythatleadsthemtoembracea
problematicideal,oraproblematicconceptionofanordinaryideal.Itishardtosee
howdirectchallengestotheidealswillbeeffective.DuBoissproposalistowrap
challengestotheidealinthetemptingvocabularyoftheidealitself.Itisanoveland
powerfulrhetoricalsuggestion.42
TherearehardcasesthatmaynotappeartofitthemodelIhavesketched.
Liberalismisaviewinpoliticalphilosophythatplacestheidealsofautonomyand
equalityaboveallothers.Thereare,however,politicalviewsthatarerepresentedas
embodyingliberalismyetinterpretsomeoftheseidealsinaproblematicallynarrow
way.Forexample,whatwemightcallneoliberalismtreatscompetitivemarketsas
thewayallgoodsshouldbeallocated(Imakenoclaimtoaccuracyaboutthe
descriptionofanypreexistingviewhere).Onemightnaturallythink,intheabsence
ofatheoreticalargument,thatanargumentforneoliberalismthat,forexample,
appealstothefoundingfathersconceptionofliberalismtojustifytheviewthat
marketsaretheonlylegitimatewaytodividegoodsthatisconsistentwithlibertyis
adeformationorunderminingoftheidealsofliberalisminawaythatis
characteristicofunderminingpropaganda.Yetmarketexchangesareincludedinthe
scopeofliberalautonomy.Marketsarealegitimatemeansofdividingupsome
goods,anddividingsomegoodsupinthiswayisallowedbyanyversionof
liberalism.Soonemightworrythatargumentsforneoliberalismthatareframedas
defensesofclassicalliberalismdonotcountaspropaganda,becausemarketsarenot
inconsistentwiththedomainofliberalfreedom.
Letsassumethatthereisnopersuasiveargumentthatmarketexchangeiscentral
toliberalism.Ifso,thenrepresenting,forexample,theliberalismofthefounding
fathersoftheUnitedStatesastheviewthateverydivisionofgoodsmustbea
marketexchangedoescountasunderminingpropaganda.Itcountsasundermining
propagandabecauseitisnopartoftheliberalismofJamesMadison,forexample,
thatmarketspossessthisuniversaldomain.Soontheassumptionthatthereisno
persuasiveargumentprivilegingmarketexchangeinthisway,argumentsfor
neoliberalismthatframeitastheexpressionoftheliberalismof(forexample)the
foundersoftheUnitedStatesarepropagandistic.
Therearecertaintraditionalviewsofliberalismthatprivilegemarketexchange.But
itisneverthelessunderminingpropagandatopresenteventheseviewsastheview
thatwhatnowpassesformarketexchangeintheUnitedStatesisthiskindof
liberalism,forexample,asthekindofviewofliberalismespousedbyAdamSmithin
The Wealth of Nations.Smithhasaveryparticularconceptionofmarketexchange,
oneconnectedtopolitical equality.43Butthesystemofmarketexchangeprevalentin
theUnitedStatesisonethathassystematicallybarredcertainminoritiesfrom
participationincontracts,forexample,Blacksfromfairmortgages.44Italsotypically
involvesunfairexchangesbetweenrichandpoor.Ifso,itisundermining
propagandatorepresenttheliberalismofAdamSmithasconnectedtomarket
19

exchangeashistoricallypracticedintheUnitedStates.Marketexchangeas
historicallypracticedintheUnitedStatesdoesnothavetheconnectiontopolitical
equality,fairexchangebetweenequalsthatisattheheartoftraditionalconceptions
ofliberalismthatemphasizemarketexchange.
Nowthatwehavedrawnthedistinctionbetweensupportingandundermining
propaganda,itissimpletocharacterizethekindofpropagandathatismost
threateningtoliberaldemocracy.Thekindofpropagandathatismostthreatening
toliberaldemocracyisaspeciesofunderminingpropagandawemaycall
demagoguery.Demagogueryispropagandaintheserviceofunworthypolitical
ideals.Whatcountsasdemagoguerythereforedependsonmoralandpoliticalfacts.
Demagoguerycancomeintheformofstrengtheningunworthypoliticalideals.For
example,LeniRiefenstahlsdepictionofGermanathletesinherfilmOlympiafrom
1938isaglorificationofthesuperiorityoftheTeutonicrace.Butadifferentkindof
demagoguerywillbeofcentralinterestinthisbook:demagoguerythattakesthe
formofunderminingpropagandathatispresentedasembodyingworthy political
ideals.
Ofcourse,itisamatterofcontestationwhichpoliticalidealsareworthy.Afascist
doesnotfindthepoliticalidealsofliberaldemocracyworthy.However,ourconcern
inthisbookiswiththeproblempropagandaraisesforliberaldemocracy.Itis
thereforesafetoassumeforthepurposesofthisbookthattheliberaldemocratic
idealsofliberty,humanity,equality,andobjectivereasonareworthyideals.Inthe
caseofaliberaldemocraticstate,demagogicspeechincludesspeechthatuses
liberaldemocraticidealsintheserviceofunderminingtheseideals.
Anobviousexampleofdemagogueryinaliberaldemocraticstateisoccurringatthe
presenttime,duringthewritingofthisbook,intheUnitedStates.TheAmerican
RepublicanPartydoesnotdrawvotesfromblackandHispanicvoters.Ithas
engagedinamultiyear,concerted,andcompletelysuccessfulefforttoappealtothe
fearofvoterimpersonationtojustifyharshvoterregistrationlawsthateffectively
disenfranchiseblackandHispanicvoters.In2012,anewsorganizationundertook
anexhaustivepublicrecordssearch,involvingthousandsofrequeststoelections
officersinallfiftystates,askingforeverycaseoffraudulentactivityincluding
registrationfraud,absenteeballotfraud,votebuying,falseelectioncounts,
campaignfraud,castinganineligiblevote,votingtwice,voterimpersonationfraud,
andintimidation.45Thestudycoveredatwelveyearperiodbetween2000and
2012andfoundexactlytencasesofvoterimpersonationoutof146million
registeredvotersduringthattime.(Inthattwelveyearperiod,thestudyuncovered
justovertwothousandcasesoftotalelectionfraud.)Yet,thirtysevenstatesasof
2012hadimplementedorwereconsideringimplementingtoughvoterIDlawsout
ofthefearofvoterimpersonation.InthestateofPennsylvaniaalone,758,000
voterslackedproperidentification.Theclearestpossibleexampleofpropagandais
thereforetheuseofidealslikeoneman,onevote,togetherwiththeappealto
voterfraud,tomotivaterestrictivevoterIDlaws.

20

Underminingdemagogueryisakindofunderminingpropaganda.Thefull
characterizationistherefore:
Undermining Demagoguery:Acontributiontopublicdiscoursethatis
presentedasanembodimentofaworthypolitical,economic,orrational
ideal,butisintheserviceofagoalthattendstounderminethatveryideal.46
Thoseinthegripofaflawedideologyoftenunknowinglyengageindemagoguery.A
flawedideologywillleadsomeonetofailtorecognizetensionbetweenthegoalthat
anargumentsheprovidesservesandthepoliticalidealsitemploysinthatservice.
Herproblematicideologymayinfactpreventherfromseeingthatsheisengagedin
demagoguery,evenwhensheis.Anaudiencewhosharesthespeakersflawed
ideologywouldnotrecognizethatthemessageisdemagogic.Butthisisofcourse
onereasonwhyunderminingdemagogueryissoinsidious.
Ofcourse,thecharacterizationofdemagogueryIhaveprovidedisobviously
consistent,asanycharacterizationofdemagoguerymustbe,withinsincereattempts
atcommunicationbeingdemagogicaswell.Theinsinceredemagogueseeksto
exploitflawedideologythatpreventstheaudiencefromrecognizingthetension
betweenthedesiredgoalofthecommunicativeactandthepoliticalidealitis
presentedasembodying.SomeonewhohatesMuslimsmayknowperfectlywellthat
AmericanMuslimsarenotdangerous.Theymaynonethelessinsincerelyappealto
theruleoflawinadvancingaproposaltospyonorimprisonAmericanMuslims.
OnewaytodosoistoelicitirrationalfearaboutfellowMuslimcitizens,by
invocationofaflawedideologythatincludesthebeliefthatMuslimsareterrorists
andthereforeapublicsafetymenace.Theresultingfearmayblindcitizenstothe
factthatimprisoningandspyingonMuslimcitizensinfactviolatestheruleoflaw.
Alternatively,someonemaytrytoelicitloveofcountryasawayofblinding
rationality(propagandadoesnotobviouslycorrelatewithwhatonemaythinkofas
negativeemotions).
Accordingtomycharacterizationofunderminingdemagoguery,itseffectsaretocut
offoptionsthatrationallyshouldbeconsidered(forexample,thatgenerally
Muslimsarentterrorists)tomotivateanactionthatisnotconsistentwiththe
politicalidealthatitisadvancedasfurthering.Inthissense,ithassimilareffectsto
themodelofpropagandaasbiasedspeech.Butunderminingpropagandacrucially
involvesappealtoacherishedideal,usuallyapoliticalideal,whichittheninfact
tendstoundermine.Itsdeviousnessisduetothefactthatitismaskedasthevery
politicalidealitsconsequencesthreatentoerode.Themaskingneednotbe,andin
factisoftennot,intentional;whenitisnotintentional,whatdoesthemaskingisa
flawed ideology,inthesenseIwillexplaininchapters5and6.
Inmanycasesofunderminingpropaganda,theattemptofthecontributionwillbeto
makeitthecase,bytheveryactofmakingthecontribution,thatthepoliticalideal
shouldbereinterpretedtobeconsistentwiththedesiredgoal.Ifapoliticalideal
mustbereinterpretedtofitthegoalthatitisbeingusedtoadvance,whatthat
21

simplymeansisthatthegoalisnotconsistentwiththeoriginalmeaningofthe
politicalideal.ThecharacterizationIhavegivenexplainswhypropagandaofthe
indirectsortisoftenintheserviceofanattempttoalterthemeaningofthepolitical
ideal.Thatisbecausetheoriginalmeaningofthepoliticalidealisrationally
inconsistentwiththegoalitisbeinginvokedtomotivate.47
Casesinwhichtheproducerofunderminingpropagandaissincerethatis,does
notrealizethatsheisdeliveringpropagandawillbeonesinwhichthequestionof
whetherornotthegoalisconsistentwiththepoliticalidealisitselfacontested
politicalissue.Accusationsofpropagandawillthereforeoftenbesincerelyviewed
aspoliticallymotivated.Thishasconsequencesforthepolitical utilityofa
philosophicalaccountofthenatureofpropagandaofthesortIhereprovide.
InOppressions,thephilosopherSallyHaslangergivesacharacterizationof
oppression,inotherwords,ametaphysicalaccountofwhatoppressionis.48The
questionsheisinterestedinansweringisnotjustwhoisoppressed,butwhat
groupsareoppressedas such.Herfocusisongivinganaccountoftheconditions
underwhichaninstitutionoppressesFsassuch,meaningasaconsequenceoftheir
Fness.So,forexample,shediscussestheexampleofwhetherChicagoschildwelfare
policyoppressesblacksas blacks.Heraccountoftheconditionsunderwhichan
institutionoppressesagroupassuchinacontextappealstothenotionofbeing F
being unjustly disadvantagingin context C.Soweneedtoknowwhetherbeingblack
inChicagointhe1990sisunjustlydisadvantagingtoknowwhetherthechild
welfarepoliciesinChicagooppressedblacksassuch.Towardtheendofherchapter,
Haslangerposes,andthenaddresses,thefollowingobjectiontoherprojectinthe
chapter:
Onemightobject,however,thattheaccountIveofferedisnothelpful,for
whethergroupmembershipisrelevantinexplaininganinjusticewillalways
beamatterofcontroversy.Inshort,theaccountdoesnothelpusresolvethe
verydisagreementsthatgaveusreasontodevelopanaccountofgroup
oppressioninthefirstplace.49
Apreciselyanalogousobjectionarisestomyprojectinthischapter,togivean
accountoftheconditionsunderwhichacontributiontopublicreasonis
propagandistic.Therewillbemanycasesinwhichitisacontestedpoliticalissue
whetherornotthegoalisofakindthattendstounderminethepoliticalideal.
Considertheexpressionjobcreator,usedintheAmericanpoliticalcontextasa
descriptionofpersonswithgreatwealth.Thegoaloftheintroductionofthe
expressionjobcreatorwastodefendcuttingthetaxesofwealthyAmericans.The
expressionappealstotheeconomicidealofathrivingeconomyforallcitizens.The
reasonitiseffectiveisbecauseofthewidelyheldbeliefthatthewealthyusetheir
moneytostartsmallbusinesses.Thepoliticians,orpoliticaloperatives,who
introducedtheexpressionjobcreatorwerefinanciallysupportedbywealthy
campaigndonors.Sothereisreasontobelievethattheyareeitherinsincereor
sufferingfromflawedideologicalbeliefs.Butitdoesseemthatsomepoliticiansdoin
22

factbelievethatthewealthyusetheirmoneyinjustthisway,ratherthan,say,
investinginprivateequityorthestockmarket.Itisacontestedpoliticalissue
whethertheeconomicidealofathrivingeconomyforallisrationallywellserved,or
infactundermined,bycuttingtaxesontheverywealthy.Insuchcases,myaccount
ofpropagandawillnothelpusresolvewhetherornottherelevantclaimsor
expressionsarepropagandistic.
Thestraightforwardanswertotheobjectionisthatitmiscaststheprojectofgivinga
metaphysicalaccountofapoliticalkind.AsHaslangerwrites,[T]hepointofthis
discussionhasnotbeentoofferanepistemicmethodorcriterionfordistinguishing
oppression(orgroupoppression)fromotherrightsandwrongs.50Mutatis
mutandisforthischaptersdiscussionofpropaganda.Butsurelythereremainsa
lingeringconcern.Whatisthenthepointofproducingametaphysicalaccountof
fundamentalpoliticalkinds,whensuchaccountscannotplayacentralrolein
resolvingtherelevantpoliticaldebates?Whatisthepoliticalutilityofametaphysics
ofthepolitical?
Thereispoliticalutilitytomyaccountofpropaganda,becauseitssubjectmatteris
arguments ofacertainkind.Forexample,someonewhoarguesthatthecurrent
economicsystemintheUnitedStateslivesuptoAdamSmithsidealsismakinga
factualclaimaboutAdamSmithspoliticalphilosophy.Someonewhoappealstothe
liberalismofJamesMadison,orThomasJefferson,ismakingafactualclaimaboutan
authorsintent.Therearemultiplewaystoconstruetheintentsoftheseauthors.We
knowtheseauthorstookthemselvestobeaddressingonlycitizenshipforwhite
men.ButitislegitimatetosuspectthattheysawtheeventualitypredictedbyPlato,
thattheconceptstheydiscussedwouldleadtomoregeneralequality.Therefore,we
nowtakethemtobemakingmoreuniversalclaims.Regardlessitisstillthecase
thattherewerecertainpoliticalsystemstheyenvisagedwhentheyspokeof
democracy,freedom,andthekindofequalrespectpresupposedbycontractsina
freemarket.Wecanevaluatewhethercurrentrealitiesfitthemodelsofthese
authors,whenargumentsappealtotheirauthority(e.g.tothewisdomofthe
FoundingFathersoftheUnitedStates).Iftheauthorityoftheseauthorsisused,in
appealstotheidealstheypromoted,forpurposesthattendtounderminethose
ideals,theargumentsarepropagandistic.
Thisisnottodenythatmanycasesofpropagandamayneverinfactberecognized
assuch.Indeed,theremaybecasesofdemagoguerythatwecannoteverknoware
demagoguery.Itmightbeimportantforreflectionanddecisionmakingaboutour
lifeplanstobeclearaboutsuchpossibilities.Butweneedasenseofwhat
propagandais,byitsnature,toformulatesuchpossibilities.Herewehaveaneedfor
ametaphysicalaccountofthesortIhaveprovided.
Letussupposeforthesakeofargumentthatitisunknowablewhetherthecentral
claimsoftheCatholicChurcharetrue.TheChurchhasaministryofpropaganda;
indeed,thetermpropagandaderivesfromit.TheSacredCongregationde
Propaganda FideistaskedwithspreadingCatholicism,inthenameoftruth,andits
23

headhascometobeknownastheRedPope.Supposethatthedoctrinesof
Catholicismaretrue.ThentheproductionsofTheSacredCongregationde
Propaganda Fidearenotdemagoguery,butrathersupportingpropaganda.They
embodytruthand,byappealingtoemotion,leadtothespreadoftruebelief.Setting
upCatholicschoolsincolonizedcountries,togetherwitheconomicsystemsthat
requiregoingtosuchschoolsandsocialpracticesthatessentiallyprecludefollowers
ofnativereligionsfrompositionsofeconomicpower,isnotdemagoguery,thoughit
maybewrongforotherreasonshavingtodo,forexample,withpermissible
deviationsfromtruebelief.
Supposeforthesakeofargument,however,thatthedoctrinesofCatholicismare
false,butwedonotandindeedcannotknowthattheyarefalse.Supposethat
religiousbeliefis(asDavidHumeargued)akindofflawedideologythatisresistant
invariouswaystochange.Ifso,thentheproductionsofTheSacredCongregationde
Propaganda Fidearedemagogic.ThemassiveefforttoChristianizeconquered
colonieswasnotspreadingtruth,butwasanact,manyacts,ofbrutalcultural
suppressionofnativecultures.Presumably,evenCatholicsadmitthatifthe
doctrinesofCatholicismarefalse,thentheproductionsofTheSacredCongregation
de Propaganda Fidearedemagoguery.Wethereforehave,intheexampleofthe
productionsofTheSacredCongregationde Propaganda Fide,aclearexampleofthe
possibilityofsincereclaimsbywellintentionedpeoplethatarenevertheless
demagoguery.IfthedoctrinesofCatholicismarefalse,thenevenifnoonecould
cometoknowthattheyarefalse,theintuitiveviewisthattheproductionsofThe
SacredCongregationde Propaganda Fidearedemagoguery,albeitforevertobe
recognizedassuch.Suppressingotherbeliefsystemsinthenameoftruth,withthe
goalofinstillingfalsebeliefsystemsintheirplace,ischaracteristicallydemagogic.
Soitisclearlypossibleforasincere,wellintentionedpersontoengagein
demagogueryunwittingly,andwithnooneeverrecognizingitasdemagoguery.
Itis,aswehavejustseen,possiblefortheretobeacaseinwhichitiswidely
believedthatacertaingoalexemplifiesapoliticalidealbutisinfact,unbeknownto
everyone,propaganda,becauseeveryoneisinthegripofaflawedideology.Ifa
demagogueissomeonewhoisdevotedtodemagoguery,thismeansthatmany
peoplewhosincerelydonotidentifyasdemagogues,andevenhavethebest
intentions,aredemagogues.Thismayseemproblematic.Ademagogueseemstobe
someonewhohasmaliciousintent.
Therearetworeadingsofsomeonewhoisdevotedtodemagoguery.Thefirstis
thatademagogueissomeonewhoisdevotedtoapracticethey think of as
demagoguery.Thesecondisthatademagogueissomeonewhoisdevotedtoa
practice,andasithappens,thatpracticeisaformofdemagoguery(thoughthe
personmaynotbeawareofit).Theordinaryconceptofademagogueisthefirst,not
thesecond.51Therefore,itisnotthecasethatsomeonewhoregularlyproduces
demagoguery,butfailstorealizethatitisdemagoguery,isademagogue.
Accusationsofpropagandawilloftenbecontested,becausetheremaybegaps,even
excusableones,betweenfactsandouraccesstothosefacts.Structuralfeaturesof
oursocietymightpreventusfromaccessingthefactsthatwouldhelpusdetermine
24

whetherornotanaccusationofpropagandaistrue.Thislimitsthepolitical
usefulnessofthecharacterizationofpropagandaIprovide,butitdoesnoteliminate
it.Therearefactsaboutwhatidealsdemand,evenincasesinwhichthoseidealsare
notfullydeterminate.
Insofarasthefactsareunderdispute,sotoowillbemanyclaimsaboutwhatfalls
underthecategoryofpropaganda.Accusationsofdemagogueryinparticularwill
invariablybepolitical,becausemanypeoplewithflawedideologiesdonotaccept
thattheirideologiesareflawed.Somechargesofdemagoguerywillbeintentionally
strategic,andotherswillbetakentobeintentionallystrategic,evenwhentheyare
not.Butthisbookisaboutthenatureofpropagandaandpropagandagenerally,that
is,aboutthemetaphysicsofpropaganda.Itisnopartofmymetaphysicalclaimabout
thenatureofpropagandathateveryinstanceis,oreventhatmostinstancesare,
simpletorecognize,orevenpossibletorecognize.TheexampleoftheCatholic
Church,underthehypotheticalconditionoftheunknowablefalsityofitscentral
doctrines,makesitclearthatthisistherightresult.
Whatgoodisacharacterizationofdemagogueryifitdoesnotallowusaccessto
somekindofneutralstancefromwhichtoadjudicateclaimsofdemagoguery?Itisa
factaboutlifethatthereisnoneutralstance.Weallhavebackgroundbeliefsthatwe
bringtoanydeliberativeengagement.Oneneedstoassumemanythingssimplyin
ordertogetonintheworld,andeventonavigateoneselftoanysupposedneutral
stance.Agreatdealofwhatoneassumestobetruewillderivefromonesideology,
inthesenseIexplaininChapters5and6.Onesideologyinvolvesbeliefsthatare
tightlyconnectedtoonesselfconception.Onesideologicalbeliefsare
correspondinglydifficulttoevaluaterationally.Butthisofcoursedoesnotshow
thatthebeliefsarefalse,ornotinstancesofknowledge.
Thebeliefthatthetheoryofevolutionisacorrectdescriptionofrealityisconnected
tightlytomyselfconceptionasacertainkindofthinker:arational,cosmopolitan
intellectualwhotrustscertainsourcesofevidenceoverothers.Iknowthis.ButI
alsoknowthatthetheoryofevolutionisacorrectdescriptionofreality.Knowing
thatIhaveapersonalinvestmentinevolutiondoesnotmakemethinkIlack
knowledge.52Similarly,thebeliefthatChrististheSaviormightbecloselyconnected
tosomeonesidentity,andtheymightknowthisaboutthemselves.Buttheystill
believethatChrististheSavior,andifChrististheSavior,thentheirbeliefistrue.I
willarguethatweallhaveideologicalbeliefs,whicharesimplybeliefswithcertain
properties.Itmaybe,Iwillargue,essentialforcreatureslimitedbytimeand
memorytohavebeliefswiththeseproperties.Butbeliefswiththeseproperties,that
is,ideologicalbeliefs,canbetrue,theycanbeknown,andtheycanbecentraltoour
besttheoreticalunderstanding.Ifaneutralstancemeansastancewithout
ideologicalbelief,thentheneutralstanceisamyth.
Itmightbethoughtthatmyprojectinthisbookrequiresaneutralstance,a
nonideologicalperspective.Afterall,Iamengagedinthetheoryofideology.Thatis,
Iamengagedintheprojectoftheorizingaboutideology,andthattheorizingtakes
25

placeinanothertheory,thetheoryofideology.Itmightbethoughtthatifideological
beliefaffectstheorizingaboutideology,thenthetheorydescribedcannotbetrue,or
cannotbeknown.Butwehavejustseenthatthisthoughtisincorrect.Ideological
beliefs,beliefsthathavethepropertiesIdiscussinchapter5,canbetrue,andthey
canbeinstancesofknowledge.
Itmightbethoughtthatthetheoryofideologyhasideologyasitssubjectmatter,
andsocannotitselfcontainitssubjectmatter.Butthisthoughttooisincorrect.The
logicianAlfredTarskiprovidesaproofofthesoundnessoftheaxiomsofthe
calculusofclassesinametatheory.53Butthereasonthesoundnessproofworksis
thatthemetatheoryalsohasaxiomsthatexpressthosesameprinciples.Themeta
theoryisnotanattempttoprovideajustificationofthepropositionsexpressedby
axiomsofthetheorytosomeonewhodoubtsthem.Itstaskisdifferent:itisto
deliverimportantknowledgeabouttheobjecttheory.Similarly,thetaskofthe
theoryofideologyistoyieldimportantknowledgeaboutideology.Evenifthe
theoryofideologyisideological,itcanissueinknowledge.Asinthemetatheoryfor
logicorsettheory,aneutralstanceisneitherpossiblenorrequired.
Thefactthatthereisnoneutralstancecannotleadustopoliticalparalysis,orto
skepticismaboutpoliticalandmoralreality.Itisanerrortotrytoevadethefactsof
ourepistemiclimitationsbyadoptingmetaphysicalantirealism.Wemustcometo
termswiththefactofourlimitedperspectivewhileoccupyingthatveryperspective.
Thereissimplynootheroption.Somechargesofdemagoguerywillbeobviously
correct:forexample,aEuropeanantiSemiticpoliticalpartyschargethatJewsare
corruptingthesocialfabricofthenation,ormisplacedappealstotheauthorityof
theworkofvariouspoliticalphilosophers.Manychargesofdemagoguerywillnot
obviouslybecorrect.Thefactthatmanyofthemostinterestingchargesof
demagoguerywillbecontestedisduetoavarietyoffactors,fromstructuralfeatures
ofoursocietythatpreventusfromacquiringtheresourcestoresolvedispute,to
epistemiclimitationsthatariseinthenormalcourseofevenwellorderedsocieties.
Andeveniftheutilityofresolvingdebatesatthemomentismaximallylimited,we
stillrequireanaccountofpropagandatounderstandwhatdidhappenorwhatcould
happenpolitically.
ThecharacterizationofdemagogueryIhavegivenyieldsaroughsenseofhowit
operates.Demagogueryoperatesbytendingtoerodeaworthypoliticalidealit
appearstoexploitintheserviceofagoal.Wehaveexploredonewayinwhichit
erodesthepoliticalidealthatitappearstoembody,namely,byexploitingfalse
beliefsderivedfromaflawedideology.Inchapter4,Iwillarguethatdemagoguery
canalsocontributetotheformationoftheveryflawedideologicalbeliefsthatmask
itsdemagogicnature.Wecannowalsoseetheclearpossibilityofvariouskindsof
nondemagogicpropaganda.Supportingpropagandaintheserviceofaworthy
politicalidealisonespeciesofnondemagogicpropaganda.Ithelpstoachievethe
politicalidealitappearstoembody,eitherbyappealtoemotionorviathekindof
falsebeliefsderivedfromaflawedideology.

26

Anexampleofnondemagogicpropagandaofthislattersortisexplicitlynationalist
rhetoricintheserviceofhelpingthephysicalenvironmentofthecountry.A
representationoftheUnitedStatesasthemostphysicallybeautifulcountryinthe
worldisanexpressionofnationalistpoliticalideals.Arepresentationthatelicits
feelingsofnostalgiafortheland,withthegoalofmotivatinganaudiencetoprotect
itsnaturalresources,ispropaganda.
Nondemagogicpropagandacanalsoappealtoflawedideology.Supposeforthesake
ofargumentthatthecentraldoctrinesofChristianityarefalse(ifyouareadevout
Christian,replaceChristianwithMusliminwhatfollows).Anargumentabout
socialwelfarespendingthatappealsto,forexample,theidealofpoliticalequality,
butreliesonthereligiousteachingsofChristianitytobringabouttheeffectof
furtheringtheidealofequality,isacaseofsupportingpropagandathatisnot
demagogic,yetreliesonaflawedideology.
Theaimoftheexplicitdemagogueistodisruptrationalevaluationinsuchawayas
topreventheraudiencefromreflectingaboutwhetherthegoalofthedemagogic
claimisconsistentwiththepoliticalidealsitrepresentsitselfasembodying.But
insincerityisnotnecessarytoengageinpropaganda.Someoneinthegripofa
flawedideologycanneverthelessengageindemagoguery,sincetheeffectoftheir
flawedideologycanbetopreventthemfromreconsideringtherelationbetween
theirgoalandthepoliticalidealstheyincorrectlythinktheirgoalserves.Imay
firmlybelievethedoctrinesofmyreligiouscult,whichmaintainthateveryonenot
inthecultwillburninthelakeoffireforever.Onthisbasis,Imaykidnapyour
children,onthegroundsthatitisthemostreasonablethingtodofortheiroverall
welfare.Butkidnappingyourchildrenisnotconsistentwiththeidealofthewelfare
ofchildren.Onlytheflawedideologyofmyreligiouscultleadsmetobelievethatit
is.
Inowturntothetopicofpropagandainaliberaldemocraticsociety.Aliberal
democracyisgovernedbyparticularpoliticalidealsthathave,sinceAristotle,made
itspecialamongthepoliticalsystems:thepoliticalidealsoflibertyandequality.
Aristotlefurthermorearguesthatsincedemocracyislikelytoleadtoagreatdealof
economicequality,itisalsothemoststableofthevarioussystems.Sodemocracy
hasaspecialroleinpoliticalphilosophy,anditspoliticalidealsthe democratic
idealsaremyfocusinthenextchapter.
Everypoliticalsystemhasstabilityasanideal,aswellaslawandorder.Democracy
addstothattheidealsoflibertyandequality.Ifallcitizensparticipateequallyin
deliberationaboutthepoliciesthatwillholdforallofthem,thenanypolicythat
appliestoallwillbeatleastonethat,duringtheprocessofdeliberation,willbe
forcedtoreckonwiththeperspectivesandinterestsofallcitizens.Becauseofones
ownpoliticalparticipationintheformationofthepolicy,abidingbythatpolicyis
notagenuinesacrificeofliberty.Soinademocraticstate,itisveryimportantthat
allcitizenscanpoliticallyparticipate,andthattheresultingpoliticaldiscussionis
reasonableandrational,inthesensesIwilldefine.Inademocracy,the norms
governing political speech,thatis,speechbetweencitizensorrepresentativesabout
27

policiesandlaws,arealsopoliticalideals.Infact,theyare,togetherwithlibertyand
freedom,themostimportantpoliticalideals.Inthenextchapter,weturntothe
natureofpropagandainapoliticalsystemgovernedbydemocraticideals.
Chapter2.PropagandaDefined
1http://www.trilateral.org/download/doc/crisis_of_democracy.pdf
2Ibid.,p.34.Crozierincludesundertheessentialliberaldemocraticnormsthatarepotentiallyunderthreat
theChristianEthos(p.47).
3Ibid.,pp.6364.
4Ibid.,p.75.
5Huntingtonfailstonotethatobediencetoauthorityisthepoliticalidealofamonarchyorofdictatorial
rule.
6Ibid.,p.98.
7Ibid.,p.113.Huntingtonalsowarnsthat[m]arginalsocialgroups,asinthecaseoftheblacks,arenow
becomingfullpoliticalparticipants,whichcarrieswithitthedangerofoverloadingthepolitical
systemwithdemands(p.114).
8Iwillargueinthebeginningofchapter3thatBenBernankesuseoftheexpressionfiscalcliffwasone
suchcase.
9Onemightthinkthatthisisnotenoughtodefeatthespiritofthefalsityconditiononpropaganda.The
philosopherJenniferSaulhasrecentlyarguedconvincinglythatmisleadingisatleastasmorally
problematicaslying.Saul,Lying,Misleading,&WhatIsSaid,chap.4.Onecouldimaginereplacing
thefalsityconditionondemagoguerywithamisleadingconditiononpropaganda.Butinfactthis
wouldbetoreplacethefalsityconditionwithsomethingliketheinsinceritycondition,whichis
disputedinwhatfollows.
10Seechapter4ontheexpressivemodelofpropaganda.
11Klemperer,LanguageoftheThirdReich,p.38.
12Ibid.,p.162.
13ThisisthecharacterizationofpropagandaofferedbyRosen,OnVoluntaryServitude,p.52.
14Klemperer,LanguageoftheThirdReich,p.163.
15Rosen,OnVoluntaryServitude,p.78.
16Inanycase,thesincerityofthespeakerisoftenirrelevantineffectivecasesofpropaganda.Inhis
famousdiaries,KlempererquotesafriendassayingthatthoughtheNationalSocialistgovernmentis
awarethatwarisnotdirectlyinitsinterests,theyhaveovercultivatednationalrhetoric[and]will
havetoundertakesomething.Propagandaeveninthenarrowsenseoflanguageconsciouslyusedto
deceivewill,ifeffective,enduplegitimizingactionsitsupports,eveniftheoriginalcalltoactionwas
insincere.
17Incountrieswheretheleversofpowerareinthehandsofastatebureaucracy,themonopolisticcontrol
overthemedia,oftensupplementedbyofficialcensorship,makesitclearthatthemediaservetheends

28

ofadominantelite.Itismuchmoredifficulttoseeapropagandasystematworkwherethemediaare
privateandformalcensorshipisabsent.Thisisespeciallytruewherethemediaactivelycompete,
periodicallyattackandexposecorporateandgovernmentalmalfeasance,andaggressivelyportray
themselvesasspokesmenforfreespeechandthegeneralcommunityinterest.ChomskyandHerman,
ManufacturingConsent,p.1.
18DanGrecohassuggestedtomethatpropagandainatotalitariansocietyworkslikeadvertisingdoesina
democraticsociety.Peopledonttaketheclaimsmadeinadvertisingseriously.Nevertheless,
advertisingworks.Itaffectsourbehavioreventhoughwedonottakeitseriously.
19Lippmann,ThePhantomPublic,pp.3738.
20Klemperer,LanguageoftheThirdReich,p.210.
21Ibid.,p.211.
22RandalMarlinarticulatessomethinglikeLippmannandKlemperersproposal.SeeMarlin,Propaganda
andtheEthicsofPersuasion,p.22.Marlinsviewisthis:
PROPAGANDA = (def.) The organized attempt through communication to affect belief or
action or inculcate attitudes in a large audience in ways that circumvent or suppress an
individualsadequatelyinformed,rational,reflectivejudgment.
23ChomskyandHerman,ManufacturingConsent.
24ThankstoStephenDarwallforcrucialinitialhelpwiththischaracterizationherecommendedthismore
specificdefinitionovermyinitialcharacterization.
25DieWillewirdalseinVermgengedacht,derVorstellunggewisserGesetzegemsichselbstzum
Handelnzubestimmen.ImmanuelKant,MetaphysikderSitten,BA64.
26ThankstoKateManneforemphasizingtomethatpropagandacanbetheresultofsilenceaswellas
speech.
27Kant,TheMetaphysicsofMorals,part2,chap.2,sec.1.
28ThebestoverallsketchoftheissuesinthemoralityofpropagandathatIknowofisMarlin,Propaganda
andtheEthicsofPersuasion,chap.4.
29Thereisanotherwayofthinkingofthecasesurroundingcigarettewarninglabels,suggestedtomeby
MattiasKumm.Theurgetoreachforacigaretteisparadigmaticallyasignofaddiction,andnotthe
expressionofrationalwill.Perhapsthepointoffrighteningcigarettelabelsistocausepeopletopause
tochecktheirreflexivebadhabitandgivethemtimetomakeanautonomousdecision.Thus,onthis
account,harshcigarettewarninglabelsactuallyaidthedeliberativeprocessbydisturbingreflex.
Regardless,therewillbecertainpracticesofthesortIdescribewithcigarettewarninglabelsthatare
democraticallyacceptable:whereweineffectcedeourautonomytosomeoneelsetocontrolit,when
wedeemthemtobereliable.Thesearedemocraticallyacceptable.
CarlHart,HighPrice(NewYork,HarperCollins:2013),Chapter12
31Hoggan,ClimateCoverUp,p.42.
30

32Ibid.,p.156.

33Hereisanotherexample,alongthesamelines.Manygovernments,includingWesterndemocraciessuch
astheUnitedStates,employpropagandaaspoliticalwarfare.Thefalsemessagestheydeliver,for
example,tounderminethereputationofanenemyleader,areoftencalledcounterinformation.But,
asSusanStebbingpointsout,[t]hewordcounterinformationdoesnotmakesense.Calling
statementsthatareknowntobefalsecounterinformationistowrapcontributionsthatruncounterto
thenormsofrationaldiscourseinaveilthatimitatesthenormsofrationaldiscourse.Stebbing,
ThinkingtoSomePurpose,p.63.
34ThisexamplewassuggestedtomebyAndrePierce,duringaseminarIgaveatCheshireCorrectional
InstitutioninConnecticut,amaximumsecurityprison.
35ThankstoStephenDarwallfortheexample.
DuBois,BlackReconstructioninAmerica18601880,p.714.
DuBois,CriteriaofNegroArt
38ThankstoDanielJamesforthereference.
36
37

39Monson,SayingSomething,pp.11677.
40JustinCoberLakehasarguedthatColtranedemurredfromtakingthisashisintention
(http://www.popmatters.com/chapter/04Autumn/coberlake.html).Butofcourse,giventhe
characterizationofpropagandaIhavegiven,itisirrelevantwhatColtraneactuallyintended.
41Shelby,Justice,Deviance,andtheDarkGhetto,p.128.
42ThereremainsaworrythatDuBoissmethodmaybackfireincontextsinwhichthereisinsufficient
understandingoftheproblematicnatureoftheideal(thatis,thesituationinAmericaDuBois
describes).Embracingproblematicidealsof(forexample)obediencetoauthorityisoftentheresultof
flawedideologicalbelief,forexample,theflawedideologicalbeliefthatconditionsaresuchthatsuch
authorityislegitimate.TheworrywithDuBoissproposalfortargetingproblematicidealswiththeuse
ofunderminingpropagandaisthatitpresupposestheabilitytoevaluatetheidealinarationaland
impartialmanner.ThankstoKristieDotsonfordiscussion.
43Rothschild,???,chap.1.{AU:PleaseinserttheinformationforRothschild2001inthebibliography.}
44Coates,???.{AU:PleaseinserttheinformationforCoatesinthebibliography.
45http://votingrights.news21.com/article/electionfraud/
46ClaudiaMillscharacterizesmanipulationasaninstanceofcommunicationthatpurportstobeoffering
goodreasons,wheninfactitdoesnot.Mills,PoliticsandManipulation.Thisisclosetomy
characterizationofdemagoguery,butitisnotexactlythesame.OnthecharacterizationIhavegiven,
thebadgoalthatthepoliticalcommunicationurgesisconnectedtothegoodreasonitpurportsto
represent,inthatitrunsdirectlycountertothatveryreason.
47ThankstoChrisLebronhere,whosuggestedthereinterpretationideaasacharacterizationof
propaganda.Lebronisclearlyrightthatthisiswhatisbeingattemptedinmanycharacteristiccasesof
propaganda.Itpresupposes,however,thattheoriginalmeaningisnotcompatiblewiththegoal.Sothe
characterizationIhavegivenisconceptuallyprior.

48Haslanger,Oppressions.
49Ibid.,p.334.
50Ibid.
51Thus,Millscharacterizesamanipulatorassomeonewhoisawarethatsheispresentingabadreason
disguisedasagoodreason.Mill,PoliticsandManipulation.
52Foranextraordinarydiscussionofsomeofthesepoints,seeWhite,YouJustBelieveThatBecause.
53Tarski,TheConceptofTruthinFormalizedLanguages.