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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
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Introduction
A
n organic light emitting diode (OLED), also light emitting polymer (LEP)
and organic electro luminescence (OEL), is a light-emitting diode (LED)
whose emissive electroluminescent layer is composed of a film of organic
compounds. The layer usually contains a polymer substance that allows suitable organic
compounds to be deposited. They are deposited in rows and columns onto a flat carrier
by a simple "printing" process. The resulting matrix of pixels can emit light of different
colors.
Such systems can be used in television screens, computer monitors, small, portable
system screens such as cell phones and PDAs, advertising, information and indication.
OLEDs can also be used in light sources for general space illumination, and large-area
light-emitting elements. OLEDs typically emit less light per area than inorganic solid-
state based LEDs which are usually designed for use as point-light sources.
A significant advantage of OLED displays over traditional liquid crystal displays
(LCDs) is that OLEDs do not require a backlight to function. Thus, they can display
deep black levels, draw far less power, and can be much thinner and lighter than an
LCD panel. OLED displays also naturally achieve much higher contrast ratio than LCD
monitors.
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CHAPTER 2
HISTORY
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H istory
CHAPTER 3
OLED COMPONENTS
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OLED Components
• Substrate (clear plastic, glass, foil) - The substrate supports the OLED.
• Anode (transparent) - The anode removes electrons (adds electron "holes") when a
current flows through the device.
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Conducting layer - This layer is made of organic plastic molecules that transport
"holes" from the anode. One conducting polymer used in OLEDs is polyaniline.
Emissive layer - This layer is made of organic plastic molecules (different ones from
the conducting layer) that transport electrons from the cathode; this is where light is
made. One polymer used in the emissive layer is polyfluorene.
• Cathode (may or may not be transparent depending on the type of OLED) - The
cathode injects electrons when a current flows through the device.
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CHAPTER 4
WORKING PRINCIPLE
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Working principle
A voltage is applied across the OLED such that the anode is positive with respect to
the cathode. This causes a current of electrons to flow through the device from cathode
to anode. Thus, the cathode gives electron to the emissive layer and the anode
withdraws electrons from the conductive layer; in other words, the anode gives electron
holes to the conductive layer.
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Soon, the emissive layer becomes negatively charged, while the conductive layer
becomes rich in positively charged holes. Electrostatic forces bring the electrons and the
holes towards each other and they recombine.
This happens closer to the emissive layer, because in organic semiconductors holes are
more mobile than electrons. The recombination causes a drop in the energy levels of
electrons, accompanied by an emission of radiation whose frequency is in the visible
region. That is why this layer is called emissive.
The device does not work when the anode is put at a negative potential with respect to
the cathode. In this condition, holes move to the anode and electrons to the cathode, so
they are moving away from each other and do not recombine.
Indium tin oxide is commonly used as the anode material. It is transparent to visible
light and has a high work function which promotes injection of holes into the polymer
layer. Metals such as aluminium and calcium are often used for the cathode as they
have low work functions which promote injection of electrons into the polymer layer.
Just like passive-matrix LCD versus active-matrix LCD, OLEDs can be categorized
into passive-matrix and active-matrix displays. Active-matrix OLEDs (AMOLED)
require a thin-film transistor backplane to switch the individual pixel on or off, and can
make higher resolution and larger size displays possible.
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1. The battery or power supply of the device containing the OLED applies a
voltage across the OLED.
2. An electrical current flows from the cathode to the anode through the organic
layers (an electrical current is a flow of electrons).
• The cathode gives electrons to the emissive layer of organic molecules.
• The anode removes electrons from the conductive layer of organic molecules.
(This is the equivalent to giving electron holes to the conductive layer.)
3. At the boundary between the emissive and the conductive layers, electrons
find electron holes.
• When an electron finds an electron hole, the electron fills the hole (it falls into
an energy level of the atom that's missing an electron).
• When this happens, the electron gives up energy in the form of a photon of
light (see How Light Works).
4. The OLED emits light.
5. The color of the light depends on the type of organic molecule in the emissive
layer. Manufacturers place several types of organic films on the same OLED to make
color displays.
6. The intensity or brightness of the light depends on the amount of electrical
current applied: the more current, the brighter the light.
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CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF OLED
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Types of OLEDs:
T
here are several types of OLEDs:
1. Passive-matrix OLED
2. Active-matrix OLED
3. Transparent OLED
4. Top-emitting OLED
5. Foldable OLED
6. White OLED
Passive-matrix OLED(PMOLED)
PMOLEDs have strips of cathode, organic layers and strips of anode. The anode strips
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are arranged perpendicular to the cathode strips. The intersections of the cathode and
anode make up the pixels where light is emitted. External circuitry applies current to
selected strips of anode and cathode, determining which pixels get turned on and which
pixels remain off. Again, the brightness of each pixel is proportional to the amount of
applied current.
PMOLEDs are easy to make, but they consume more power than other types of OLED,
mainly due to the power needed for the external circuitry. PMOLEDs are most efficient
for text and icons and are best suited for small screens (2- to 3-inch diagonal) such as
those you find in cell phones, PDAs and MP3 players. Even with the external circuitry,
passive-matrix OLEDs consume less battery power than the LCDs that currently power
these devices.
Active-matrix OLED(AMOLED)
AMOLEDs have full layers of cathode, organic molecules and anode, but the anode
layer overlays a thin film transistor (TFT) array that forms a matrix. The TFT array
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itself is the circuitry that determines which pixels get turned on to form an image.
AMOLEDs consume less power than PMOLEDs because the TFT array requires less
power than external circuitry, so they are efficient for large displays. AMOLEDs also
have faster refresh rates suitable for video. The best uses for AMOLEDs are computer
monitors, large-screen TVs and electronic signs or billboards.
Transparent OLED
Transparent OLEDs have only transparent components (substrate, cathode and anode)
and,
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Top-emitting OLED
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Top-emitting OLEDs have a substrate that is either opaque or reflective. They are best
Foldable OLED
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Foldable OLEDs have substrates made of very flexible metallic foils or plastics.
Foldable OLEDs are very lightweight and durable. Their use in devices such as cell
phones and PDAs can reduce breakage, a major cause for return or repair. Potentially,
foldable OLED displays can be attached to fabrics to create "smart" clothing, such as
outdoor survival clothing with an integrated computer chip, cell phone, GPS receiver
and OLED display sewn into it.
White OLED
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White OLEDs emit white light that is brighter, more uniform and more energy efficient
than that emitted by fluorescent lights. White OLEDs also have the true-color qualities
of incandescent lighting. Because OLEDs can be made in large sheets, they can replace
fluorescent lights that are currently used in homes and buildings. Their use could
potentially reduce energy costs for lighting.
In the next section, we'll discuss the pros and cons of OLED technology and how it
compares to regular LED and LCD technology.
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CHAPTER 6
MANUFACTURING
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Making OLEDs
Inkjet Printing
Although inkjet printing is well established in printing graphic images, only now
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companies have demonstrated the use of inkjet printing for PLED displays and this
technique is now at the forefront of developments in digital electronic materials
deposition. However, turning inkjet printing into a manufacturing process for PLED
displays has required significant developments of the inkjet print head, the inks and
the substrates (see Fig.7.1).Creating a full colour, inkjet printed display requires the
precise metering of volumes in the order of pico liters. Red, green and blue polymer
solutions are jetted into well defined areas with an angle of flight deviation of less
than 5º. To ensure the displays have uniform emission, the film thickness has to be
very uniform.
Fig. 7.1 Schematic of the ink jet printing for PLED materials
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For some materials and display applications the film thickness uniformity may
have to be better than ±2 per cent. A conventional inkjet head may have volume
variations of up to ±20 per cent from the hundred or so nozzles that comprise the
head and, in the worst case, a nozzle may be blocked. For graphic art this variation
can be averaged out by multi-passing with the quality to the print dependent on the
number of passes. Although multi-passing could be used for PLEDs the process
would be unacceptably slow. Recently, Spectra, the world’s largest supplier of
industrial inkjet heads, has started to manufacture heads where the drive conditions
for each nozzle can be adjusted individually – so called drive-per-nozzle (DPN).
Litrex in the USA, a subsidiary of CDT, has developed software to allow DPN to be
used in its printers. Volume variations across the head of ±2 per cent can be
achieved using DPN. In addition to very good volume control, the head has been
designed to give drops of ink with a very small angle-of-flight variation. A 200 dots
per inch (dpi) display has colour pixels only 40 microns wide; the latest print heads
have a deviation of less than ±5 microns when placed 0.5 mm from the substrate. In
addition to the precision of the print head, the formulation of the ink is key to
making effective and attractive display devices. The formulation of a dry polymer
material into an ink suitable for PLED displays requires that the inkjets reliably at
high frequency and that on reaching the surface of the substrate forms a wet film in
the correct location and dries to a uniformly flat film. The film then has to perform
as a useful electro-optical material. Recent progress in ink formulation and printer
technology has allowed 400 mm panels to be colour printed in under a minute.
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CHAPTER 7
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
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7.1 Advantages
High resolution.
Do not require backlight.
Thinner, lighter and flexible.
Low voltage, low power and Consume significantly less energy.
Require only 3.3 volts and have lifetime of more than 30,000 hours.
Low power consumption.
Self luminous.
No viewing angle dependence.ie Larger viewing angles -170o
Display fast moving images with optimum clarity.
Cost much less to manufacture and to run than CRTs because the active
material is plastic.
Can be scaled to any dimension.
Fast switching speeds that are typical of LEDs.
No environmental draw backs.(Mercury Free)
No power in take when switched off.
All colours of the visible spectrum are possible by appropriate choose of
polymers.
Simple to use technology than conventional solid state LEDs and lasers.
Plastic substrates rather then glass.
Brighter- good daylight visibility.
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7.2 Disadvantages
× Susceptible to water.
× Potential not yet realized. Cost to manufacture is high.
× Overall luminance degradation.
× Constraints with lifespan.
× Limited market availability.
× Overcome multi-billion dollar LCD market.
The LCD is currently the display of choice in small devices and is also popular in
large-screen TVs. Regular LEDs often form the digits on digital clocks and other
electronic devices. OLEDs offer many advantages over both LCDs and LEDs:
• The plastic, organic layers of an OLED are thinner, lighter and more flexible than the
crystalline layers in an LED or LCD.
• Because the light-emitting layers of an OLED are lighter, the substrate of an OLED
can be flexible instead of rigid. OLED substrates can be plastic rather than the glass
used for LEDs and LCDs.
• OLEDs are brighter than LEDs. Because the organic layers of an OLED are much
thinner than the corresponding inorganic crystal layers of an LED, the conductive and
emissive layers of an OLED can be multi-layered. Also, LEDs and LCDs require glass
for support, and glass absorbs some light. OLEDs do not require glass.
• OLEDs do not require backlighting like LCDs (see How LCDs Work). LCDs work by
selectively blocking areas of the backlight to make the images that you see, while
OLEDs generate light themselves. Because OLEDs do not require backlighting, they
consume much less power than LCDs (most of the LCD power goes to the
backlighting). This is especially important for battery-operated devices such as cell
phones.
• OLEDs are easier to produce and can be made to larger sizes. Because OLEDs are
essentially plastics, they can be made into large, thin sheets. It is much more difficult to
grow and lay down so many liquid crystals.
• OLEDs have large fields of view, about 170 degrees. Because LCDs work by
blocking light, they have an inherent viewing obstacle from certain angles. OLEDs
produce their own light, so they have a much wider viewing range.
OLED
Parameter LED OLED
Advantage
Average
3000 nits 3800 nits 25% Brighter
Brightness
0.8 mm(1st Gen)
Thickness 2 - 3 mm Thinner handset
0.2 mm(2nd Gen)
High color quality
Color Poor in red and
Rich in red and green picture on cell phone
Spectrum green
screen
Voltage 10.8 V 3 in series 3-7V Lower Voltage
Brightness
Uniformit 65 - 75% > 90% Better quality picture
y
Backlight Rigid glass or flexible Versatility in
Rigid plastic
Unit plastic application
Thermal Usable in harsh
Problems above 60 C Stable up to 100 C
Stability environments
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CHAPTER 8
` APPLICATIONS &
FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
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A
pplications
TVs.
Lights
Computer Screens.
Cameras
PDA’S
Laptops
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• Because the plastics can be made in the form of thin films or sheets, they offer a huge
range of applications. These include television or computer screens that can be rolled up
and tossed in a briefcase, and cheap videophones.
• Clothes made of the polymer and powered by a small battery pack could provide their
own cinema show.
• A fully integrated analytical chip that contains an integrated light source and detector
could provide powerful point-of-care technology. This would greatly extend the tools
available to a doctor and would allow on-the-spot quantitative analysis, eliminating the
need for patients to make repeat visits. This would bring forward the start of treatment,
lower treatment costs and free up clinician time.
The future is bright for products incorporating PLED displays. Ultra-light, ultra-
thin displays, with low power consumption and excellent readability allow product
designers a much freer rein. The environmentally conscious will warm to the
absence of toxic substances and lower overall material requirements of PLEDs, and
it would not be an exaggeration to say that all current display applications could
benefit from the introduction of PLED technology. CDT sees PLED technology as
being first applied to mobile communications, small and low information content
instrumentation, and appliance displays. With the emergence of 3G
telecommunications, high quality displays will be critical for handheld devices.
PLEDs are ideal for the small display market as they offer vibrant, full-colour
displays in a compact, lightweight and flexible form.
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Within the next few years, PLEDs are expected to make significant inroads into
markets currently dominated by the cathode ray tube and LCD display technologies,
such as televisions and computer monitors. PLEDs are anticipated as the technology
of choice for new products including virtual reality headsets; a wide range of thin,
technologies, such as televisions and computer monitors. PLEDs are anticipated as
the technology of choice for new products including virtual reality headsets; a wide
range of thin, lightweight, full colour portable computing; communications and
information management products; and conformable or flexible displays.
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CONCLUSION
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Conclusion
O rganic materials are poised as never before to Trans form the world of
display technology. Major electronic firms such as Philips and pioneer and
smaller companies such as Cambridge Display Technology are betting that the
future holds tremendous opportunity for low cost and surprisingly high performance
offered by organic electronic and opto electronic devices. Using organic light
emitting diodes, organic full colour displays may eventually replace LCDs in laptop
and even desktop computers. Such displays can be deposited on flexible plastic
coils, eliminating fragile and heavy glass substrate used in LCDs and can emit light
without the directionality inherent in LCD viewing with efficiencies higher than that
can be obtained with incandescent light bulbs.
Organic electronics are already entering commercial world. Multicolor automobile
stereo displays are now available from Pioneer Corp., of Tokyo And Royal Philips
Electronics, Amserdam is gearing up to produce PLED backlights to be used in
LCDs and organic ICs.
The first products using organic displays are already in the market. And while it is
always difficult to predict when and what future products will be introduced, many
manufactures are working to introduce cell phoned and personal digital assistants
with organic displays within the next few years. The ultimate goal of using high
efficiency, phosphorescent
flexible organic displays in laptop computers and even for home video applications
may be no more than a few years in to the future. The portable and light weight
organic displays will soon cover our walls replacing the bulky and power hungry
cathode ray tubes.
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REFERENCE
www.wikipedia.org
www.oled-research.com
www.voidspace.org.uk
www.technologyreview.com
www.oled.org
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