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Block 16 Equations
Module 16.1
Module 16.1
Equations
16.1.1
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Module 16.1
Equations
Block 1: Introduction
Equation number
Equation
Equation
Thermodynamic temperature
2.1.1
Density of a material
2.1.2
Where:
r = Density (kg/m)
m = Mass (kg)
V = Volume (m)
vg = Specific volume (m /kg)
Specific gravity of a material
2.1.3
2.1.4
Where:
Q = Quantity of energy (kJ)
m = Mass of the substance (kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ /kg C )
DT= Temperature rise of the substance (C)
Change in entropy
2.1.5
16.1.2
Where:
hg = Total enthalpy of saturated steam (Total heat) (kJ/kg)
hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ /kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ /kg)
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
Where:
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ /kg)
= Dryness fraction
Total enthalpy of wet steam
=
2.2.3
Where:
hf = Liquid enthalpy (Sensible heat) (kJ /kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (Latent heat) (kJ /kg)
= Dryness fraction
Specific volume of wet steam
2.2.4
Where:
vg = Specific volume of dry steam at same pressure
= Dryness fraction
Flash steam produced from hot water and condensate
=
2.2.5
Where:
P1 = Initial pressure
P2 = Final pressure
hf = Liquid enthalpy (kJ /kg)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation (kJ /kg)
Carnot efficiency
2.3.1
=
Where:
Ti = Temperature at turbine inlet (K)
Te = Temperature at turbine exhaust (K)
Rankine efficiency
2.3.2
Where:
Hi = Heat at turbine inlet (kJ /kg)
He = Heat at turbine exhaust (kJ /kg)
he = Sensible heat in condensate (kJ /kg)
16.1.3
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
=
2.5.1
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
k = Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m K or W/mC)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the material (K or C)
= Material thickness (m)
Heat transfer by convection (Newtons law of cooling)
=
2.5.2
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
h = Convective heat transfer coefficient of the process (W/m C)
A = Heat transfer area of the surface (m)
T = Temperature difference between the surface
and the bulk fluid (K or C)
General heat transfer
2.5.3
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W)
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m C)
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference between the primary
and secondary fluid (K or C)
Note: Q will be a mean heat transfer rate (QM) if DT is a mean
temperature difference (DTLM or DTAM).
Arithmetic mean temperature difference (AMTD or DTAM)
2.5.4
16.1.4
Where:
Ts = Steam temperature (C)
T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
2.5.5
Where:
Ts = Steam temperature (C)
T1 = Secondary fluid in temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid out temperature (C)
ln = A mathematical function known as natural logarithm
Rate of heat transfer across a barrier knowing the thickness
and conductivity
=
2.5.6
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W / m2)
A
2.5.7
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W )
A = Heat transfer area (m)
T = Temperature difference across the barrier (C)
R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m2 C / W)
Resistivity from conductivity
2.5.8
Where:
r = Thermal resistivity (mC / W)
k = Thermal conductivity (W / mC)
Thermal transmittance (heat transfer coefficient)
from thermal resistance
2.5.9
Where:
U = Thermal transmittance of the barrier (W / m2 C)
R = Thermal resistance of the barrier (m2 C / W)
16.1.5
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
2.5.10
Where:
R1 = Resistance of the air film
R2 = Resistance of the condensate film
R3 = Resistance of the scale film on the steam side
R4 = Resistance of the of the metal wall
R5 = Resistance of the scale film on the water side
R6 = Resistance of the product film
Thermal transmittance (U) from the individual thicknesses
and conductivities
+
2.5.11
2.6.1
Where:
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ /s))
m = Mass of the fluid (kg)
c p = Specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ /kg C)
T = Increase in fluid temperature (C)
t = Time for the heating process (seconds)
Quantity of heat transferred by condensing steam
=
2.6.2
16.1.6
Where:
Q = Quantity of heat (kJ)
ms = Mass of steam (kg)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
2.6.3
Where:
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW or kJ /s)
ms = Mean steam consumption (kg /s)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
Energy balance between steam and secondary fluid
of a non-flow process
=
2.6.4
Where:
ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ /s))
m = Mass of the secondary fluid (kg)
c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ /kg C)
T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C)
t = Time for the heating process (seconds)
Energy requirement for a flow-type application (e.g heat exchanger)
2.6.5
Where:
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW)
m = Mean secondary fluid flowrate (kg /s)
c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ/kg K) or (kJ/kg C)
DT= Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (K or C)
Energy balance between steam and fluid of a flow-type application
2.6.6
Where:
ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW (kJ /s))
m = Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg /s)
c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ /kg C)
T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C)
Mean steam consumption of a flow type application
2.6.7
Where:
ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s)
m = Mass flowrate of the secondary fluid (kg /s)
c p = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ /kg C)
T = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (C)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
16.1.7
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
2.6.8
Where:
ms = Mean steam consumption rate (kg /s)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ /kg)
To determine the required steam flowrate from a kW rating
2.8.1
=
To determine the steam flowrate for a steam injection process
2.11.1
Where:
ms = Mean steam flowrate (kg /s)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW)
hg = Specific total enthalpy of the steam upstream
of the control valve (kJ /kg)
T = Final temperature of the water
c p = Specific heat capacity of the water (kJ /kg C)
Steam consumption to provide tank heat losses
2.11.2
Where:
ms = Mean steam flowrate to provide the heat losses from the tank (kg /s)
Q = Q(sides) + Q(surface) (kW)
2256.7 = Enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure (kJ / kg)
Mass and heat balance for steam injection into a tank
(
2.11.3
16.1.8
Where:
m = Initial mass of water in the tank (kg)
ms = The mass of steam to be injected (kg)
h1 = The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ /kg)
h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ /kg)
hg = The total enthalpy of the steam upstream of the control valve (kJ /kg)
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
2.11.4
Where:
ms = The mass of steam to be injected (kg)
m = Initial mass of water in the tank (kg)
h1 = The heat in the water at the initial temperature (kJ /kg)
h2 = The heat in the water at the final temperature (kJ /kg)
hg = The total enthalpy of the steam upstream of the control valve (kJ /kg)
Steam start-up load to bring steam pipework to
operating temperature
2.12.1
Where:
ms = Mean rate of condensation of steam (kg / h)
W = Total weight of pipe plus flanges and fittings (kg)
Ts
= Steam temperature (C)
Tamb = Ambient temperature (C)
c p = Specific heat of pipe material (kJ / kg C)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure (kJ / kg)
t
= Time for warming up (minutes)
Steam running load to keep a steam main at operating temperature
2.12.2
Where:
ms = Rate of condensation (kg /h)
Q = Heat emission rate (W/m)
L = Effective length of pipe allowing for flanges and fittings (m)
f = Insulation factor (dimensionless)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at operating pressure (kJ / kg)
Note: The constant 3.6 gives the answer in kg / h
Steam condensing rate for air heating equipment
2.12.3
Where:
ms = Rate of steam condensation (kg /h)
V = Volumetric flowrate of air being heated (m/s)
T = Air temperature rise (C)
c p = Specific heat of air at constant pressure (kJ / m C)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in the coils (kJ / kg)
Note: The constant 3 600 gives the solution in kg / h
16.1.9
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
2.12.4
Where:
ms = Rate of steam condensation (kg / h)
Q = Heat emission from pipe (W/m)
L = Effective length of pipes (m)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation at the working pressure (kJ / kg)
Note: The constant 3.6 gives the answer in kg / h
Mean steam flowrate to a storage calorifier
=
2.13.1
Where:
ms = Mean rate of condensation (kg / h)
m = Mass of water heated (kg)
c p = Specific heat of water (kJ / kg C)
T = Change in temperature of water (C)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam (kJ / kg)
t
= Recovery time to heat the water (hours)
Steam consumption of drying cylinders
[
2.14.1
Where:
ms = Mass flowrate of steam (kg / h)
W d = Throughput of dry material (kg / h)
W w = Throughput of wet material (kg / h)
T1 = Temperature of material entering the machine (C)
T2 = Temperature of material leaving the machine (C)
hfg = Enthalpy of evaporation of steam in cylinders (kJ / kg)
The kinetic energy in steam
2.16.1
16.1.10
Where:
E = Kinetic energy (kJ)
m = Mass of the fluid (kg)
u = Velocity of the fluid (m /s)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.806 65 m /s)
J = Joules mechanical equivalent of heat (101.972 m kg /kJ)
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
2.16.2
Where:
u = Velocity of the fluid (m /s)
E = Kinetic energy (kJ)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.806 65 m /s)
J = Joules mechanical equivalent of heat (101.972 m kg /kJ)
m = Mass of the fluid (kg)
Velocity of steam passing through an orifice in terms of heat drop
2.16.3
Where:
u = Velocity of the fluid (m/s)
h = Heat drop per unit mass (kJ/kg)
Mass flow of steam through an orifice
2.16.4
Velocity of steam passing through an orifice in terms of heat drop
2.16.5
Where:
u = Velocity of the fluid (m/s)
h = Heat drop per unit mass (J/kg)
16.1.11
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Module 16.1
Equation
3.2.1
Where:
s = Hoop stress (N /m)
P = Boiler pressure (N /m = bar x 105)
D = Diameter of cylinder (m)
= Plate thickness (m)
Relating boiler pressure to heat transfer rate
3.2.2
Where:
P = Boiler pressure (N /m = bar x 105)
Q = Heat transfer rate (kW)
To determine the evaporation factor of a boiler from its From & At
rating
=
3.5.1
Where:
A = Specific enthalpy of evaporation at atmospheric pressure.
B = Specific enthalpy of steam at operating pressure.
C = Specific enthalpy of water at feedwater temperature.
To determine the actual evaporation rate of a boiler from its kW
rating and the energy required to be added to the feedwater
to make steam
3.5.2
Where:
m = Steam output (kg/h)
Q = Boiler rating (kW)
To determine boiler horse power from heat transfer area
3.5.3
Where:
A
= Heat transfer (ft2)
BoHP = Boiler horsepower
Calculating boiler efficiency
3.6.1
16.1.12
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
3.12.2
3.12.3
Where:
sT = Conductivity at temperature T (S / cm)
s25 = Conductivity at 25C (S / cm)
a = Temperature coefficient, per C (Typically 0.02 / C or 2%C)
T = Temperature (C)
The electrical resistance of a conductivity probe
3.12.4
Where:
R = Resistance (Ohm)
K = Cell constant (cm-1)
s = Conductivity (S / cm)
To determine the blowdown rate of a boiler
3.12.5
Where:
F = Feedwater TDS (ppm).
S = Steam generation rate (kg / h)
B = Required boiler water TDS (ppm)
Ohms Law
=
3.16.1
Where:
I = Current (amperes)
V = Voltage (volts)
R = Resistance (ohms)
Capacitance Law
=
3.16.2
Where:
C = Capacitance (farad)
K = Dielectric constant (non-dimensional)
A = Area (m)
D = Distance between plates (m)
16.1.13
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
3.21.1
Where:
ms = Mass of steam to be injected (kg / h)
m = Maximum boiler output at the initial feedwater temperature (kg / h)
h1 = Enthalpy of water at the initial temperature (kJ / kg)
h2 = Enthalpy of water at the required temperature (kJ / kg)
hg = Enthalpy of steam supplying the control valve (kJ / kg)
Sizing a control valve for saturated steam
3.21.2
Where:
ms = Steam mass flowrate (kg /h)
K v = Valve coefficient required
P1 = Pressure upstream of the control valve (bar a)
P2 = Pressure downstream of the control valve (bar a)
3.21.3
Where:
V = Volumetric flowrate (m3 /h)
K v = Valve coefficient required
DP= Pressure drop across the valve (bar)
G = Relative density of fluid (water = 1)
Steam storage capacity of an accumulator
3.22.1
16.1.14
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Module 16.1
Block 4: Flowmetering
Equation number
Equation
4.1.1
Where:
= Absolute (or dynamic) viscosity (Pa s (1 cP = 10-3 Pa s))
Dr = Difference in density between the sphere and the liquid (kg / m3)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m / s 2)
r = Radius of sphere (m)
u
4.1.2
Where:
v = Kinematic viscosity (centistokes)
= Dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
r = Density (kg / m3)
To determine the Reynolds number of a fluid in a circular pipe
4.1.3
Where:
R e = Reynolds number (dimensionless)
r = Density (kg /m3)
u = Mean velocity in the pipe (m /s)
D = Internal pipe diameter (m)
= Dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
To determine volumetric flowrate from velocity
4.1.4
=
Where:
qv = Volume flow (m3/s)
A = Cross sectional area of the pipe (m2)
u = Velocity (m / s)
To determine mass flowrate from volumetric flowrate
=
4.1.5
Where:
qm = Mass flow (kg / s)
qv = Volume flow (m3/s)
v g = Specific volume (m3/ kg)
16.1.15
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
=
4.1.6
Where:
qm = Mass flow (kg / s)
A = Cross sectional area (m2)
u = Velocity (m /s)
v g = Specific volume (kg/m3)
To determine the turndown ratio of a steam flowmeter
4.2.1
=
Bernoullis Equation for a liquid
4.2.2
Where:
P1 and P2
u1 and u2
h1 and h2
r
g
=
=
=
=
=
4.2.3
Where:
P1 and P2
u1 and u2
h1 and h2
r
g
=
=
=
=
=
Where:
P1 and P2 = Pressure at points within a system (Pa)
u1 and u2 = Velocities at corresponding points within a system (m /s)
r
= Density (kg / m3)
Bernoullis Equation with constant potential energy terms and
frictional losses
4.2.5
16.1.16
Where:
P1 and P2
u1 and u2
r
hf
=
=
=
=
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
Where:
P1 = Upstream pressure (Pa)
P2 = Downstream pressure (Pa)
hf = Friction loss (Pa)
Potential energy
4.2.7
Where:
m = Mass of all the molecules above hole
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2)
h = Cumulative height of molecules above the hole
Kinetic energy
4.2.8
Where:
m = Mass of the object (kg)
u = Velocity of the object at any point (m/s)
Potential energy at
Kinetic energy at
=
the start of process
the end of process
4.2.9
Where:
m = Mass of the object (kg)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2)
h = Height of the object above a reference point (m)
Velocity of liquid through an orifice
4.2.10
Where:
u = Velocity (m / s)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2)
h = Pressure head (m)
Volumetric flowrate of liquid through an orifice
=
4.2.11
Where:
qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3/s)
C = Coefficient of discharge (dimensionless)
A = Area of orifice (m2)
g = Gravitational constant (9.8 m/s2)
h = Differential pressure (m)
16.1.17
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
Where:
qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3 / s)
Dp= Pressure drop (m)
The liquid velocity measured by a Pitot tube
4.2.13
Where:
u1 = The fluid velocity in the pipe
DP= Static pressure - dynamic pressure
r = The fluid density
To determine the b ratio for an orifice plate
4.3.1
4.3.2
Where:
f = Shedding frequency (Hz)
Sr = Strouhal number (dimensionless)
u = Mean pipe flow velocity (m/s)
d = Bluff body diameter (m)
The volumetric flowrate from the shedding frequency
4.3.3
16.1.18
=
Where:
qv = Volumetric flowrate (m3/s)
A = Cross sectional area of the orifice (m2)
f = Shedding frequency (Hz)
k = A constant for all fluids for a given design of meter
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
4.4.1
Where:
e
= Flow error expressed as a percentage of the actual flow
Specified r = Density of steam at the specified steam line pressure
Actual r
= Density of steam at the actual line pressure
Percentage error when using a pressure difference meter which is
not pressure compensate
4.4.2
) =
Where:
e
= Percentage flow error
Actual r
= Density of steam at actual pressure (kg /m3)
Specified r = Density of steam at specified pressure (kg /m3)
To determine the density of steam with known dryness fraction
4.4.3
Where:
r = Density of steam with dryness fraction c
n g = Specific volume of dry steam
c = Dryness fraction
Approximation of relationship between indicated and actual
flowrate with a deviation in dryness fraction
4.4.4
4.4.5
Equation
16.1.19
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Module 16.1
Equation
Where:
A = Valve seating area (m2)
P = Differential pressure (kPa)
F = Closing force required (kN)
Calculate valve Kv for liquids
=
6.3.1
Where:
K v = Flow of liquid that will create a pressure drop of 1 bar (m/ h bar)
V = Flowrate (m/h)
G = Relative density /specific gravity of the liquid (dimensionless).
DP = Pressure drop across the valve (bar)
Volumetric flow of water through a valve
=
6.3.2
Where:
V = Flowrate (m /h)
K v = Flow of liquid to create a pressure drop of 1 bar (m /h bar)
DP = Pressure drop across a valve (bar)
The flow of liquid through a constant bore pipe relative to
pressure loss
6.3.3
Where:
V1 = Flowrate at pressure loss P1
V2 = Flowrate at pressure loss P2
Valve authority
6.3.4
16.1.20
Where:
N
=
DP 1
=
DP 2
=
DP1 + DP2 =
Valve authority
Pressure drop across a fully open control valve
Pressure drop across the remainder of the circuit
Pressure drop across the whole circuit
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
Where:
g = Isentropic exponent of the steam or gas
Speed of sound in steam
6.4.2
Where:
C
= Speed of sound in steam (m / s)
31.6 = Constant of proportionality
g
= Steam isentropic exponent (1.135 : saturated, 1.3 : superheated)
R
= 0.461 5 the gas constant for steam (kJ / kg)
T
= Absolute steam temperature (K)
Steam flow through a valve under critical flow conditions
6.4.3
Where:
ms = Mass flow through a valve (kg/h)
K v = Valve capacity (m3/h bar)
P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a)
Volumetric flow through an equal percentage valve
6.5.1
Where:
V
= Volumetric flow through the valve at lift H
e
= Exponential constant 2.7183
x
= (ln t) H (where: In = Natural logarithm)
t
= Valve rangeability
H
= Valve lift (0 = closed, 1 = fully open)
V max = Maximum volumetric flow through the valve
Required capacity of a water control valve
6.5.2
Where:
Kvr = The actual valve capacity required by the installation (m/h bar)
V = Flowrate through the valve (m3/h)
DP = The differential pressure across the valve (bar)
16.1.21
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
=
6.5.3
Where:
H% =
In
=
V
=
t
=
V max =
Percentage lift
Natural logarithm
Flow through the valve at lift H (m3/h)
Valve rangeability
Maximum flow through the valve at full lift (m3/h)
6.5.4
Where:
H% = Percentage lift
In
= Natural logarithm
K vr = Required capacity at lift H (m3/h bar)
t
= Valve rangeability
Kvs = Valve capacity full open (m3/h bar)
6.5.5
Where:
K vr = Required capacity at lift H (m3/h bar)
ms = Steam mass flowrate (kg/h)
P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a)
P2 = Downstream pressure (bar a)
x = (P1 - P2) / P1
Equation
7.1.1
16.1.22
Where:
d = Diameter of valve orifice (mm)
DP = Differential pressure (bar)
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Module 16.1
Equation
Equation
=
Where:
d = The area of the inlet port at its narrowest point
Curtain area of a safety valve
=
9.1.2
Where:
d1 = Minimum area of opening between the valve and seat
L = Maximum lift from seat to valve
Required opening force for a safety valve with the spring
housing vented via the discharge vent pipe
9.2.1
Where:
PV = Fluid inlet pressure
AN = Nozzle area
FS = Spring force
PB = Backpressure
Required opening force for a safety valve with the spring
housing vented to atmosphere
9.2.2
Where:
PV = Fluid inlet pressure
AN = Nozzle area
FS = Spring force
PB = Backpressure
A D = Disc area
Required opening force for a safety valve with the spring housing
vented via the discharge vent pipe and taking into effect the
build-up backpressure
9.2.3
Where:
PS = Set pressure of safety valves
AN = Nozzle area
FS = Spring force
PB = Backpressure
PO = Overpressure
16.1.23
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
Where:
PV = Fluid inlet pressure
AN = Nozzle area
FS = Spring force
Cold differential pressure
9.3.1
Where:
CDSP = Cold differential set pressure
RISP = Required installed set pressure
CBP = Constant backpressure
Coefficient of discharge
9.4.1
Where:
K d = Coefficient of discharge
Critical pressure ratio
(
9.4.2
)(
Where:
PB = Critical backpressure (bar a)
P1 = Actual relieving pressure (bar a)
k = Isentropic coefficient of the gas or vapour at the relieving conditions
AD-Merkblatt valves - Minimum flow area for steam
9.4.3
Where:
AO = Minimum cross sectional flow area (mm2)
c = Pressure medium coefficient
m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h)
a W = Outflow coefficient
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
AD-Merkblatt valves - Minimum flow area for dry gases and air
9.4.4
16.1.24
Where:
AO = Minimum cross sectional flow area (mm2)
m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h)
Y = Outflow function
a W = Outflow coefficient
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
T = Inlet temperature (K)
M = Molar mass (kg / kmol)
Z = Compressibility factor
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
9.4.5
Where:
AO = Minimum cross sectional flow area (mm2)
m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h)
a W = Outflow coefficient
r = Density (kg / m3)
DP = PR - PB
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
PB = Absolute backpressure (bar a)
Compressibility factor for compressible steam and dry gases
9.4.6
Where:
Z = Compressibility factor
PR = Safety valve relieving pressure (bar a)
M = Molar mass (kg / kmol)
n = Specific volume (m3/kg)
R u = Universal gas constant (8 314 Nm / kmol K)
T = Actual relieving temperature (K)
Proportion of vapour in two phase discharge
9.4.7
Where:
n = The proportion of discharge fluid which is vapour
hf1 = Enthalpy of liquid before the valve (kJ / kg)
hf2 = Enthalpy of liquid after the valve (kJ / kg)
hfg2 = Enthalpy of evaporation after the valve (kJ / kg)
ASME (API RP 520) valves - Minimum flow area for steam
9.4.8
Where:
AO = Required effective discharge area (in2)
m = Required mass flow through the valve (lb / h)
PR = Upstream relieving pressure (psi a)
K d = Effective coefficient of discharge
K SH = Superheat correction factor
ASME (API RP 520) valves - Minimum flow area for dry gases and air
9.4.9
Where:
AO = Required effective discharge area (in2)
V = Required volume flow through the valve (ft3 / min)
T = Relieving temperature (R)
Z = Compressibility factor
G = Specific gravity of the air or gas
Cg = Nozzle gas constant
K d = Effective coefficient of discharge
PR = Upstream relieving pressure (bar a)
K B = Backpressure correction factor for gas and vapour
16.1.25
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
9.4.10
Where:
AO = Required effective discharge area (mm2)
V1 = Required volume flow through the valve (U.S. gal / min)
K d = Effective coefficient of discharge
K = Viscosity factor
K W = Backpressure correction factor for liquids
G = Specific gravity of the liquid
PR = Upstream relieving pressure (bar a)
PB = Backpressure (psi a)
ASME (API RP 520) valves - Nozzle gas constant
9.4.11
( )
Where:
C g = Nozzle gas constant
k = Isentropic coefficient of the gas or vapour at the relieving conditions
ASME (API RP 520) valves - Backpressure correction factor
9.4.12
Where:
K B = Backpressure correction factor
C1 = Capacity of valve with backpressure applied
C2 = Capacity of valve when discharging to atmosphere
ASME (API RP 520) valves - Bellows balanced valves
9.4.13
Where:
PB = Backpressure (psi g)
PS = Set pressure (psi g)
ASME (API RP 520) valves - Conventional valves
9.4.14
Where:
PB = Backpressure (psi g)
PR = Relieving pressure (psi g)
ASME (API RP 520) valves - Reynolds number: Metric units
9.4.15
16.1.26
Where:
R e = Reynolds number
m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h)
= Dynamic viscosity (Pa s)
AO = Discharge area (mm2)
The Steam and Condensate Loop
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
9.4.16
Where:
Re = Reynolds number
G = Specific gravity
V = Volume flow to be discharged (U.S. gal / min)
= Dynamic viscosity (cP)
AO = Discharge area (in2)
BS 6759 valves - Minimum orifice area for steam
9.4.17
Where:
AO = Flow area (mm2)
m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h)
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge
K SH = Superheat correction factor
BS 6759 valves - Minimum orifice area for air
9.4.18
Where:
AO = Flow area (mm2)
V = Volumetric flow to be discharged (l / s)
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge
T = Inlet temperature (K)
BS 6759 valves - Minimum orifice area for dry gases
9.4.19
Where:
AO = Flow area (mm2)
m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h)
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
Cg = Nozzle gas constant
K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge
Z = Compressibility factor
T = Inlet temperature (K)
M = Molar mass (molecular weight) (kg / kmol)
16.1.27
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
$2
9.4.20
.GU . P '3
Where:
AO = Flow area (mm2)
m = Mass flow to be discharged (kg / h)
K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge
K = Viscosity correction factor
r = Density (kg / m3)
DP = PR - PB
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
PB = Absolute backpressure (bar a)
BS 6759 valves - Minimum orifice area for hot water
9.4.21
$2 3
5 .GU
Where:
AO = Flow area (mm2)
Q = Hot water heating capacity (kW)
PR = Absolute relieving pressure (bar a)
K dr = Derated coefficient of discharge
BS 6759 valves - Nozzle gas constant
9.4.22
&J N
N
( N )
N
Where:
k = Isentropic coefficient of gas or vapour
EN ISO 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for steam, air and
dry gas at critical flow
$
9.4.23
&.GU 3R
Where:
A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2)
m = Mass flowrate (kg / h)
C = Function of the isentropic exponent
K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge
P o = Relieving pressure (bar a)
n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg)
EN ISO 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for wet steam
at critical flow
$
9.4.24
16.1.28
Where:
A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2)
m = Mass flowrate (kg / h)
C = Function of the isentropic exponent
K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge
P o = Relieving pressure (bar a)
n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg)
x = Dryness fraction of wet steam
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
EN ISO 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for air and dry gas
at sub-critical flow
$
&.GU .E 3R
9.4.25
Where:
A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2)
m = Mass flowrate (kg / h)
C = Function of the isentropic exponent
K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge
K b = Theoretical correction factor for sub-critical flow
P o = Relieving pressure (bar a)
n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg)
EN ISO 4126 valves - Minimum orifice area for liquids
$
E
.GU .Y 3R 3
9.4.26
Where:
A = Flow area (not curtain area) (mm2)
m = Mass flowrate (kg / h)
K dr = Certified derated coefficient of discharge
K v = Viscosity correction factor
P o = Relieving pressure (bar a)
Pb = Backpressure (bar a)
n = Specific volume at relieving pressure and temperature (m/kg)
Safety valve vent pipe diameter
G
9.5.1
/H YJ
3
Where:
d = Pipe diameter (mm)
Le = Equivalent length of pipe (m)
m = Discharge capacity (kg / h)
6DIHW\ YDOYH
5H TXLUHGSHUFHQWDJH
P =
[
3
vg = Specific volume of steam at the pressure (P) (m / kg)
Reaction force at the end of a safety valve vent pipe
)
9.5.2
N7
$3
N0
Where:
F = Reaction force at the point of discharge to atmosphere (newtons)
m = Discharge mass flowrate (kg / s)
k = Isentropic coefficient of the fluid
T = Fluid temperature (K)
M = Molar mass of the fluid (kg / kmol)
A = Area of the outlet at the point of discharge (mm2)
P = Static pressure at the outlet at the point of discharge (bar g)
16.1.29
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
9.5.3
Where:
LP = Sound power level in dB (A)
m = Mass flow (kg / h)
u = Speed of sound in an ideal gas (m / s),
k = Isentropic coefficient of the gas
R u = Universal gas constant (8 314 J / kmol K)
T = Absolute gas temperature at the safety valve outlet (K)
M = Molar mass (kg / kmol)
Sound pressure level at the safety valve outlet
9.5.4
Block 10:
Where:
L = Sound pressure level in dB (A)
LP = Sound power level in dB (A)
R = Distance from the source (m)
Steam distribution
Equation number
Equation
10.2.1
Where:
hf = Head loss to friction (m)
f = Friction factor (dimensionless)
L = Length (m)
u = Flow velocity (m /s)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
The Imperial based DArcy equation for determining pressure
drop due to frictional resistance
=
10.2.2
16.1.30
Where:
hf = Head loss to friction (m)
f = Friction factor (dimensionless)
L = Length (m)
u = Flow velocity (m /s)
g = Gravitational constant (9.81 m /s)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
10.2.3
Where:
f = Friction factor (Relates to the SI Moody chart)
kS = Absolute pipe roughness (m)
D = Pipe bore (m)
Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless)
SI based friction factors - f
10.2.4
Where:
f = Friction factor
Re = Reynolds number
Imperial based friction factors - f
10.2.5
Where:
f = Friction factor
Re = Reynolds number
Reynolds number
10.2.6
Where:
Re = Reynolds number
r = Density of water (kg /m3)
u = Velocity of water (m /s)
D = Pipe diameter (m)
m = Dynamic viscosity of water (kg /m s)
Relative pipe roughness
( )
10.2.7
Where:
ks = Pipe roughness (m)
D = Pipe bore (m)
Pressure factor
=
10.2.8
Where:
F = Pressure factor
P1 = Factor based on the inlet pressure
P2 = Factor based on the pressure at a distance of L metres of pipe
16.1.31
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
( )
10.2.9
( )
Where:
P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a)
P2 = Downstream pressure (bar a)
L = Length of pipe (m)
m = Mass flowrate (kg /h)
D = Pipe diameter (mm)
Pressure drop formula 2 (Maximum pipe length: 200 metres)
10.2.10
Where:
P = Pressure drop (bar)
L = Length of pipe (m)
n g = Specific volume of steam (m /kg)
m = Mass flowrate (kg /h)
D = Pipe diameter (mm)
Thermal expansion of pipe
(
10.4.1
Block 11:
Equation number
Where:
L = Length of pipe between anchors (m)
T = Temperature difference between ambient temperature
and operating temperatures (C)
= Expansion coefficient (mm /m C x 10-3)
Steam trapping
Equation
16.1.32
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Block 12:
Module 16.1
Pipeline ancillaries
Equation number
Equation
12.2.1
Where:
DP = Pressure drop across the valve (bar)
G = Specific gravity of the liquid (non-dimensional)
V = Flowrate of liquid (m / h)
Kv = Valve flow coefficient (m/h bar)
Equivalent water flowrate through a check valve
12.3.1
Where:
Vw = Equivalent water volume flowrate (m / h)
r = Density of the liquid (kg / m)
V = Volume flowrate of liquid (m / h)
Converting water mass flow to volumetric flow
=
12.3.2
Where:
V = Volume flowrate (m / h)
m = Mass flowrate (kg / h)
n = Specific volume (m / kg)
Largest particle size through a strainer screen
=
12.4.1
Where:
c = Length of particle (mm)
a = Length of mesh hole (mm)
b = Width of mesh hole (mm)
Pressure drop across a steam valve
12.4.2
Where:
DP = Pressure drop across the valve (bar)
P1 = Upstream pressure (bar a)
ms = Mass flowrate through the valve (kg / h)
Kv = Valve flow coefficient (m / h bar)
16.1.33
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Block 13:
Module 16.1
Condensate removal
Equation number
Equation
13.2.1
Where:
A
= Area of heating surface (m)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (W)
U
= Heat transfer coefficient (W / m C)
DT M = Mean temperature difference.
The heat exchanger temperature design constant
13.2.2
Where:
TDC = Temperature design constant of the heat exchanger
= Steam temperature (C)
Ts
T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature (C)
The steam temperature at any load
13.2.3
Where:
TDC = Temperature design constant of the heat exchanger
Ts
= Steam temperature (C)
T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature (C)
The secondary fluid inlet temperature at any load
[
13.2.4
Where:
TDC = Temperature design constant of the heat exchanger
Ts
= Steam temperature (C)
T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature (C)
The secondary fluid outlet temperature at any load
13.2.5
16.1.34
Where:
TDC = Temperature design constant of the heat exchanger
Ts
= Steam temperature (C)
T1 = Secondary fluid inlet temperature (C)
T2 = Secondary fluid outlet temperature (C)
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Equation number
Module 16.1
Equation
13.3.1
Where:
DT M = Mean temperature difference (C)
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (W)
U
= Heat transfer coefficient (W / m C)
A
= Heating area (m)
The secondary inlet temperature at any load
[
13.4.1
Where:
Tx = The secondary inlet temperature at any load factor x (C)
T1 = The secondary inlet temperature at full-load (C)
T2 = The secondary outlet temperature at full-load (C)
x = The load factor
The stall load for a constant flow secondary
13.5.1
Where:
A = The steam temperature in the steam space at full-load (C)
B = The secondary fluid outlet temperature (C)
D = The backpressure equivalent saturated steam temperature (C)
Calculating the stall load with a variable flow secondary
13.6.1
Where:
A = Steam temperature at full-load (C)
B = Secondary fluid outlet temperature at full-load (C)
C = Secondary fluid inlet temperature at full-load (C)
D = Equivalent backpressure steam temperature (C)
16.1.35
Equations
Block 16 Equations
Block 14:
Module 16.1
Condensate recovery
Equation number
Equation
14.1.1
Where:
X = Expected improvement in condensate return expressed as a
percentage
A = Cost of fuel to provide 1 GJ of energy
B = Energy required per kilogram of make-up water to reach
condensate temperature (kJ/kg).
C = Average boiler evaporation rate (kg / h)
D = Operational hours per year (h / year)
E = Boiler efficiency (%)
Cost of water saved by returning condensate
14.1.2
14.1.3
14.4.1
Where:
h d = Total delivery head
hs = Static head (pressure required to raise the water to the
desired level)
hf = Friction head (pressure required to move the water through
the pipes)
h p = Backpressure (pressure in the condensate system)
Calculate condensate velocity in a pipe
14.4.2
Block 15:
Desuperheating
Equation number
Equation
=
15.1.1
16.1.36
Where:
mcw = Mass flowrate of cooling water (kg / h)
ms = Mass flowrate of superheated steam (kg / h)
hs = Enthalpy at superheat condition (kJ / kg)
h d = Enthalpy at desuperheated condition (kJ / kg)
hcw = Enthalpy of cooling water at inlet connection (kJ / kg)
The Steam and Condensate Loop