Statistics

The mathematics of the collection, organization, and interpretation of numerical dat

a, especially the analysis of population characteristics by inference from sampling.
a collection of quantitative data
a branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and
presentation of masses of numerical data
Descriptive Stat
Descriptive statistics is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe,
show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might
emerge from the data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make
conclusions beyond the data we have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any
hypotheses we might have made. They are simply a way to describe our data.
A set of brief descriptive coefficients that summarizes a given data set, which can
either be a representation of the entire population or a sample. The measures used
to describe the data set are measures of central tendency and measures of
variability or dispersion.
Inferential Stat
We use inferential statistics to try to infer from the sample data what the population
might think. Or, we use inferential statistics to make judgments of the probability
that an observed difference between groups is a dependable one or one that might
have happened by chance in this study. Thus, we use inferential statistics to make
inferences from our data to more general conditions; we use descriptive statistics
simply to describe what's going on in our data.
Mathematical methods that employ probability theory for deducing (inferring) the
properties of a population from the analysis of the properties of a data sample
drawn from it. It is concerned also with the precision and reliability of the inferences
it helps to draw.

Quantitative data vs Qualitative data

There are two general types of data. Quantitative data is information about quantities; that is,
information that can be measured and written down with numbers. Some examples of quantitative
data are your height, your shoe size, and the length of your fingernails. Speaking of which, it might
be time to call Guinness. You've got to be close to breaking the record.

Qualitative data is information about qualities; information that can't actually be measured. Some
examples of qualitative data are the softness of your skin, the grace with which you run, and the
color of your eyes. However, try telling Photoshop you can't measure color with numbers.
Here's a quick look at the difference between qualitative and quantitative data.

The age of your car. (Quantitative.)

The number of hairs on your knuckle. (Quantitative.)

The softness of a cat. (Qualitative.)

The color of the sky. (Qualitative.)

The number of pennies in your pocket. (Quantitative.)

Qualitative Data
Overview:

Quantitative Data
Overview:

Deals with descriptions.

Deals with numbers.

Data can be observed but not measured.

Data which can be measured.

Colors, textures, smells, tastes,

appearance, beauty, etc.

Qualitative Quality

Length, height, area, volume, weight,

speed, time, temperature, humidity,
sound levels, cost, members, ages, etc.

Quantitative Quantity

Example 1:

Example 1:

Oil Painting

Oil Painting

Qualitative data:

Quantitative data:

blue/green color, gold frame

picture is 10" by 14"

smells old and musty

with frame 14" by 18"

texture shows brush strokes of oil paint

weighs 8.5 pounds

peaceful scene of the country

surface area of painting is 140 sq. in.

masterful brush strokes

cost $300

Example 2:

Example 2:

Latte

Latte

Qualitative data:

Quantitative data:

robust aroma

12 ounces of latte

frothy appearance

serving temperature 150 F.

strong taste

serving cup 7 inches in height

burgundy cup

cost $4.95

Example 3:

Example 3:

Freshman

Freshman

Qualitative data:

Quantitative data:

friendly demeanors

672 students

civic minded

394 girls, 278 boys

environmentalists

68% on honor roll

positive school spirit

150 students accelerated in mathematics

Probability Distributions: Discrete vs. Continuous

All probability distributions can be classified as discrete probability distributions or
as continuous probability distributions, depending on whether they define probabilities
associated with discrete variables or continuous variables.

Discrete vs. Continuous Variables

If a variable can take on any value between two specified values, it is called a continuous
variable; otherwise, it is called a discrete variable.
Some examples will clarify the difference between discrete and continuous variables.

Suppose the fire department mandates that all fire fighters must weigh between 150
and 250 pounds. The weight of a fire fighter would be an example of a continuous
variable; since a fire fighter's weight could take on any value between 150 and 250
pounds.

Suppose we flip a coin and count the number of heads. The number of heads could
be any integer value between 0 and plus infinity. However, it could not be any
number between 0 and plus infinity. We could not, for example, get 2.5 heads.
Therefore, the number of heads must be a discrete variable.

Just like variables, probability distributions can be classified as discrete or continuous.

Discrete and Continuous Data

Data can be Descriptive (like "high" or "fast") or Numerical (numbers).
And Numerical Data can be Discrete or Continuous:

Discrete data is counted,

Continuous data is measured

Discrete Data
Discrete Data can only take certain values.
Example: the number of students in a class (you can't have half a student).

Example: the results of rolling 2 dice:

can only have the values 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12
An example will make this clear. Suppose you flip a coin two times. This simple statistical
experimentcan have four possible outcomes: HH, HT, TH, and TT

Continuous Data

Continuous Data can take any value (within a range)

Examples:

A person's height: could be any value (within the range of human

heights), not just certain fixed heights,

Time in a race: you could even measure it to fractions of a second,

A dog's weight,

The length of a leaf,

Lots more!

Nominal
Lets start with the easiest one to understand. Nominal scales are used for labeling variables,
without anyquantitative value. Nominal scales could simply be called labels. Here are some
examples, below. Notice that all of these scales are mutually exclusive (no overlap) and none of
them have any numerical significance. A good way to remember all of this is that nominal
sounds a lot like name and nominal scales are kind of like names or labels.

Examples of Nominal Scales

Note: a sub-type of nominal scale with only two categories (e.g. male/female) is called
dichotomous. If you are a student, you can use that to impress your teacher.

Continue reading about types of data and measurement scales: nominal, ordinal, interval, and
ratio

Ordinal
With ordinal scales, it is the order of the values is whats important and significant, but the
differences between each one is not really known. Take a look at the example below. In each

case, we know that a #4 is better than a #3 or #2, but we dont knowand cannot quantify
how much better it is. For example, is the difference between OK and Unhappy the same as
the difference between Very Happy and Happy? We cant say.

Ordinal scales are typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness,
discomfort, etc.

Ordinal is easy to remember because is sounds like order and thats the key to remember with
ordinal scalesit is the order that matters, but thats all you really get from these.

Advanced note: The best way to determine central tendency on a set of ordinal data is to use
the mode or median; the mean cannot be defined from an ordinal set.

Example of Ordinal Scales

Interval
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact
differences between the values. The classic example of an interval scale is Celsius temperature
because the difference between each value is the same. For example, the difference between 60
and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70 degrees.
Time is another good example of an interval scale in which the increments are known, consistent,
and measurable.

Interval scales are nice because the realm of statistical analysis on these data sets opens up.
For example,central tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; standard
deviation can also be calculated.

Like the others, you can remember the key points of an interval scale pretty easily. Interval
itself means space in between, which is the important thing to rememberinterval scales not
only tell us about order, but also about the value between each item.

Heres the problem with interval scales: they dont have a true zero. For example, there is no
such thing as no temperature. Without a true zero, it is impossible to compute ratios. With
interval data, we can add and subtract, but cannot multiply or divide. Confused? Ok, consider
this: 10 degrees + 10 degrees = 20 degrees. No problem there. 20 degrees is not twice as hot
as 10 degrees, however, because there is no such thing as no temperature when it comes to the

Celsius scale. I hope that makes sense. Bottom line, interval scales are great, but we cannot
calculate ratios, which brings us to our last measurement scale

Example of Interval Scale

Ratio

Ratio scales are the ultimate nirvana when it comes to measurement scales because they tell us
about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute zero
which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied. At
the risk of repeating myself, everything above about interval data applies to ratio scales + ratio
scales have a clear definition of zero. Good examples of ratio variables include height and
weight.

Ratio scales provide a wealth of possibilities when it comes to statistical analysis. These
variables can be meaningfully added, subtracted, multiplied, divided (ratios). Central
tendency can be measured by mode, median, or mean; measures of dispersion, such as
standard deviation and coefficient of variation can also be calculated from ratio scales.

This Device Provides Two Examples of Ratio Scales (height and weight)

In nominal measurement the numerical values just "name" the

attribute uniquely. No ordering of the cases is implied. For
example, jersey numbers in basketball are measures at the
nominal level. A player with number 30 is not more of anything than
a player with number 15, and is certainly not twice whatever
number 15 is.
In ordinal measurement the attributes can be rank-ordered. Here,
distances between attributes do not have any meaning. For
example, on a survey you might code Educational Attainment as
0=less than H.S.; 1=some H.S.; 2=H.S. degree; 3=some college;
4=college degree; 5=post college. In this measure, higher numbers
mean more education. But is distance from 0 to 1 same as 3 to 4?
Of course not. The interval between values is not interpretable in
an ordinal measure.
In interval measurement the distance between
attributes doeshave meaning. For example, when we measure
temperature (in Fahrenheit), the distance from 30-40 is same as
distance from 70-80. The interval between values is interpretable.
Because of this, it makes sense to compute an average of an
interval variable, where it doesn't make sense to do so for ordinal
scales. But note that in interval measurement ratios don't make any
sense - 80 degrees is not twice as hot as 40 degrees (although the
attribute value is twice as large).

 Finally,
in ratio measurem
ent there is always
an absolute zero
that is meaningful.
This means that
you can construct
a meaningful
fraction (or ratio)
with a ratio
variable. Weight is
a ratio variable. In applied social research most "count" variables
are ratio, for example, the number of clients in past six months.
Why? Because you can have zero clients and because it is
meaningful to say that "...we had twice as many clients in the past
six months as we did in the previous six months."
It's important to recognize that there is a hierarchy implied in the
level of measurement idea. At lower levels of measurement,
assumptions tend to be less restrictive and data analyses tend to
be less sensitive. At each level up the hierarchy, the current level
includes all of the qualities of the one below it and adds something
new. In general, it is desirable to have a higher level of
measurement (e.g., interval or ratio) rather than a lower one
(nominal or ordinal).