Electric power system

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A steam turbine used to provide electric power.

An electric power system is a network of electrical components used to supply, transmit and
use electric power. An example of an electric power system is the network that supplies a
region's homes and industry with powerfor sizable regions, this power system is known as the
grid and can be broadly divided into the generators that supply the power, the transmission
system that carries the power from the generating centres to the load centres and the distribution
system that feeds the power to nearby homes and industries. Smaller power systems are also
found in industry, hospitals, commercial buildings and homes. The majority of these systems rely
upon three-phase AC powerthe standard for large-scale power transmission and distribution
across the modern world. Specialised power systems that do not always rely upon three-phase
AC power are found in aircraft, electric rail systems, ocean liners and automobiles.
Contents
[hide]

1 History

2 Basics of electric power

3 Balancing the grid

4 Components of power systems

o

4.1 Supplies

4.2 Loads

4.3 Conductors

4.4 Capacitors and reactors

4.5 Power electronics

4.6 Protective devices

4.7 SCADA systems

5 Power systems in practice

o

5.1 Residential power systems

5.2 Commercial power systems

6 References

7 External links

History[edit]

A sketch of the Pearl Street Station

In 1881 two electricians built the world's first power system at Godalming in England. It was
powered by a power station consisting of two waterwheels that produced an alternating current
that in turn supplied seven Siemens arc lamps at 250 volts and 34 incandescent lamps at 40
volts.[1] However supply to the lamps was intermittent and in 1882 Thomas Edison and his
company, The Edison Electric Light Company, developed the first steam powered electric power
station on Pearl Street in New York City. The Pearl Street Station initially powered around 3,000
lamps for 59 customers.[2][3] The power station used direct current and operated at a single
voltage. Direct current power could not be easily transformed to the higher voltages necessary to
minimise power loss during long-distance transmission, so the maximum economic distance
between the generators and load was limited to around half-a-mile (800 m). [4]
That same year in London Lucien Gaulard and John Dixon Gibbs demonstrated the first
transformer suitable for use in a real power system. The practical value of Gaulard and Gibbs'
transformer was demonstrated in 1884 at Turin where the transformer was used to light up forty
kilometres (25 miles) of railway from a single alternating current generator.[5] Despite the success
of the system, the pair made some fundamental mistakes. Perhaps the most serious was
connecting the primaries of the transformers in series so that active lamps would affect the
brightness of other lamps further down the line. Following the demonstration George
Westinghouse, an American entrepreneur, imported a number of the transformers along with
a Siemens generator and set his engineers to experimenting with them in the hopes of improving
them for use in a commercial power system. In July 1888, Westinghouse also licensed Nikola
Tesla's US patents for a polyphase AC induction motor and transformer designs and hired Tesla
for one year to be a consultant at the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing
Company's Pittsburgh labs.[6]

One of Westinghouse's engineers, William Stanley, recognised the problem with connecting
transformers in series as opposed to parallel and also realised that making the iron core of a
transformer a fully enclosed loop would improve the voltage regulation of the secondary winding.
Using this knowledge he built a much improved alternating current power system at Great
Barrington, Massachusetts in 1886.[7]
By 1890 the electric power industry was flourishing, and power companies had built thousands of
power systems (both direct and alternating current) in the United States and Europe. These
networks were effectively dedicated to providing electric lighting. During this time a fierce rivalry
known as the "War of Currents" emerged between Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse
over which form of transmission (direct or alternating current) was superior.[8] In 1891,
Westinghouse installed the first major power system that was designed to drive a 100
horsepower (75 kW) synchronous electric motor, not just provide electric lighting, at Telluride,
Colorado.[9] On the other side of the Atlantic, Oskar von Miller built a 20 kV 176 km three-phase
transmission line from Lauffen am Neckar to Frankfurt am Main for the Electrical Engineering
Exhibition in Frankfurt.[10] In 1895, after a protracted decision-making process, the Adams No. 1
generating station at Niagara Falls began transferring three-phase alternating current power to
Buffalo at 11 kV. Following completion of the Niagara Falls project, new power systems
increasingly chose alternating current as opposed to direct current for electrical transmission.[11]
Developments in power systems continued beyond the nineteenth century. In 1936 the first
experimental HVDC (high voltage direct current) line using mercury arc valves was built
between Schenectady and Mechanicville, New York. HVDC had previously been achieved by
series-connected direct current generators and motors (the Thury system) although this suffered
from serious reliability issues.[12] In 1957 Siemens demonstrated the first solid-state rectifier, but it
was not until the early 1970s that solid-state devices became the standard in HVDC. [13] In recent
times, many important developments have come from extending innovations in the ICT field to
the power engineering field. For example, the development of computers meant load flow
studies could be run more efficiently allowing for much better planning of power systems.
Advances in information technology and telecommunication also allowed for remote control of a
power system's switchgear and generators.

Basics of electric power[edit]

An external AC to DC power adapter used for household appliances

Electric power is the product of two quantities: current and voltage. These two quantities can vary
with respect to time (AC power) or can be kept at constant levels (DC power).
Most refrigerators, air conditioners, pumps and industrial machinery use AC power whereas most
computers and digital equipment use DC power (the digital devices you plug into the mains
typically have an internal or external power adapter to convert from AC to DC power). AC power
has the advantage of being easy to transform between voltages and is able to be generated and
utilised by brushless machinery. DC power remains the only practical choice in digital systems
and can be more economical to transmit over long distances at very high voltages (see HVDC).[14]
[15]

The ability to easily transform the voltage of AC power is important for two reasons: Firstly, power
can be transmitted over long distances with less loss at higher voltages. So in power systems

where generation is distant from the load, it is desirable to step-up (increase) the voltage of
power at the generation point and then step-down (decrease) the voltage near the load.
Secondly, it is often more economical to install turbines that produce higher voltages than would
be used by most appliances, so the ability to easily transform voltages means this mismatch
between voltages can be easily managed.[14]
Solid state devices, which are products of the semiconductor revolution, make it possible to
transform DC power to different voltages, build brushless DC machines and convert between AC
and DC power. Nevertheless devices utilising solid state technology are often more expensive
than their traditional counterparts, so AC power remains in widespread use. [16]

Balancing the grid[edit]

One of the main difficulties in power systems is that the amount of active power consumed plus
losses should always equal the active power produced. If more power would be produced than
consumed the frequency would rise and vice versa. Even small deviations from the nominal
frequency value would damage synchronous machines and other appliances. Making sure the
frequency is constant is usually the task of a transmission system operator. In some countries
(for example in the European Union) this is achieved through a balancing market using ancillary
services.[17]

Components of power systems[edit]

Supplies[edit]

The majority of the world's power still comes from coal-fired power stations like this.

All power systems have one or more sources of power. For some power systems, the source of
power is external to the system but for others it is part of the system itselfit is these internal
power sources that are discussed in the remainder of this section. Direct current power can be
supplied by batteries, fuel cells or photovoltaic cells. Alternating current power is typically
supplied by a rotor that spins in a magnetic field in a device known as a turbo generator. There
have been a wide range of techniques used to spin a turbine's rotor, from steam heated
using fossil fuel (including coal, gas and oil) or nuclear energy, falling water (hydroelectric power)
and wind (wind power).
The speed at which the rotor spins in combination with the number of generator poles
determines the frequency of the alternating current produced by the generator. All generators on
a single synchronous system, for example the national grid, rotate at sub-multiples of the same
speed and so generate electrical current at the same frequency. If the load on the system
increases, the generators will require more torque to spin at that speed and, in a typical power
station, more steam must be supplied to the turbines driving them. Thus the steam used and the
fuel expended are directly dependent on the quantity of electrical energy supplied. An exception
exists for generators incorporating power electronics such as gearless wind turbines or linked to
a grid through an asynchronous tie such as a HVDC link these can operate at frequencies
independent of the power system frequency.

Depending on how the poles are fed, alternating current generators can produce a variable
number of phases of power. A higher number of phases leads to more efficient power system
operation but also increases the infrastructure requirements of the system. [18]
Electricity grid systems connect multiple generators and loads operating at the same frequency
and number of phases, the commonest being three-phase at 50 or 60 Hz. However there are
other considerations. These range from the obvious: How much power should the generator be
able to supply? What is an acceptable length of time for starting the generator (some generators
can take hours to start)? Is the availability of the power source acceptable (some renewables are
only available when the sun is shining or the wind is blowing)? To the more technical: How
should the generator start (some turbines act like a motor to bring themselves up to speed in
which case they need an appropriate starting circuit)? What is the mechanical speed of operation
for the turbine and consequently what are the number of poles required? What type of generator
is suitable (synchronous or asynchronous) and what type of rotor (squirrel-cage rotor, wound
rotor, salient pole rotor or cylindrical rotor)?[19]

Loads[edit]

A toaster is great example of a single-phase load that might appear in a residence. Toasters typically draw
2 to 10 amps at 110 to 260 volts consuming around 600 to 1200 watts of power

Power systems deliver energy to loads that perform a function. These loads range from
household appliances to industrial machinery. Most loads expect a certain voltage and, for
alternating current devices, a certain frequency and number of phases. The appliances found in
your home, for example, will typically be single-phase operating at 50 or 60 Hz with a voltage
between 110 and 260 volts (depending on national standards). An exception exists for
centralized air conditioning systems as these are now typically three-phase because this allows
them to operate more efficiently. All devices in your house will also have a wattage, this specifies
the amount of power the device consumes. At any one time, the net amount of power consumed
by the loads on a power system must equal the net amount of power produced by the supplies
less the power lost in transmission.[20][21]
Making sure that the voltage, frequency and amount of power supplied to the loads is in line with
expectations is one of the great challenges of power system engineering. However it is not the
only challenge, in addition to the power used by a load to do useful work (termed real power)
many alternating current devices also use an additional amount of power because they cause
the alternating voltage and alternating current to become slightly out-of-sync (termed reactive
power). The reactive power like the real power must balance (that is the reactive power produced
on a system must equal the reactive power consumed) and can be supplied from the generators,
however it is often more economical to supply such power from capacitors (see "Capacitors and
reactors" below for more details).[22]
A final consideration with loads is to do with power quality. In addition to sustained overvoltages
and undervoltages (voltage regulation issues) as well as sustained deviations from the system
frequency (frequency regulation issues), power system loads can be adversely affected by a
range of temporal issues. These include voltage sags, dips and swells, transient overvoltages,
flicker, high frequency noise, phase imbalance and poor power factor.[23] Power quality issues
occur when the power supply to a load deviates from the ideal: For an AC supply, the ideal is the
current and voltage in-sync fluctuating as a perfect sine wave at a prescribed frequency with the

voltage at a prescribed amplitude. For DC supply, the ideal is the voltage not varying from a
prescribed level. Power quality issues can be especially important when it comes to specialist
industrial machinery or hospital equipment.

Conductors[edit]
Conductors carry power from the generators to the load. In a grid, conductors may be classified
as belonging to the transmission system, which carries large amounts of power at high voltages
(typically more than 69 kV) from the generating centres to the load centres, or the distribution
system, which feeds smaller amounts of power at lower voltages (typically less than 69 kV) from
the load centres to nearby homes and industry.[24]
Choice of conductors is based upon considerations such as cost, transmission losses and other
desirable characteristics of the metal like tensile strength. Copper, with lower resistivity than
aluminium, was the conductor of choice for most power systems. However, aluminum has lower
cost for the same current carrying capacity and is the primary metal used for transmission line
conductors. Overhead line conductors may be reinforced with steel or aluminum alloys.[25]
Conductors in exterior power systems may be placed overhead or underground. Overhead
conductors are usually air insulated and supported on porcelain, glass or polymer insulators.
Cables used for underground transmission or building wiring are insulated with cross-linked
polyethylene or other flexible insulation. Large conductors are stranded for ease of handling;
small conductors used for building wiring are often solid, especially in light commercial or
residential construction.[26]
Conductors are typically rated for the maximum current that they can carry at a given
temperature rise over ambient conditions. As current flow increases through a conductor it heats
up. For insulated conductors, the rating is determined by the insulation. [27] For overhead
conductors, the rating is determined by the point at which the sag of the conductors would
become unacceptable.[28]

Capacitors and reactors[edit]

The majority of the load in a typical AC power system is inductive; the current lags behind the
voltage. Since the voltage and current are out-of-phase, this leads to the emergence of an
"imaginary" form of power known as reactive power. Reactive power does no measurable work
but is transmitted back and forth between the reactive power source and load every cycle. This
reactive power can be provided by the generators themselves, through the adjustment of
generator excitation, but it is often cheaper to provide it through capacitors, hence capacitors are
often placed near inductive loads to reduce current demand on the power system (i.e., increase
the power factor), which may never exceed 1.0, and which represents a purely resistive load.
Power factor correction may be applied at a central substation, through the use of so-called
"synchronous condensers" (synchronous machines which act as condensers which are variable
in VAR value, through the adjustment of machine excitation) or adjacent to large loads, through
the use of so-called "static condensers" (condensers which are fixed in VAR value).
Reactors consume reactive power and are used to regulate voltage on long transmission lines. In
light load conditions, where the loading on transmission lines is well below thesurge impedance
loading, the efficiency of the power system may actually be improved by switching in reactors.
Reactors installed in series in a power system also limit rushes of current flow, small reactors are
therefore almost always installed in series with capacitors to limit the current rush associated with
switching in a capacitor. Series reactors can also be used to limit fault currents.
Capacitors and reactors are switched by circuit breakers, which results in moderately large steps
in reactive power. A solution comes in the form of static VAR compensators andstatic
synchronous compensators. Briefly, static VAR compensators work by switching in capacitors
using thyristors as opposed to circuit breakers allowing capacitors to be switched-in and
switched-out within a single cycle. This provides a far more refined response than circuit breaker
switched capacitors. Static synchronous compensators take a step further by achieving reactive
power adjustments using only power electronics.

Power electronics[edit]

Power electronics are semi-conductor based devices that are able to switch quantities of power
ranging from a few hundred watts to several hundred megawatts. Despite their relatively simple
function, their speed of operation (typically in the order of nanoseconds [29]) means they are
capable of a wide range of tasks that would be difficult or impossible with conventional
technology. The classic function of power electronics is rectification, or the conversion of AC-toDC power, power electronics are therefore found in almost every digital device that is supplied
from an AC source either as an adapter that plugs into the wall (see photo in Basics of Electric
Power section) or as component internal to the device. High-powered power electronics can also
be used to convert AC power to DC power for long distance transmission in a system known
as HVDC. HVDC is used because it proves to be more economical than similar high voltage AC
systems for very long distances (hundreds to thousands of kilometres). HVDC is also desirable
for interconnects because it allows frequency independence thus improving system stability.
Power electronics are also essential for any power source that is required to produce an AC
output but that by its nature produces a DC output. They are therefore used by many
photovoltaic installations both industrial and residential.
Power electronics also feature in a wide range of more exotic uses. They are at the heart of all
modern electric and hybrid vehicleswhere they are used for both motor control and as part of
the brushless DC motor. Power electronics are also found in practically all modern petrolpowered vehicles, this is because the power provided by the car's batteries alone is insufficient
to provide ignition, air-conditioning, internal lighting, radio and dashboard displays for the life of
the car. So the batteries must be recharged while driving using DC power from the enginea
feat that is typically accomplished using power electronics. Whereas conventional technology
would be unsuitable for a modern electric car, commutators can and have been used in petrolpowered cars, the switch to alternators in combination with power electronics has occurred
because of the improved durability of brushless machinery.[30]
Some electric railway systems also use DC power and thus make use of power electronics to
feed grid power to the locomotives and often for speed control of the locomotive's motor. In the
middle twentieth century, rectifier locomotives were popular, these used power electronics to
convert AC power from the railway network for use by a DC motor.[31]Today most electric
locomotives are supplied with AC power and run using AC motors, but still use power electronics
to provide suitable motor control. The use of power electronics to assist with motor control and
with starter circuits cannot be underestimated and, in addition to rectification, is responsible for
power electronics appearing in a wide range of industrial machinery. Power electronics even
appear in modern residential air conditioners.
Power electronics are also at the heart of the variable speed wind turbine. Conventional wind
turbines require significant engineering to ensure they operate at some ratio of the system
frequency, however by using power electronics this requirement can be eliminated leading to
quieter, more flexible and (at the moment) more costly wind turbines. A final example of one of
the more exotic uses of power electronics comes from the previous section where the fastswitching times of power electronics were used to provide more refined reactive compensation to
the power system.

Protective devices[edit]
Main article: power system protection
Power systems contain protective devices to prevent injury or damage during failures. The
quintessential protective device is the fuse. When the current through a fuse exceeds a certain
threshold, the fuse element melts, producing an arc across the resulting gap that is then
extinguished, interrupting the circuit. Given that fuses can be built as the weak point of a system,
fuses are ideal for protecting circuitry from damage. Fuses however have two problems: First,
after they have functioned, fuses must be replaced as they cannot be reset. This can prove
inconvenient if the fuse is at a remote site or a spare fuse is not on hand. And second, fuses are
typically inadequate as the sole safety device in most power systems as they allow current flows
well in excess of that that would prove lethal to a human or animal.
The first problem is resolved by the use of circuit breakersdevices that can be reset after they
have broken current flow. In modern systems that use less than about 10 kW, miniature circuit

breakers are typically used. These devices combine the mechanism that initiates the trip (by
sensing excess current) as well as the mechanism that breaks the current flow in a single unit.
Some miniature circuit breakers operate solely on the basis of electromagnetism. In these
miniature circuit breakers, the current is run through a solenoid, and, in the event of excess
current flow, the magnetic pull of the solenoid is sufficient to force open the circuit breaker's
contacts (often indirectly through a tripping mechanism). A better design however arises by
inserting a bimetallic strip before the solenoidthis means that instead of always producing a
magnetic force, the solenoid only produces a magnetic force when the current is strong enough
to deform the bimetallic strip and complete the solenoid's circuit.
In higher powered applications, the protective relays that detect a fault and initiate a trip are
separate from the circuit breaker. Early relays worked based upon electromagnetic principles
similar to those mentioned in the previous paragraph, modern relays are application-specific
computers that determine whether to trip based upon readings from the power system. Different
relays will initiate trips depending upon different protection schemes. For example, an
overcurrent relay might initiate a trip if the current on any phase exceeds a certain threshold
whereas a set of differential relays might initiate a trip if the sum of currents between them
indicates there may be current leaking to earth. The circuit breakers in higher powered
applications are different too. Air is typically no longer sufficient to quench the arc that forms
when the contacts are forced open so a variety of techniques are used. One of the most popular
techniques is to keep the chamber enclosing the contacts flooded with sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
a non-toxic gas that has sound arc-quenching properties. Other techniques are discussed in the
reference.[32]
The second problem, the inadequacy of fuses to act as the sole safety device in most power
systems, is probably best resolved by the use of residual current devices (RCDs). In any properly
functioning electrical appliance the current flowing into the appliance on the active line should
equal the current flowing out of the appliance on the neutral line. A residual current device works
by monitoring the active and neutral lines and tripping the active line if it notices a difference.
[33]
Residual current devices require a separate neutral line for each phase and to be able to trip
within a time frame before harm occurs. This is typically not a problem in most residential
applications where standard wiring provides an active and neutral line for each appliance (that's
why your power plugs always have at least two tongs) and the voltages are relatively low
however these issues do limit the effectiveness of RCDs in other applications such as industry.
Even with the installation of an RCD, exposure to electricity can still prove lethal.

SCADA systems[edit]
In large electric power systems, Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) is used for
tasks such as switching on generators, controlling generator output and switching in or out
system elements for maintenance. The first supervisory control systems implemented consisted
of a panel of lamps and switches at a central console near the controlled plant. The lamps
provided feedback on the state of plant (the data acquisition function) and the switches allowed
adjustments to the plant to be made (the supervisory control function). Today, SCADA systems
are much more sophisticated and, due to advances in communication systems, the consoles
controlling the plant no longer need to be near the plant itself. Instead it is now common for plant
to be controlled from a with equipment similar to (if not identical to) a desktop computer. The
ability to control such plant through computers has increased the need for security and already
there have been reports of cyber-attacks on such systems causing significant disruptions to
power systems.[34]

Power systems in practice[edit]

Despite their common components, power systems vary widely both with respect to their design
and how they operate. This section introduces some common power system types and briefly
explains their operation.

Residential power systems[edit]

Residential dwellings almost always take supply from the low voltage distribution lines or cables
that run past the dwelling. These operate at voltages of between 110 and 260 volts (phase-toearth) depending upon national standards. A few decades ago small dwellings would be fed a
single phase using a dedicated two-core service cable (one core for the active phase and one
core for the neutral return). The active line would then be run through a main isolating switch in
the fuse box and then split into one or more circuits to feed lighting and appliances inside the
house. By convention, the lighting and appliance circuits are kept separate so the failure of an
appliance does not leave the dwelling's occupants in the dark. All circuits would be fused with an
appropriate fuse based upon the wire size used for that circuit. Circuits would have both an
active and neutral wire with both the lighting and power sockets being connected in parallel.
Sockets would also be provided with a protective earth. This would be made available to
appliances to connect to any metallic casing. If this casing were to become live, the theory is the
connection to earth would cause an RCD or fuse to tripthus preventing the future electrocution
of an occupant handling the appliance. Earthing systems vary between regions, but in countries
such as the United Kingdom and Australia both the protective earth and neutral line would be
earthed together near the fuse box before the main isolating switch and the neutral earthed once
again back at the distribution transformer.[35]
There have been a number of minor changes over the year to practice of residential wiring.
Some of the most significant ways modern residential power systems tend to vary from older
ones include:

For convenience, miniature circuit breakers are now almost always used in the fuse box
instead of fuses as these can easily be reset by occupants.

For safety reasons, RCDs are now installed on appliance circuits and, increasingly, even
on lighting circuits.

Dwellings are typically connected to all three-phases of the distribution system with the
phases being arbitrarily allocated to the house's single-phase circuits.

Whereas air conditioners of the past might have been fed from a dedicated circuit
attached to a single phase, centralised air conditioners that require three-phase power are
now becoming common.

Protective earths are now run with lighting circuits to allow for metallic lamp holders to be
earthed.

Increasingly residential power systems are incorporating microgenerators, most notably,

photovoltaic cells.

Commercial power systems[edit]

Commercial power systems such as shopping centers or high-rise buildings are larger in scale
than residential systems. Electrical designs for larger commercial systems are usually studied for
load flow, short-circuit fault levels, and voltage drop for steady-state loads and during starting of
large motors. The objectives of the studies are to assure proper equipment and conductor sizing,
and to coordinate protective devices so that minimal disruption is cause when a fault is cleared.
Large commercial installations will have an orderly system of sub-panels, separate from the main
distribution board to allow for better system protection and more efficient electrical installation.
Typically one of the largest appliances connected to a commercial power system is the HVAC
unit, and ensuring this unit is adequately supplied is an important consideration in commercial
power systems. Regulations for commercial establishments place other requirements on
commercial systems that are not placed on residential systems. For example, in Australia,
commercial systems must comply with AS 2293, the standard for emergency lighting, which
requires emergency lighting be maintained for at least 90 minutes in the event of loss of mains

supply.[36] In the United States, the National Electrical Code requires commercial systems to be
built with at least one 20A sign outlet in order to light outdoor signage. [37] Building code
regulations may place special requirements on the electrical system for emergency lighting,
evacuation, emergency power, smoke control and fire protection.
A thermodynamic system is the content of a macroscopic volume in space, along with
its walls and surroundings; it undergoesthermodynamic processes according to the principles
of thermodynamics. A physical system qualifies as a thermodynamic system only if it can be
adequately described by thermodynamic variables such as temperature, entropy, internal energy
and pressure.
The thermodynamic state of a thermodynamic system is its internal state as specified by its state
variables. A thermodynamic account also requires a special kind of function called a state
function. For example, if the state variables are internal energy, volume and mole amounts, the
needed further state function is entropy. These quantities are inter-related by one or more
functional relationships called equations of state. Thermodynamics defines the restrictions on the
possible equations of state imposed by the laws of thermodynamics through that further function
of state.
The system is delimited by walls or boundaries, either actual or notional, across which conserved
(such as matter and energy) or unconserved (such as entropy) quantities can pass into and out
of the system. The space outside the thermodynamic system is known as thesurroundings,
a reservoir, or the environment. The properties of the walls determine what transfers can occur. A
wall that allows transfer of a quantity is said to be permeable to it, and a thermodynamic system
is classified by the permeabilities of its several walls. A transfer between system and
surroundings can arise by contact, such as conduction of heat, or by long-range forces such as
an electric field in the surroundings.

by types of wall
Types of transfers permitted

type of transfer

type of wall
Mass

and energy

Work

Heat

permeable to matter
permeable to energy but
impermeable to matter
adiabatic
adynamic and
impermeable to matter
isolating
A system with walls that prevent all transfers is said to be isolated. This is an idealized
conception, because in practice some transfer is always possible, for example by gravitational
forces. It is an axiom of thermodynamics that an isolated system eventually reaches
internal thermodynamic equilibrium, when its state no longer changes with time.
According to the permeabilities of its walls, a system that is not isolated can be in thermodynamic
equilibrium with its surroundings, or else may be in a state that is constant or precisely cyclically
changing in time - a steady state that is far from equilibrium. Classical thermodynamics considers
only states of thermodynamic systems in equilibrium that are either constant or precisely cycling
in time.
The walls of a closed system allow transfer of energy as heat and as work, but not of matter,
between it and its surroundings. The walls of an open system allow transfer both of matter and of
energy.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7] This scheme of definition of terms is not uniformly used, though it is convenient
for some purposes. In particular, some writers use 'closed system' where 'isolated system' is here
used.[8][9]
In 1824 Sadi Carnot described a thermodynamic system as the working substance (such as the
volume of steam) of any heat engine under study. The very existence of such thermodynamic
systems may be considered a fundamental postulate of equilibrium thermodynamics, though it is
not listed as a numbered law.[10][11] According to Bailyn, the commonly rehearsed statement of
the zeroth law of thermodynamics is a consequence of this fundamental postulate.[12]
In equilibrium thermodynamics the state variables do not include fluxes because in a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium all fluxes have zero values by definition. Equilibrium thermodynamic
processes may of course involve fluxes but these must have ceased by the time a
thermodynamic process or operation is complete bringing a system to its eventual
thermodynamic state. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics allows its state variables to include nonzero fluxes, that describe transfers of matter or energy or entropy between a system and its
surroundings.[13]

Contents
[hide]

1 Overview

2 History

3 Walls

4 Surroundings

5 Open system
o

5.1 Flow process

5.2 Selective transfer of matter

6 Closed system

7 Isolated system

8 Mechanically isolated system

9 Systems in equilibrium

10 See also

11 References

12 External links

Overview[edit]
Thermodynamics

The classical Carnot heat engine

Branches[show]
Laws[show]
Systems[show]
System properties[show]

Material properties[show]
Equations[show]
Potentials[show]

History

Culture
[show]

Scientists[show]
Book:Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics describes the macroscopic physics of matter and energy, especially including
heat transfer, by using the concept of the thermodynamic system, a region of the universe that is
under study, specified by thermodynamic state variables, together with the kinds of transfer that
may occur between it and its surroundings, as determined by the physical properties of the walls
of the system.
An example system is the system of hot liquid water and solid table salt in a sealed, insulated
test tube held in a vacuum (the surroundings). The test tube constantly loses heat in the form
of black-body radiation, but the heat loss progresses very slowly. If there is another process
going on in the test tube, for example the dissolution of the salt crystals, it probably occurs so
quickly that any heat lost to the test tube during that time can be neglected. Thermodynamics in
general does not measure time, but it does sometimes accept limitations on the time frame of a
process.

History[edit]
The first to develop the concept of a thermodynamic system was the French physicist Sadi
Carnot whose 1824 Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire studied what he called the working
substance, e.g., typically a body of water vapor, in steam engines, in regards to the system's
ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with
either a heat reservoir (a boiler), a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (to which
the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist Rudolf
Clausius generalized this picture to include the concept of the surroundings, and began referring
to the system as a "working body." In his 1850 manuscript On the Motive Power of Fire, Clausius
wrote:

"With every change of volume (to the working body) a certain amo

The article Carnot heat engine shows the original piston-and-cylinder diagram used by Carnot in
discussing his ideal engine; below, we see the Carnot engine as is typically modeled in current
use:

Carnot engine diagram (modern) - where heat flows from a high temperature TH furnace through the fluid of
the "working body" (working substance) and into the cold sink TC, thus forcing the working substance to
do mechanical work W on the surroundings, via cycles of contractions and expansions.

In the diagram shown, the "working body" (system), a term introduced by Clausius in 1850, can
be any fluid or vapor body through which heat Q can be introduced or transmitted through to
produce work. In 1824, Sadi Carnot, in his famous paper Reflections on the Motive Power of
Fire, had postulated that the fluid body could be any substance capable of expansion, such as
vapor of water, vapor of alcohol, vapor of mercury, a permanent gas, or air, etc. Though, in these
early years, engines came in a number of configurations, typically QH was supplied by a boiler,
wherein water boiled over a furnace; QC was typically a stream of cold flowing water in the form
of a condenser located on a separate part of the engine. The output work W was the movement
of the piston as it turned a crank-arm, which typically turned a pulley to lift water out of flooded
salt mines. Carnot defined work as "weight lifted through a height."

Walls[edit]
A system is enclosed by walls that bound it and connect it to its surroundings. [14][15][16][17][18][19] Often a
wall restricts passage across it by some form of matter or energy, making the connection indirect.
Sometimes a wall is no more than an imaginary two-dimensional closed surface through which
the connection to the surroundings is direct. Topologically, it is often considered nearly or
piecewise smoothly homeomorphic with a two-sphere (ordinary sphere like a surface that forms
the boundary of a ball in three dimensions), because a system is often considered simply
connected.

A wall can be fixed (e.g. a constant volume reactor) or moveable (e.g. a piston). For example, in
a reciprocating engine, a fixed wall means the piston is locked at its position; then, a constant
volume process may occur. In that same engine, a piston may be unlocked and allowed to move
in and out. Ideally, a wall may be declared adiabatic,diathermal, impermeable, permeable,
or semi-permeable. Actual physical materials that provide walls with such idealized properties are
not always readily available.
Anything that passes across the boundary and effects a change in the contents of the system
must be accounted for in an appropriate balance equation. The volume can be the region
surrounding a single atom resonating energy, such as Max Planck defined in 1900; it can be a
body of steam or air in a steam engine, such as Sadi Carnot defined in 1824. It could also be just
one nuclide (i.e. a system of quarks) as hypothesized in quantum thermodynamics.

Surroundings[edit]
See also: Environment (systems)
The system is the part of the universe being studied, while the surroundings is the remainder of
the universe that lies outside the boundaries of the system. It is also known as theenvironment,
and the reservoir. Depending on the type of system, it may interact with the system by
exchanging mass, energy (including heat and work), momentum, electric charge, or other
conserved properties. The environment is ignored in analysis of the system, except in regards to
these interactions.

Open system[edit]

Generic open system scheme. Exchanges of matter or energy with system's surroundings are represented
by input and output flows.

In an open system, matter may flow in and out of some segments of the system boundaries.
There may be other segments of the system boundaries that pass heat or work but not matter.
Respective account is kept of the transfers of energy across those and any other several
boundary segments.

Flow process[edit]

During steady, continuous operation, an energy balance applied to an open system equates shaft work
performed by the system to heat added plus net enthalpy added.

The region of space enclosed by open system boundaries is usually called a control volume. It
may or may not correspond to physical walls. It is convenient to define the shape of the control
volume so that all flow of matter, in or out, occurs perpendicular to its surface. One may consider
a process in which the matter flowing into and out of the system is chemically homogeneous.
[20]

Then the inflowing matter performs work as if it were driving a piston of fluid into the system.

Also, the system performs work as if it were driving out a piston of fluid. Through the system
walls that do not pass matter, heat (Q) and work (W) transfers may be defined, including shaft
work.
Classical thermodynamics considers processes for a system that is initially and finally in its own
internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium, with no flow. This is feasible also under some
restrictions, if the system is a mass of fluid flowing at a uniform rate. Then for many purposes a
process, called a flow process, may be considered in accord with classical thermodynamics as if
the classical rule of no flow were effective.[21] For the present introductory account, it is supposed
that the kinetic energy of flow, and the potential energy of elevation in the gravity field, do not
change, and that the walls, other than the matter inlet and outlet, are rigid and motionless.
Under these conditions, the first law of thermodynamics for a flow process states: the increase in
the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of energy added to the system by matter
flowing in and by heating, minus the amount lost by matter flowing out and in the form of work
done by the system. Under these conditions, the first law for a flow process is written:

where Uin and Uout respectively denote the average internal energy entering and leaving the
system with the flowing matter.
There are then two types of work performed: 'flow work' described above, which is performed
on the fluid in the control volume (this is also often called ' PV work'), and 'shaft work', which
may be performed by the fluid in the control volume on some mechanical device with a shaft.
These two types of work are expressed in the equation:

Substitution into the equation above for the control volume cv yields:

The definition of enthalpy, H = U + PV, permits us to use this thermodynamic

potential to account jointly for internal energy U and PV work in fluids for a flow
process:

During steady-state operation of a device (see turbine, pump, and engine), any
system property within the control volume is independent of time. Therefore, the
internal energy of the system enclosed by the control volume remains constant,
which implies that dUcv in the expression above may be set equal to zero. This
yields a useful expression for thepower generation or requirement for these
devices with chemical homogeneity in the absence of chemical reactions:

This expression is described by the diagram above.

Selective transfer of matter[edit]

For a thermodynamic process, the precise physical properties of the walls
and surroundings of the system are important, because they determine the
possible processes.
An open system has one or several walls that allow transfer of matter. To
account for the internal energy of the open system, this requires energy
transfer terms in addition to those for heat and work. It also leads to the idea
of the chemical potential.
A wall selectively permeable only to a pure substance can put the system in
diffusive contact with a reservoir of that pure substance in the surroundings.
Then a process is possible in which that pure substance is transferred
between system and surroundings. Also, across that wall a contact
equilibrium with respect to that substance is possible. By
suitable thermodynamic operations, the pure substance reservoir can be
dealt with as a closed system. Its internal energy and its entropy can be
determined as functions of its temperature, pressure, and mole number.
A thermodynamic operation can render impermeable to matter all system
walls other than the contact equilibrium wall for that substance. This allows
the definition of an intensive state variable, with respect to a reference state
of the surroundings, for that substance. The intensive variable is called the
chemical potential; for component substance i it is usually denoted i. The

corresponding extensive variable can be the number of moles Ni of the

component substance in the system.
For a contact equilibrium across a wall permeable to a substance, the
chemical potentials of the substance must be same on either side of the
wall. This is part of the nature of thermodynamic equilibrium, and may be
regarded as related to the zeroth law of thermodynamics.[22]

Closed system[edit]
Main article: Closed system In thermodynamics
In a closed system, no mass may be transferred in or out of the system
boundaries. The system always contains the same amount of matter, but
heat and work can be exchanged across the boundary of the system.
Whether a system can exchange heat, work, or both is dependent on the
property of its boundary.

Adiabatic boundary not allowing any heat exchange: A thermally

isolated system

Rigid boundary not allowing exchange of work: A mechanically

isolated system

One example is fluid being compressed by a piston in a cylinder. Another

example of a closed system is a bomb calorimeter, a type of constantvolume calorimeter used in measuring the heat of combustion of a particular
reaction. Electrical energy travels across the boundary to produce a spark
between the electrodes and initiates combustion. Heat transfer occurs
across the boundary after combustion but no mass transfer takes place
either way.
Beginning with the first law of thermodynamics for an open system, this is
expressed as:

where U is internal energy, Q is the heat added to the system, W is the

work done by the system, and since no mass is transferred in or out of
the system, both expressions involving mass flow are zero and the first
law of thermodynamics for a closed system is derived. The first law of
thermodynamics for a closed system states that the increase of internal
energy of the system equals the amount of heat added to the system
minus the work done by the system. For infinitesimal changes the first
law for closed systems is stated by:

If the work is due to a volume expansion by dV at a

pressure P than:

For a homogeneous system, in which only reversible processes

can take place, the second law of thermodynamics reads:

where T is the absolute temperature and S is the entropy of

the system. With these relations the fundamental
thermodynamic relationship, used to compute changes in
internal energy, is expressed as:

For a simple system, with only one type of particle

(atom or molecule), a closed system amounts to a
constant number of particles. However, for systems
undergoing a chemical reaction, there may be all sorts
of molecules being generated and destroyed by the
reaction process. In this case, the fact that the system
is closed is expressed by stating that the total number
of each elemental atom is conserved, no matter what
kind of molecule it may be a part of. Mathematically:

where Nj is the number of j-type molecules, aij is the

number of atoms of element i in
molecule j and bi0 is the total number of atoms of
element i in the system, which remains constant,
since the system is closed. There is one such
equation for each element in the system.

Isolated system[edit]
Main article: Isolated system
An isolated system is more restrictive than a closed
system as it does not interact with its surroundings
in any way. Mass and energy remains constant
within the system, and no energy or mass transfer
takes place across the boundary. As time passes in

an isolated system, internal differences in the

system tend to even out and pressures and
temperatures tend to equalize, as do density
differences. A system in which all equalizing
processes have gone practically to completion is in
a state of thermodynamic equilibrium.
Truly isolated physical systems do not exist in
reality (except perhaps for the universe as a
whole), because, for example, there is always
gravity between a system with mass and masses
elsewhere.[23][24][25][26][27] However, real systems may
behave nearly as an isolated system for finite
(possibly very long) times. The concept of an
isolated system can serve as a
useful model approximating many real-world
situations. It is an acceptable idealization used in
constructing mathematical models of certain
natural phenomena.
In the attempt to justify the postulate
of entropy increase in the second law of
thermodynamics, Boltzmanns Htheorem used equations, which assumed that a
system (for example, a gas) was isolated. That is
all the mechanical degrees of freedom could be
specified, treating the walls simply
as mirror boundary conditions. This inevitably led
toLoschmidt's paradox. However, if
the stochastic behavior of the molecules in actual
walls is considered, along with
the randomizing effect of the ambient,
background thermal radiation, Boltzmanns
assumption of molecular chaos can be justified.
The second law of thermodynamics for isolated
systems states that the entropy of an isolated
system not in equilibrium tends to increase over
time, approaching maximum value at equilibrium.
Overall, in an isolated system, the internal energy
is constant and the entropy can never decrease.
A closed system's entropy can decrease e.g. when
heat is extracted from the system.

It is important to note that isolated systems are not

equivalent to closed systems. Closed systems
cannot exchange matter with the surroundings, but
can exchange energy. Isolated systems can
exchange neither matter nor energy with their
surroundings, and as such are only theoretical and
do not exist in reality (except, possibly, the entire
universe).
It is worth noting that 'closed system' is often used
in thermodynamics discussions when 'isolated
system' would be correct - i.e. there is an
assumption that energy does not enter or leave the
system.

Mechanically isolated
system[edit]
Main article: Mechanically isolated system
A mechanically isolated system can exchange no
work energy with its environment, but may
exchange heat energy and/or mass with its
environment. The internal energy of a mechanically
isolated system may therefore change due to the
exchange of heat energy and mass. For a simple
system, mechanical isolation is equivalent to
constant volume and any process which occurs in
such a simple system is said to be isochoric.

Systems in equilibrium[edit]
At thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's
properties are, by definition, unchanging in time.
Systems in equilibrium are much simpler and
easier to understand than systems not in
equilibrium. In some cases, when analyzing
a thermodynamic process, one can assume that
each intermediate state in the process is at
equilibrium. This considerably simplifies the
analysis.
In isolated systems it is consistently observed that
as time goes on internal rearrangements diminish

and stable conditions are approached. Pressures

and temperatures tend to equalize, and matter
arranges itself into one or a few relatively
homogeneous phases. A system in which all
processes of change have gone practically to
completion is considered in a state
of thermodynamic equilibrium. The thermodynamic
properties of a system in equilibrium are
unchanging in time. Equilibrium system states are
much easier to describe in a deterministic manner
than non-equilibrium states.
For a process to be reversible, each step in the
process must be reversible. For a step in a process
to be reversible, the system must be in equilibrium
throughout the step. That ideal cannot be
accomplished in practice because no step can be
taken without perturbing the system from
equilibrium, but the ideal can be approached by
making changes slowly.
Bioenergetic systems are metabolic processes which relate to the flow of energy in the living
organisms. Those processes convert the energy into adenosine triphosphate, which is the form
of chemical energy suitable for muscular activity. There are two main forms of synthesis of
adenosine triphosphate: aerobic, which involves oxygen from the bloodstream, and anaerobic,
which does not. Bioenergetics is the field of biology which studies the bioenergetic systems.
Contents
[hide]

1 Overview

2 Adenosine triphosphate

3 The principle of coupled reactions

4 Aerobic and anaerobic metabolism

5 ATPCP: the phosphagen system

6 Anaerobic system

7 Aerobic system

8 How they work

9 References

10 Further reading

Overview[edit]
The cellular respiration process that converts food energy into adenosine triphosphate (a form of
energy) is largely dependent on the availability of oxygen. During exercise, the supply and
demand of oxygen available to muscle cells is affected by the duration and intensity of the
exercise and by the individual's cardiorespiratory fitness level. There are three exercise energy
systems that can be selectively recruited, depending on the amount of oxygen available, as part
of the cellular respiration process to generate the ATP energy for the muscles. They are
adenosine triphosphate, the anaerobic system and the aerobic system.

Adenosine triphosphate[edit]
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the usable form of chemical energy for muscular activity. It is
stored in most cells, particularly in muscle cells. Other forms of chemical energy, such as those
available from food, must be transferred into ATP form before they can be utilized by the muscle
cells.[1]

The principle of coupled reactions[edit]

Since energy is released when ATP is broken down, energy is required to rebuild or resynthesize
ATP. The building blocks of ATP synthesis are the by-products of its breakdown;adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate (Pi). The energy for ATP resynthesis comes from
three different series of chemical reactions that take place within the body. Two of the three
depend upon the food we eat, whereas the other depends upon a chemical compound
called phosphocreatine. The energy released from any of these three series of hi reactions is
coupled with the energy needs of the reaction that resynthesizes ATP. The separate reactions are
functionally linked together in such a way that the energy released by the one is always used by
the other.[2]
There are three methods to resynthesize ATP:

ATPCP system (phosphogen system) This system is used only for very short
durations of up to 10 seconds. The ATPCP system neither uses oxygen nor produceslactic
acid if oxygen is unavailable and is thus said to be alactic anaerobic. This is the primary
system behind very short, powerful movements like a golf swing, a 100 m sprint, or
powerlifting.

Anaerobic system Predominates in supplying energy for exercises lasting less than
two minutes. Also known as the glycolytic system. An example of an activity of the intensity
and duration that this system works under would be a 400 m sprint.

Aerobic system This is the long-duration energy system. By five minutes of exercise,
the O2 system is clearly the dominant system. In a 1 km run, this system is already providing
approximately half the energy; in a marathon run it provides 98% or more.[3]

Aerobic and anaerobic metabolism[edit]

The term metabolism refers to the various series of chemical reactions that take place within the
body. Aerobic refers to the presence of oxygen, whereas anaerobic means with series of
chemical reactions that does not require the presence of oxygen. The ATP-CP series and the
lactic acid series are anaerobic, whereas the oxygen series, is aerobic. [4]

ATPCP: the phosphagen system[edit]

(A) Phosphocreatine, which is stored in muscle cells, contains a high energy bond. (B) When creatine
phosphate is broken down during muscular contraction, a large amount of energy is released. The energy
released is coupled with the energy requirement to resynthesize ATP.

Creatine phosphate (CP), like ATP, is stored in the muscle cells. When it is broken down, a large
amount of energy is released. The energy released is coupled to the energy requirement
necessary for the resynthesis of ATP.
The total muscular stores of both ATP and CP are very small. Thus, the amount of energy
obtainable through this system is limited. If an individual were to run 100 meters as fast as they
could, the phosphagen stores in the working muscles would probably be exhausted by the end of
the sprint, about 1530 seconds later. However, the usefulness of the ATP-CP system lies in the
rapid availability of energy rather than quantity. This is extremely important with respect to the
kinds of physical activities that humans are capable of performing.[5]

Anaerobic system[edit]
This system is known as anaerobic glycolysis. Glycolysis refers to the breakdown of sugar. In
this system, the breakdown of sugar supplies the necessary energy from which ATP is
manufactured. When sugar is metabolized anaerobically, it is only partially broken down and one

of the by-products is lactic acid. This process creates enough energy to couple with the energy
requirements to resynthesize ATP.
When H+ ions accumulate in the muscles causing the blood pH level to reach very low levels,
temporary muscular fatigue results. Another limitation of the lactic acid system that relates to its
anaerobic quality is that only a few moles of ATP can be resynthesized from the breakdown of
sugar as compared to the yield possible when oxygen is present. This system cannot be relied
on for extended periods of time.
The lactic acid system, like the ATP-CP system, is extremely important, primarily because it also
provides a rapid supply of ATP energy. For example, exercises that are performed at maximum
rates for between 1 and 3 minutes depend heavily upon the lactic acid system for ATP energy. In
activities such as running 1500 meters or a mile, the lactic acid system is used predominately for
the kick at the end of a race.[6]

Aerobic system[edit]

The Krebs cycle

Oxidative phosphorylation

Glycolysis The first stage is known as glycolysis, which produces 2 ATP molecules, 2 reduced
molecules of NAD (NADH), and 2 pyruvate molecules which move on to the next stage the
Krebs cycle. Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of normal body cells, or the sarcoplasm of
muscle cells.
The Krebs cycle This is the second stage, and the products of this stage of the aerobic
system are a net production of one ATP, one carbon dioxide molecule, three reduced NAD
molecules, one reduced FAD molecule (The molecules of NAD and FAD mentioned here are
electron carriers, and if they are said to be reduced, this means that they have had a H+ ion
added to them). The things produced here are for each turn of the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle
turns twice for each molecule of glucose that passes through the aerobic system as
two pyruvate molecules enter the Krebs cycle. In order for the Pyruvate molecules to enter the
Krebs cycle they must be converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A. During this link reaction, for each
molecule of pyruvate that gets converted to Acetyl Coenzyme A, an NAD is also reduced. This
stage of the aerobic system takes place in the matrix of the cells' mitochondria.
Oxidative phosphorylation This is the last stage of the aerobic system and produces the
largest yield of ATP out of all the stages a total of 34 ATP molecules. It is called
oxidative phosphorylation because oxygen is the final acceptor of the electrons and hydrogen
ions that leave this stage of aerobic respiration (hence oxidative) and ADP gets phosphorylated
(an extra phosphate gets added) to form ATP (hence phosphorylation).
This stage of the aerobic system occurs on the cristae (infoldings on the membrane of the
mitochondria). The NADH+ from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, and the FADH+ from the Krebs

cycle pass down electron carriers which are at decreasing energy levels, in which energy is
released to reform ATP. Each NADH+ that passes down this electron transport chain provides
enough energy for 3 molecules of ATP, and each molecule of FADH+ provides enough energy for
2 molecules of ATP. If you do your math this means that 10 total NADH+ molecules allow the
rejuvenation of 30 ATP, and 2 FADH+ molecules allow for 4 ATP molecules to be rejuvenated
(The total being 34 from oxidative phosphorylation, plus the 4 from the previous 2 stages
meaning a total of 38 ATP being produced during the aerobic system). The NADH+ and FADH+
get oxidized to allow the NAD and FAD to return to be used in the aerobic system again, and
electrons and hydrogen ions are accepted by oxygen to produce water, a harmless by-product.
Preliminary Energy Audit
The Preliminary Energy Audit focuses on the major energy suppliers and demands usually
accounting for approximately 70% of total energy. It is essentially a preliminary data gathering
and analysis effort. It uses only available data and is completed with limited diagnostic
instruments. The PEA is conducted in a very short time frame i.e. 1-3 days during which the
energy auditor relies on his experience together with all the relevant written, oral visual
information that can lead to a quick diagnosis of the plant energy situation. The PEA focuses
on the identification of obvious sources of energy wastage's. The typical out put of a PEA is a
set of recommendations and immediate low cost action that can be taken up by the
department head.
Detailed Energy Audit
The detailed audit goes beyond quantitative estimates of costs and savings. It includes
engineering recommendations and well-defined project, giving due priorities. Approximately
95% of all energy is accounted for during the detailed audit. The detailed energy audit is
conducted after the preliminary energy audit. Sophisticated instrumentation including flow
meter, flue gas analyzer and scanner are use of compute energy efficiency.
Scope of work for detailed Energy Audit

Review of Electricity Bills, Contract Demand and Power Factor: For the last one year,
in which possibility will be explored for further reduction of contract demand and
improvement of power factor

Electrical System Network : Which would include detailed study of all the Transformer
operations of various Ratings / Capacities, their operational pattern, Loading, No Load
Losses, Power Factor Measurement on the Main Power Distribution Boards and scope
for improvement if any. The study would also cover possible improvements in energy
metering systems for better control and monitoring.

Study of Motors and Pumps Loading : Study of motors (above 10 kW) in terms of
measurement of voltage (V), Current (I), Power (kW) and power factor and thereby
suggesting measures for energy saving like reduction in size of motors or installation of
energy saving device in the existing motors. Study of Pumps and their flow, thereby
suggesting measures for energy saving like reduction in size of Motors and Pumps or
installation of energy saving device in the existing motors / optimization of pumps.

Study of Air conditioning plant : w.r.t measurement of Specific Energy consumption i.e
kW/TR of refrigeration, study of Refrigerant Compressors, Chilling Units, etc. Further,
various measures would be suggested to improve its performance.

Cooling Tower: This would include detailed study of the operational performance of
the cooling towers through measurements of temperature differential, air/water flow
rate, to enable evaluate specific performance parameters like approach, effectiveness

etc.

Performance Evaluation of Boilers: This includes detailed study of boiler efficiency,

Thermal insulation survey and flue gas analysis.

Performance Evaluation of Turbines: This includes detailed study of Turbine efficiency,

Waste heat recovery.

Performance Evaluation of Air Compressor: This includes detailed study of Air

compressor system for finding its performance and specific energy consumption

Evaluation of Condenser performance: This includes detailed study of condenser

performance and opportunities for waste heat recovery

Performance Evaluation of Burners / Furnace : This includes detailed study on

performance of Furnace / Burner, thermal insulation survey for finding its efficiency

Windows / Split Air Conditioners: Performance shall be evaluated as regards, their

input power vis-a-vis TR capacity and performance will be compared to improve to the
best in the category

Illumination: Study of the illumination system, LUX level in various areas, area lighting
etc. and suggest measures for improvements and energy conservation opportunity
wherever feasible.

DG Set: Study the operations of DG sets to evaluate their average cost of Power
Generation, Specific Energy Generation and subsequently identify areas wherein
energy savings could be achieved after analysing the operational practices etc. of the
DG sets.

The entire recommendations would be backed up with techno-economic calculations including

the estimated investments required for implementation of the suggested measures and simple
payback period. Measurement would be made using appropriate in

Energy conservation'' means to reduce the quantity of energy that is used for different
purposes. This practice may result in increase of financial capital, environmental value, national
and personal security, and human comfort.
Individuals and organizations that are direct consumers of energy may want to conserve energy
in order to reduce energy costs and promote economic, political and environmental sustainability.
Industrial and commercial users may want to increase efficiency and thus maximize profit.
On a larger scale, energy conservation is an important element of energy policy. In general,
energy conservation reduces the energy consumption and energy demand per capita. This
reduces the rise in energy costs, and can reduce the need for new power plants, and energy
imports. The reduced energy demand can provide more flexibility in choosing the most preferred
methods of energy production.

By reducing emissions, energy conservation is an important method to prevent climate change.

Energy conservation makes it easier to replace non-renewable resources withrenewable energy.
Energy conservation is often the most economical solution to energy shortages.
Natural resource and energy conservation is achieved by managing materials more efficiently.
Choose from the efforts and resources below to learn how to conserve resources at home and at
work.
Reduce, Reuse, Recycle: Learn ways to reduce household and industrial waste. Three
primary strategies for effectively managing materials and waste are reduce, reuse, and
recycle.
o Reduce waste by making smart decisions when purchasing products, including the
consideration of product packaging.
o Reuse containers and products.
o Recycle materials ranging from paper to food scraps, yard trimmings, and
electronics.
o Purchase products manufactured with recycled content.

Reducing Food Waste: Information for businesses and organizations on reducing food
waste.

Composting for Facilities: Learn more about industrial composting.

Sustainable Materials Management (SMM): SMM is a systemic approach to using and

reusing materials more productively over their entire lifecycles. Learn what EPA is doing
to advance SMM and how to become involved.

Conservation Tools: Tools and programs that promote waste reduction and recycling. Read
guidelines for businesses regarding purchasing recycled materials, controlling solid waste
management costs, and streamlining and improving operations. Learn about evaluating
effectiveness of recycling in the community.

Common Wastes and Materials: Common materials from the municipal, commercial, and
industrial waste streams that have good opportunities for recycling and reuse.

Building Evaluation Tools

VERDE. Building
Evaluation
Certification Method

and

Environmental

In the past few years, the concepts of sustainable or green building have evolved, incorporating
new notions and concepts.
Due to several factors like climate change or a shortage in natural resources, we are witnessing an
increase in the environmental awareness of both citizens and designers. This has lead us to look

beyond traditional construction methods, taking other problems into consideration, such as energy
saving or material selection, following ecological criteria.
Nowadays, some ecological and energetic saving measures are generally taken by designers,
depending on the context and location of the building, its characteristics and their own knowledge
on the subject. Nevertheless, it is more complex to assess whether these measures imply that the
building is truly innovative, eco-friendly and sustainable, making it worthy of obtaining an
Environmental Certification. At any rate, it becomes clear that introducing one single element is not
enough to confirm that a building is actually sustainable.
Considering these arguments the Technical Committee at GBCe has put together criteria and
established rules to define the requirements and limits a building must meet to be qualified as
sustainable, and therefore obtain a GBC Espaa Certificate-VERDE.
The evaluation system is based on a feature evaluating method, in accordance with the CTE
(Cdigo Tcnico de la Edificacin, Technical Building Code) and European Guidelines. At its core are
bio-architecture principles: the buildings respect for the environment, whether it is compatible with
its surroundings and the high comfort and quality of life levels required for the users.

Evaluation Criteria
The evaluation criteria are grouped into subjects, as follows:

A. Site Selection, Project Planning and Development

Recycling strategies for the project or community
Autochthonous plants
Atmospheric light pollution
B. Energy and atmosphere
Use of non-renewable energy resources in the manufacture of building materials
Use of non-renewable energy resources to transport the building materials
Reduction of operating energy
Reduction of peak electric loads
Provision of on-site renewable energy systems
Strategies to reduce the emission of photo-oxidants and NOx substances
Strategies to reduce substances aggressive to the stratospheric ozone layer, from building
materials and HVAC systems

C. Natural Resources
Design measures to reduce use of potable water for occupancy needs
Rainwater storage for later reuse
Design features for a split grey/potable water system for later reuse
Natural impact and hazardous waste generated by building materials used
Demolition, dismantling, reusage and recycling strategies
Natural impact and hazardous waste generated in the construction process
D. Indoor environmental Quality
Removal, before occupancy, of pollutants emitted by new interior finishing materials
Indoor air CO2 concentration
Air movement in mechanically ventilated occupancies
Effectiveness of ventilation in naturally ventilated occupancies
Air temperature and relative humidity in mechanically cooled occupancies
Air temperature in naturally ventilated occupancies
Day lighting in primary occupancy areas
Glare in non-residential occupancies
Illumination levels and quality of lighting in non-residential occupancy design
Noise attenuation through the exterior envelope
Transmission of facility equipment noise to primary occupancies
Noise attenuation between primary occupancy areas
E. Service Quality
Spatial efficiency
Volumetric efficiency

Provision and operation of an effective facility management control system

Capability for partial operation of facility technical systems
Degree of local control of lighting systems in non-residential occupancies
Degree of personal control of technical systems by occupants
Ability to modify facility technical systems
Strategies to maximize adaptability of structural type and payout for the future functional
requirements
Strategies to minimize constraints imposed by floor-to-floor heights on future functional
requirements
Strategies to minimize constraints imposed by building envelope and technical systems for
future functional requirements
Adaptability to future changes in type of energy supply
Development and implementation of a maintenance management plan
On-going monitoring and verification of building performance (energy and water)
F. Social and Economic Aspects
Access for physically handicapped persons
Access to direct sunlight from living areas of dwelling units
Access to private open space from dwelling units
Visual privacy from the exterior in principal areas of dwelling units
Access to outside views from work areas
Minimization of construction cost
Minimization of operating and maintenance cost
Affordability of residential rental or cost levels
IMPACTS

IMPACT

INDICATOR

Climate Change

kg CO2 eq per year

Increase in UV radiation at ground level

kg CFC11 eq year

Soil fertility loss

kg SO2 eq per year

Aquatic life loss

kg PO4 eq per year

Health and cancer risk

kg C2H4 eq
year

Changes in local biodiversity

Exhaustion of non-reweable energy resources, primary energy

MJ

Exhaustion of non-reneweable energy resources, other than primary

energy

kg material

Exhaustion of potable water

m3

Land use

m2

Soil exhaustion due to non-hazardous material disposal

m3

Hazardous waste storage or disposal

kg

Radioactive waste storage or disposal

kg

Health, well-being and productivity of users

Financial risk or benefit for investors Life cycle cost

/m2

Criteria and Impact Quantification

per

A benchmark, or reference score, is assigned to each criterion. They are set based on the revision
of the laws or regulations in force, the performance analysis of the surrounding buildings.
The score goes from 0 to 5, in the following order:

0 reference value level that implies compliance with current legislation or common practice
3 value level implying good practice
5 value level implying the best possible practice with an acceptable cost
The final score will be obtained by comparing and adjusting the impact reduction in relation to the
reference building.
The load assigned to each impact is related to the significance of such impact on a worldwide
scale, at global level, and to the local environment existing situation, at regional level.
At present, the assigned load for the several impact categories follows indications from the OSE
Report on Sustainability in Spain 2007 and the MMA Report on the Environmental
Profile in Spain 2007.
New Building Design & Construction: Energy-Efficient from the Start
For new construction projects, EPA:
Goes beyond the applicable codes and regulations (e.g., 10 CFR Part 435 Subpart A) to
pursue DOE design initiatives encouraged by the Energy Policy Act and EO 12902. Such
initiatives include passive energy design strategies, use of waste energy and reclaimable
resources, and the use of solar and renewable energy
Maintaines among staff, site managers, site designers and contractors a high level of
awareness of technology developments, especially renewable energy technologies, and a
commitment to use them whenever possible, and where cost effective
Ensures that all new environmental control systems installed are highly automated, using a
comprehensive monitoring and control strategy designed to continuously monitor the
systems performance for delivery of services at the expected energy efficiency and
pollution prevention levels.
The Program of Requests for new laboratories planned for Las Vegas, NV; Kansas City, KS;
Edison, NJ; and Lexington, MA; are being amended to include requirements for
renewable technology applications.
Green Buildings Program
Vast opportunities for implementing regulatory and executive order procurement requirements
exist in building construction, renovation, and maintenance. For several years, EPA has been
implementing Green Building strategies in a variety of ways, which are expanding with each
construction and renovation project. To promote a healthful and productive working environment,
the Green Buildings program incorporates principles of energy and resource efficiency, applies
waste reduction and pollution prevention practices, ensures unpolluted indoor air, and uses natural
light as a light and heat source whenever possible. The Green Buildings Vision and Policy
statement, on page 22, serves as a guide for EPA and as a model for other agencies. It represents
a holistic, systems approach to sustainable building design, renovation, and maintenance.
There are many examples of Green Building practices that are incorporated in numerous
solicitation for offers (SFOs) for construction and/or renovation activities at EPA facilities. For
instance, SFOs have specified the collection of recyclable waste materials, the recycling of
construction and renovation debris, and the reuse of existing building material. Also, SFOs specify

the use of environmentally preferable building products and materials, promote low VOC-content
adhesives, and restrict the use of products made from endangered or restricted wood.
Several upcoming and recent EPA facility construction projects demonstrate technologies and
concepts that integrate a systems approach to Green Buildings procurement using many of the
practices previously described. These facilities include the New Headquarters Buildings
(Washington, DC), the New Consolidated RTP Facility (Research Triangle Park, NC), the Region IV
Science and Ecosystems Support Laboratory (Athens, GA), Region IV Office (Atlanta, GA), Region
III Office (Philadelphia, PA), Region VII Central Regional Laboratory (Kansas City, KS), National
Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory (Ann Arbor, MI), and the Fort Meade Environmental Science
Center (Fort Meade, MD). The following EPA facilities provide examples of the variety of energy
conservation and pollution prevention opportunities which were addressed through the Green
Buildings program.
Athens, Georgia
A variety of pollution prevention opportunities were considered and incorporated into the design
and construction of the new Region IV laboratory in Athens, Georgia. In incorporating Green
Building concepts, OA was able to minimize off-gas environmental contaminants in materials and
GREEN BUILDINGS VISION AND POLICY STATEMENT
In order to maintain leadership in environmental protection, EPA must lead by example. Through
sustainable design and construction of EPA facilities we will model responsible environmental
behavior and help create the framework within which the building industry as a whole can shift
towards practices which will promote "Green Buildings".
Green Buildings are structures that incorporate the principles of sustainable design -- design in
which the impact of a building on the environment will be minimal over the lifetime of that
building. Green Buildings incorporate principles of energy and resource efficiency, practical
applications of waste reduction and pollution prevention, good indoor air quality and natural light
to promote occupant health and productivity, and transportation efficiency in design and
construction, during use and reuse.
Agency facilities, both new and existing, should serve as models for a healthy workplace with
minimal environmental impacts. To achieve this goal, EPA will utilize both innovative, state-of-theart technologies and a holistic approach to design, construction, renovation, and use. EPA will work
with the private sector to identify opportunities for innovation and help create markets for both
products and design concepts. Important considerations in the design, construction and use of
EPA-owned and -leased facilities include the following:
Site planning that utilizes resources naturally occurring on the site such as solar and wind
energy, natural shading, native plant materials, topography and drainage
Location and programs to optimize use of existing infrastructure and transportation
options, including the use of alternative work modes such as telecommuting and
teleconferencing
Use of recycled content and environmentally preferable construction materials and
furnishings, consistent with EPA Procurement Guidelines

 Minimization of energy and materials waste throughout the buildings life cycle, from design
through demolition or reuse
Design of the building envelope for energy efficiency
Use of materials and design strategies to achieve optimal indoor environmental quality,
particularly including light and air, to maximize health and productivity
Operation systems and practices which support an integrated waste management system
Recycling of building materials at demolition
Management of water as a limited resource in site design, building construction and
building operations
Utilization of solar and other renewable technologies, where appropriate
Evaluation of trade-offs will be an important component of the design of Green Buildings. Where
the goals of a Green Building are contradictory (for example, increased ventilation vs. increased
energy efficiency), the trade-offs will have to be evaluated in a holistic framework to achieve longterm benefits for the environment. Also, the physical considerations must be balanced with other
policy objectives such as environmental justice, particularly with regards to site location. We
anticipate that there may not be always be single answers to recurring building issues, but we will
adopt a consistent approach to evaluating all buildings for sustainable design considerations.
products (e.g., adhesives, varnishes, carpets, paints), use CFC-free insulations and refrigerants,
and avoid materials in limited supply or not from sustainable sources. OA was able to use recycled
content products (e.g., insulation, wall board, and fly-ash concrete), maximize shading through
liberal use of trees and shrubs, and include centralized recycling stations. A variety of conservation
opportunities were implemented, such as improved efficiency of refrigeration equipment, a VAV
HVAC system, split-task ambient lighting system, low-flow plumbing fixtures, and trickle irrigation
systems for exterior landscaping.
New EPA Headquarters, Washington, DC
EPA has completed construction of a consolidated headquarters facility in downtown Washington,
DC. The Agency occupies a portion of the Ronald Reagan Federal Building and the adjacent
Customs/Connecting Wing/Interstate Commerce Commission and Ariel Rios Buildings. EPAs new
Headquarters operates with many energy-saving features, described below. The variety of
solutions implemented by EPA highlights the dynamic diversity of available responses to energy
conservation needs.
HVAC System
EPA required that perimeter walls be adequately insulated and all windows be recaulked
and reglazed to virtually "seal" the building and reduce demand on the HVAC system by
preventing the loss of cool air during the cooling season and warm air during the heating
season.
Space-adjustable thermostats control VAV fans to automatically adjust the amount and
temperature of the air to meet the requirements of the office or space.

 Upgraded HVAC system eliminates use of CFCs and is designed to maximize energy
efficiency.
Lighting
Occupancy sensors have been installed in workstations to turn off task and under-cabinet
lights when the space is unoccupied for 15 minutes.
Daylighting controls and floor-wide occupancy sensors turn off lights when they are not
needed.
Where possible, partitions have been kept away from external windows to allow
penetration of daylight into work spaces.
Lighting system is up to 90 percent efficient; EPA expects upgrades will provide savings
upwards of 40 percent over typical commercial systems.
Work space colors and lighting fixtures are designed to reduce glare.
Fort Meade Environmental Science Center, MD
Environmentally sound materials and processes will be incorporated into the various phases of
design at the new facility in Fort Meade, MD. For example, materials for the interior finishes will be
selected to minimize chemical off-gasing. Lighter colored finishes will be used in order to maximize
the lighting reflectivity. In addition, no mercury, asbestos, or halon will be used within the facility,
and no lead is to be used in the water piping connections.
Examples of Green Building practices incorporated into the site design phase include stipulating
that existing trees will be transported on-site where possible and that, to reduce the need for
fertilization, new planting will include native species and grasses. Also, the existing tree stands will
be preserved to the extent possible. Another example in this area is the use of recycled asphalt for
wearing surfaces for parking and roadway areas.
The architectural/structural design phase also provides for many practices that use
environmentally benign materials and practices. For example, it is specified that building materials
should include recyclable materials where possible, such as within the facilitys insulation and in
concrete. In addition, wall bases and selected flooring areas will contain rubber with reclaimed
material. Carpet and ceiling tile that are to be used within the facility have been specified to allow
these materials to be recycled in the future. Also, a recycling center will be provided for waste
materials.
Research Triangle Park (RTP), NC
The new 635,000 square-foot consolidated campus at RTP will house about 2,000 EPA staff and
contractors in the Agencys largest laboratory and office complex. Energy efficiency has been
stressed in every aspect of the design of this new facility, which is now under design and set for
completion by early 2001. For example, an integrated systems approach has maximized
daylighting while keeping heat gain to a minimum. Although the orientation of the building along
the steep slope of the site yields a large amount of southwestern exposure, large forests of tall
pines and hardwoods have been carefully preserved to provide the building with much-needed
shading. Light-colored pre-cast concrete and roofing material will help reflect radiant heat, and the
articulation of the building facade will help to shade the windows from excessive mid-day sun.
Insulated, low-E glass will further deflect heat gain while maximizing the daylight benefit of the
abundant windows. Motion sensors and daylight dimmers will be combined with high-efficiency
electronic fluorescent fixtures which comply with EPAs Green Lights program.

Variable speed drives and high-efficiency motors and pumps are used extensively throughout the
facility. VAV units and outside air economizers in the office wings keep the energy demand to a
minimum. A direct digital control building automation system will tie all heating, cooling and
lighting into an integrated system which will minimize energy use throughout the complex.
Since laboratories are particularly energy-intensive, special care was given to the custom-designed
chemical fume hoods. Each hood will have a specially designed sash which will cut the air demand
by 20% in full operation. When the hood is lowered and the researcher turns off the light as he or
she leaves the laboratory, air flow is cut dramaticallyyielding a 70% total reduction from the
energy demand of a standard fume hood. This energy savings will be realized with no compromise
in worker safety protections.

MINIMIZATION OF PETROLEUM USE

Refer to Appendix C for information on EPAs vehicle fuel consumption.

CONCLUSION
EPA has taken many positive steps to conserve energy over the last year. Since EPA met its 10
percent energy reduction goal in 1995, the Agency has moved beyond the traditional conservation
approaches of lighting retrofits and building upgrades to a more aggressive, all-encompassing
program. EPAs partnerships with other government agencies and the private sector, use of
innovative technologies and designs, and incorporation of pollution prevention programs into daily
activitiesas well as continuing to use the tools that helped the Agency reach past goals and
milestonesis already proving useful in pursuing the 20 percent and 30 percent reduction goals.
The Agencys mission to protect the environment make meeting the 2000 and 2005 goals natural
commitments, and EPA intends to turn these commitments into success stories.

Advanced building techniques

A building professional's guide to more than 90 environmentally-appropriate technologies
and practices. Architects, engineers and buildings managers can improve the energy and
resource efficiency of commercial, industrial and multi-unit residential buildings through
the use of the technologies and practices described in this web site. The following design
and construction issues are covered:

indoor air quality

electricity production

daylighting

water conservation

non-toxic materials

energy efficiency

waste management

recycled materials

This web site is offered as an assistance to building designers and the inclusion of a
technology does not indicate its endorsement by the sponsors.
New technologies are added to the site during our updating process. If you would like to
submit a technology description, please contact us.

What is a Smart Building?

RESOURCES:

What is a Smart Building?

Olympic Peninsula Project (PNNL-Gridwise)

Europe's Electricity Networks of the Future (European Commission)

Smart Grid Interoperability Standards Roadmap (NIST)

Smart 2020 (Climate Group)

The first buildings ever constructed were primitive shelters made from stones, sticks, animal skins and other
natural materials. While they hardly resembled the steel and glass that make up a modern city skyline, these
early structures had the same purpose - to provide a comfortable space for the people inside.
Buildings today are complex concatenations of structures, systems and technology. Over time, each of the
components inside a building has been developed and improved, allowing modern-day building owners to select
lighting, security, heating, ventilation and air conditioning systems independently, as if they were putting together
a home entertainment system.
But building owners today are beginning to look outside the four walls and consider the impact of their building on
the electrical grid, the mission of their organization, and the global environment. To meet these objectives, it is not
enough for a building to simply contain the systems that provide comfort, light and safety. Buildings of the future
must connect the various pieces in an integrated, dynamic and functional way. This vision is a building that
seamlessly fulfills its mission while minimizing energy cost, supporting a robust electric grid and mitigating
environmental impact.
At the most fundamental level, smart buildings deliver useful building services that make occupants productive
(e.g. illumination, thermal comfort, air quality, physical security, sanitation, and many more) at the lowest cost and
environmental impact over the building lifecycle. Reaching this vision requires adding intelligence from the
beginning of design phase through to the end of the building's useful life. Smart buildings use information
technology during operation to connect a variety of subsystems, which typically operate independently, so that
these systems can share information to optimize total building performance. Smart buildings look beyond the
building equipment within their four walls. They are connected and responsive to the smart power grid, and they
interact with building operators and occupants to empower them with new levels of visibility and actionable
information.
Enabled by technology, this smart building connects the structure itself to the functions it exists to fulfill:

Connecting building systems

Connecting people and technology

Connecting to the bottom line

Connecting to the global environment

Connecting to the smart power grid

Connecting to an intelligent future

Connecting Building Systems

Modern buildings contain complex mechanical devices, sophisticated control systems and a suite of features to
improve the safety, comfort and productivity of occupants. Many of these systems involve machine-to-machine
communication, but because the data is general in nature and the communication protocols have been
proprietary, information only flows along certain paths. The smart building will require connectivity between all the
equipment and systems in a building. An example is chiller plant optimization, which boosts the efficiency of
chiller operation by incorporating outside weather data and information about occupancy. Another example is
using data from the building security system to turn off lights and reduce cooling when occupants are not present.
The movement toward interoperable, connected devices and systems within a building requires cooperation

between many different parties, many of whom are historical business competitors. Despite the challenge,
voluntary collaboration over the past two decades has led to the adoption of open standards such as BACnet,
Modbus, and LonWorks1, leveling the playing field by enabling every manufacturer and contractor to make
their contribution to a functional whole. The result is a building where lighting, air conditioning, security and other
systems pass data freely back and forth leading to higher efficiency, more safety and comfort, and lower cost
operation of the facility.

Connecting People and Technology

The most sophisticated software and elaborate hardware in the world would be nothing but wires and transistors
without the people that use them to work more effectively. In that sense, the people that run a smart building are
a crucial component of its intelligence.
With budgets tight and staff constrained, there is no room for difficult training and steep learning curves in
modern day facility management. Instead, a truly smart building provides intuitive tools that are designed to
improve and enhance the existing efforts of the people on the ground. As the smart building evolves, the sharing
of information between smart building systems and components will provide the platform for innovation. Future
applications will appear as facility managers interact with tools and technology to do their jobs better providing
more comfort, more safety, and more security with less money, less energy, and less environmental impact.

Connecting to the Bottom Line

A smart building can be considered a supersystem of interconnected building subsystems; it has been
compared to the internet, which connects computer networks into one larger supernetwork. In a smart building,
the integration of systems can be used to reduce operating costs.
There are numerous ways that a smart building can save money; most involve optimized operation and
increased efficiency:

Optimized cooling and ventilation equipment Modeling loads dynamically allows the system to spend
the minimum amount of money to provide the comfort level desired.

Matching occupancy patterns to energy use A smart building will run leaner (and save money) when
there are less people inside.

Proactive maintenance of equipment Analysis algorithms will detect problems in performance before
they cause expensive outages, maintaining optimum efficiency along the way.

Dynamic power consumption By taking signals from the electricity market and altering usage in
response, a smart building ensures the lowest possible energy costs and often generates revenue by
selling load reductions back to the grid.

The open access to information is a platform on which significant value can be built. A smart building creates this
platform by connecting information in an open format, allowing for the development of new applications that save
time, energy, and operating costs, in the same way that new web applications are developed for the open
information found on the internet.

Connecting to the Global Environment

For decades, building management systems have automated the process of providing just enough energy to heat
and cool buildings to meet comfort standards. These energy efficiency measures contribute to an organizations
sustainability goals, such as tracking and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. But if the data is trapped within
the building management system, executive-level decision-makers cannot measure and act on it.
Translation software called middleware gathers data from all automated systems throughout an enterprise
regardless of manufacturer or communications protocol and merges it into a common platform for analytics and
reporting. One result is the emergence of web-based dashboard displays that offer a visual snapshot of which
facilities are experiencing high energy usage, abnormal maintenance costs, and many other situations that
deserve prompt attention.
This provides executives in charge of sustainability and carbon footprint management with the visibility to see the
big picture of their organization, no matter how many buildings or geographic locations are involved. When
information is available quickly and can be accessed anywhere, managers are able to make better decisions that

have an immediate impact on profitability.

Connecting to the Smart Power Grid

Truly smart buildings will leverage knowledge that resides outside its walls and windows. The smart grid is an
ideal place to start. Electricity markets are evolving toward real time, meaning that buildings can receive
requests to reduce demand when wholesale prices are high or when grid reliability is jeopardized. In addition,
dynamic electric rates are a growing trend, meaning a building is charged closer to the actual cost of producing
electricity at the instant it is used instead of the average cost over long time periods.
For instance, a utility on the smart grid may be programmed to read the weather forecast, and anticipate a
temperature increase that will result in increased demand the following afternoon. The utility could communicate
an offer to pay the smart building $0.50 for every kilowatt-hour drop from its average electricity usage. A smart
building could accept this offer by activating an internal demand-reduction mode and thereby reducing its load.
While energy use and occupant comfort are crucial to any organization and therefore require human involvement
in the decision-making, technology will be the key enabler, providing building operators with the tools and
information they need to make smart choices. (Facility managers are constrained as it is; there would be very
limited response to participating in a smart grid if it required operators to perform a second job monitoring
markets and reacting to signals.)

Connecting to an Intelligent Future

Smart buildings go far beyond saving energy and contributing to sustainability goals. They extend capital
equipment life and also impact the security and safety of all resources both human and capital. They enable
innovation by creating a platform for accessible information. They turn buildings into virtual power generators by
allowing operators to shed electric load and sell the negawatts into the market. They are a key component of a
future where information technology and human ingenuity combine to produce the robust, low-carbon economy
envisioned for the future.
The advantages extend well beyond the four physical walls of the smart building. The electric grid becomes more
robust and reliable. Societys carbon footprint is minimized as renewable energy sources provide the power,
balanced with a network of information that matches demand with variable supply on a minute-by-minute basis.
Electric cars move people to homes and workplaces, serving as moving batteries in a smart system. And
businesses operate at a new level of efficiency by using data in new ways, leveraging the connection between
systems that until now have been entirely independent. These benefits are not temporary, but extend throughout
the entire lifetime of the building, from modeling and design to renovation and beyond.
The smart building is at the center of this vision, providing not just the roof overhead, but also the information
infrastructure to make possible a truly intelligent world.

Active solar heating systems use solar energy to heat a fluid -- either liquid or air -- and
then transfer the solar heat directly to the interior space or to a storage system for later use. If the
solar system cannot provide adequate space heating, an auxiliary or back-up system provides the
additional heat. Liquid systems are more often used when storage is included, and are well suited
for radiant heating systems, boilers with hot water radiators, and even absorption heat pumps and
coolers. Both liquid and air systems can supplement forced air systems.

LIQUID-BASED ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING

Solar liquid collectors are most appropriate for central heating. They are the same as those used in
solar domestic water heating systems. Flat-plate collectors are the most common, but evacuated tube
and concentrating collectors are also available. In the collector, a heat transfer or "working" fluid such
as water, antifreeze (usually non-toxic propylene glycol), or other type of liquid absorbs the solar heat.
At the appropriate time, a controller operates a circulating pump to move the fluid through the
collector.
The liquid flows rapidly, so its temperature only increases 10 to 20F (5.6 to 11C ) as it moves
through the collector. Heating a smaller volume of liquid to a higher temperature increases heat loss
from the collector and decreases the efficiency of the system. The liquid flows to either a storage tank
or a heat exchanger for immediate use. Other system components include piping, pumps, valves, an
expansion tank, a heat exchanger, a storage tank, and controls.
The flow rate depends on the heat transfer fluid. To learn more about types of liquid solar collectors,
their sizing, maintenance, and other issues, see solar water heating.

STORING HEAT IN LIQUID SYSTEMS

Liquid systems store solar heat in tanks of water or in the masonry mass of a radiant slab system. In
tank type storage systems, heat from the working fluid transfers to a distribution fluid in a heat
exchanger exterior to or within the tank.

Tanks are pressurized or unpressurized, depending on overall system design. Before choosing a
storage tank, consider cost, size, durability, where to place it (in the basement or outside), and how to
install it. You may need to construct a tank on-site if a tank of the necessary size will not fit through
existing doorways. Tanks also have limits for temperature and pressure, and must meet local building,
plumbing, and mechanical codes. You should also note how much insulation is necessary to prevent
excessive heat loss, and what kind of protective coating or sealing is necessary to avoid corrosion or
leaks.
Specialty or custom tanks may be necessary in systems with very large storage requirements. They
are usually stainless steel, fiberglass, or high temperature plastic. Concrete and wood (hot tub) tanks
are also options. Each type of tank has its advantages and disadvantages, and all types require
careful placement because of their size and weight. It may be more practical to use several smaller
tanks rather than one large one. The simplest storage system option is to use standard domestic
water heaters. They meet building codes for pressure vessel requirements, are lined to inhibit
corrosion, and are easy to install.

DISTRIBUTING HEAT FOR LIQUID SYSTEMS

You can use a radiant floor, hot water baseboards or radiators, or a central forced-air system to
distribute the solar heat. In a radiant floor system, solar-heated liquid circulates through pipes
embedded in a thin concrete slab floor, which then radiates heat to the room. Radiant floor heating is
ideal for liquid solar systems because it performs well at relatively low temperatures. A carefully
designed system may not need a separate heat storage tank, although most systems include them for
temperature control. A conventional boiler or even a standard domestic water heater can supply backup heat. The slab is typically finished with tile. Radiant slab systems take longer to heat the home
from a "cold start" than other types of heat distribution systems. Once they are operating, however,
they provide a consistent level of heat. Carpeting and rugs will reduce the system's effectiveness.
See radiant heating for more information.
Hot-water baseboards and radiators require water between 160 and 180F (71 and 82C) to
effectively heat a room. Generally, flat-plate liquid collectors heat the transfer and distribution fluids to
between 90 and 120F (32 and 49C). Therefore, using baseboards or radiators with a solar heating
system requires that the surface area of the baseboard or radiators be larger, temperature of the
solar-heated liquid be increased by the backup system, or a medium-temperature solar collector (such
as an evacuated tube collector) be substituted for a flat-plate collector.
There are several options for incorporating a liquid system into a forced-air heating system. The basic
design is to place a liquid-to-air heat exchanger, or heating coil, in the main room-air return duct
before it reaches the furnace. Air returning from the living space is heated as it passes over the solar
heated liquid in the heat exchanger. Additional heat is supplied as necessary by the furnace. The coil
must be large enough to transfer sufficient heat to the air at the lowest operating temperature of the
collector.

VENTILATION PREHEATING
Solar air heating systems use air as the working fluid for absorbing and transferring solar energy.
Solar air collectors can directly heat individual rooms or can potentially pre-heat the air passing into a
heat recovery ventilator or through the air coil of an air-source heat pump.
Air collectors produce heat earlier and later in the day than liquid systems, so they may produce more
usable energy over a heating season than a liquid system of the same size. Also, unlike liquid
systems, air systems do not freeze, and minor leaks in the collector or distribution ducts will not cause
significant problems, although they will degrade performance. However, air is a less efficient heat
transfer medium than liquid, so solar air collectors operate at lower efficiencies than solar liquid
collectors.
Although some early systems passed solar-heated air through a bed of rocks as energy storage, this
approach is not recommended because of the inefficiencies involved, the potential problems with
condensation and mold in the rock bed, and the effects of that moisture and mold on indoor air quality.
Solar air collectors are often integrated into walls or roofs to hide their appearance. For instance, a tile
roof could have air flow paths built into it to make use of the heat absorbed by the tiles.
Most solar air heating systems are room air heaters, but relatively new devices called transpired air
collectors have limited applications in homes.

ROOM AIR HEATERS

Air collectors can be installed on a roof or an exterior (south-facing) wall for heating one or more
rooms. Although factory-built collectors for on-site installation are available, do-it-yourselfers may
choose to build and install their own air collector. A simple window air heater collector can be made for
a few hundred dollars.
The collector has an airtight and insulated metal frame and a black metal plate for absorbing heat with
glazing in front of it. Solar radiation heats the plate that, in turn, heats the air in the collector. An
electric fan or blower pulls air from the room through the collector, and blows it back into the room.
Roof-mounted collectors require ducts to carry air between the room and the collector. Wall-mounted
collectors are placed directly on a south-facing wall, and holes are cut through the wall for the
collector air inlet and outlets.
Simple "window box collectors" fit in an existing window opening. They can be active (using a fan) or
passive. In passive types, air enters the bottom of the collector, rises as it is heated, and enters the
room. A baffle or damper keeps the room air from flowing back into the panel (reverse
thermosiphoning) when the sun is not shining. These systems only provide a small amount of heat,
because the collector area is relatively small.

TRANSPIRED AIR COLLECTORS

Transpired air collectors use a simple technology to capture the sun's heat to warm buildings. The
collectors consist of dark, perforated metal plates installed over a building's south-facing wall. An air

space is created between the old wall and the new facade. The dark outer facade absorbs solar
energy and rapidly heats up on sunny dayseven when the outside air is cold.
A fan or blower draws ventilation air into the building through tiny holes in the collectors and up
through the air space between the collectors and the south wall. The solar energy absorbed by the
collectors warms the air flowing through them by as much as 40F. Unlike other space heating
technologies, transpired air collectors require no expensive glazing.
Transpired air collectors are most suitable for large buildings with high ventilation loads, a fact which
makes them generally unsuitable for today's tightly sealed homes. However, small transpired air
collectors could be used to pre-heat the air passing into a heat recovery ventilator or could warm the
air coil on an air source heat pump, improving its efficiency and comfort level on cold days. No
information is currently available on the cost effectiveness of using a transpired air collector in this
way, however.

ECONOMICS AND OTHER BENEFITS OF ACTIVE SOLAR HEATING

SYSTEMS
Active solar heating systems are most cost-effective in cold climates with good solar resources when
they are displacing the more expensive heating fuels, such as electricity, propane, and oil. Some
states offer sales tax exemptions, income tax credits or deductions, and property tax exemptions or
deductions for solar energy systems.
The cost of an active solar heating system will vary. Commercially available collectors come with
warranties of 10 years or more, and should easily last decades longer. The economics of an active
space heating system improve if it also heats domestic water, because an otherwise idle collector can
heat water in the summer.
Heating your home with an active solar energy system can significantly reduce your fuel bills in the
winter. A solar heating system will also reduce the amount of air pollution and greenhouse gases that
result from your use of fossil fuels for heating or generating the electricity.

SELECTING AND SIZING A SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM

Selecting the appropriate solar energy system depends on factors such as the site, design, and
heating needs of your house. Local covenants may restrict your options; for example homeowner
associations may not allow you to install solar collectors on certain parts of your house (although
many homeowners have been successful in challenging such covenants).
The local climate, the type and efficiency of the collector(s), and the collector area determine how
much heat a solar heating system can provide. It is usually most economical to design an active
system to provide 40% to 80% of the home's heating needs. Systems providing less than 40% of a
homes heat are rarely cost-effective except when using solar air heater collectors that heat one or
two rooms and require no heat storage. A well-designed and insulated home that incorporates passive
solar heating techniques will require a smaller and less costly heating system of any type, and may
need very little supplemental heat other than solar.

Besides the fact that designing an active system to supply enough heat 100% of the time is generally
not practical or cost-effective, most building codes and mortgage lenders require a back-up heating
system. Supplementary or back-up systems supply heat when the solar system cannot meet heating
requirements. Backups can range from a wood stove to a conventional central heating system.

CONTROLS FOR SOLAR HEATING SYSTEMS

Controls for solar heating systems are usually more complex than those of a conventional heating
system, because they have to analyze more signals and control more devices (including the
conventional back-up heating system). Solar controls use sensors, switches, and/or motors to operate
the system. The system uses other controls to prevent freezing or extremely high temperatures in the
collectors.
The heart of the control system is a differential thermostat, which measures the difference in
temperature between the collectors and storage unit. When the collectors are 10 to 20F (5.6 to
11C) warmer than the storage unit, the thermostat turns on a pump or fan to circulate water or air
through the collector to heat the storage medium or the house.
The operation, performance, and cost of these controls vary. Some control systems monitor the
temperature in different parts of the system to help determine how it is operating. The most
sophisticated systems use microprocessors to control and optimize heat transfer and delivery to
storage and zones of the house.
It is possible to use a solar panel to power low voltage, direct current (DC) blowers (for air collectors)
or pumps (for liquid collectors). The output of the solar panels matches available solar heat gain to the
solar collector. With careful sizing, the blower or pump speed is optimized for efficient solar gain to the
working fluid. During low sun conditions the blower or pump speed is slow, and during high solar gain,
it runs faster.
When used with a room air collector, separate controls may not be necessary. This also ensures that
the system will operate in the event of utility power outage. A solar power system with battery storage
can also provide power to operate a central heating system, though this is expensive for large
systems.

BUILDING CODES, COVENANTS, AND REGULATIONS FOR SOLAR

HEATING SYSTEMS
Before installing a solar energy system, you should investigate local building codes, zoning
ordinances, and subdivision covenants, as well as any special regulations pertaining to the site. You
will probably need a building permit to install a solar energy system on an existing building.
Not every community or municipality initially welcomes residential renewable energy installations.
Although this is often due to ignorance or the comparative novelty of renewable energy systems, you
must comply with existing building and permit procedures to install your system.

The matter of building code and zoning compliance for a solar system installation is typically a local
issue. Even if a statewide building code is in effect, your city, county, or parish usually enforces it.
Common problems homeowners have encountered with building codes include the following:

Exceeding roof load

Unacceptable heat exchangers
Improper wiring
Unlawful tampering with potable water supplies.

Potential zoning issues include these:

Obstructing side yards

Erecting unlawful protrusions on roofs
Siting the system too close to streets or lot boundaries.

Special area regulationssuch as local community, subdivision, or homeowner's association

covenantsalso require compliance. These covenants, historic district regulations, and flood-plain
provisions can easily be overlooked. To find out what's needed for local compliance, contact your local
jurisdiction's zoning and building enforcement divisions and any appropriate homeowner, subdivision,
neighborhood, and/or community association(s).

INSTALLING AND MAINTAINING YOUR SOLAR HEATING SYSTEM

How well an active solar energy system performs depends on effective siting, system design, and
installation as well as the quality and durability of the components. Todays collectors and controls are
high quality, but it can still be a challenge finding an experienced contractor who can properly design
and install the system.
Once a system is in place, it has to be properly maintained to optimize its performance and avoid
breakdowns. Different systems require different types of maintenance, and you should set up a
calendar listing the maintenance tasks that the component manufacturers and installer recommends
for your installation.
Most solar water heaters are automatically covered under your homeowner's insurance policy.
However, damage from freezing is generally not. Contact your insurance provider to find out what its
policy is. Even if your provider will cover your system, it is best to inform them in writing that you own
a new system.

Passive solar building design

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sustainable energy

Energy conservation

Cogeneration

Energy efficiency

Heat pump

Green building

Microgeneration

Passive solar
Renewable energy

Anaerobic digestion

Geothermal

Hydroelectricity

Solar

Tidal

Wind
Sustainable transport

Carbon-neutral fuel

Electric vehicle
Fossil-fuel phase-out

Green vehicle

Plug-in hybrid

Sustainable development portal

Renewable energy portal

Environment portal

In passive solar building design, windows, walls, and floors are made to collect, store, and
distribute solar energy in the form of heat in the winter and reject solar heat in the summer. This
is called passive solar design because, unlike active solar heating systems, it does not involve
the use of mechanical and electrical devices.[1]
The key to design a passive solar building is to best take advantage of the
local climate performing an accurate site analysis. Elements to be considered include window
placement and size, and glazing type, thermal insulation, thermal mass, and shading.[2] Passive

solar design techniques can be applied most easily to new buildings, but existing buildings can
be adapted or "retrofitted".
Contents
[hide]

1 Passive energy gain

2 As a science

3 The solar path in passive design

4 Passive solar thermodynamic principles

o

4.1 Convective heat transfer

4.2 Radiative heat transfer

5 Site specific considerations during design

6 Design elements for residential buildings in temperate climates

7 Efficiency and economics of passive solar heating

8 Key passive solar building design concepts

8.1 Direct solar gain

8.2 Indirect solar gain

8.3 Isolated solar gain

8.4 Heat storage

8.5 Insulation

8.6 Special glazing systems and window coverings

8.7 Glazing selection

8.7.1 Equator-facing glass

8.7.2 Roof-angle glass / Skylights

8.7.3 Angle of incident radiation

8.8 Operable shading and insulation devices

8.9 Exterior colors reflecting - absorbing

9 Landscaping and gardens

10 Other passive solar principles

o

10.1 Passive solar lighting

10.2 Passive solar water heating

11 Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe

12 Design tools

13 Levels of application

14 See also

15 References

16 External links

Passive energy gain[edit]

Elements of passive solar design, shown in a direct gain application

Passive solar technologies use sunlight without active mechanical systems (as contrasted
to active solar). Such technologies convert sunlight into usable heat (in water, air, and thermal
mass), cause air-movement for ventilating, or future use, with little use of other energy sources. A
common example is a solarium on the equator-side of a building.Passive cooling is the use of the
same design principles to reduce summer cooling requirements.
Some passive systems use a small amount of conventional energy to control dampers, shutters,
night insulation, and other devices that enhance solar energy collection, storage, and use, and
reduce undesirable heat transfer.
Passive solar technologies include direct and indirect solar gain for space heating, solar water
heating systems based on the thermosiphon, use of thermal mass and phase-change
materials for slowing indoor air temperature swings, solar cookers, the solar chimney for
enhancing natural ventilation, and earth sheltering.
More widely, passive solar technologies include the solar furnace and solar forge, but these
typically require some external energy for aligning their concentrating mirrors or receivers, and
historically have not proven to be practical or cost effective for widespread use. 'Low-grade'
energy needs, such as space and water heating, have proven, over time, to be better
applications for passive use of solar energy.

As a science[edit]
The scientific basis for passive solar building design has been developed from a combination
of climatology, thermodynamics ( particularly heat transfer: conduction (heat),convection,
and electromagnetic radiation ), fluid mechanics / natural convection (passive movement of air
and water without the use of electricity, fans or pumps), and humanthermal comfort based
on heat index, psychrometrics and enthalpy control for buildings to be inhabited by humans or
animals, sunrooms, solariums, and greenhouses for raising plants.
Specific attention is divided into: the site, location and solar orientation of the building, local sun
path, the prevailing level of insolation ( latitude / sunshine / clouds / precipitation (meteorology) ),
design and construction quality / materials, placement / size / type of windows and walls, and
incorporation of solar-energy-storing thermal mass with heat capacity.
While these considerations may be directed toward any building, achieving an ideal optimized
cost / performance solution requires careful, holistic, system integration engineeringof these
scientific principles. Modern refinements through computer modeling (such as the
comprehensive U.S. Department of Energy "Energy Plus" [3] building energy simulationsoftware),
and application of decades of lessons learned (since the 1970s energy crisis) can achieve
significant energy savings and reduction of environmental damage, without sacrificing
functionality or aesthetics.[4] In fact, passive-solar design features such as a greenhouse /
sunroom / solarium can greatly enhance the livability, daylight, views, and value of a home, at a
low cost per unit of space.
Much has been learned about passive solar building design since the 1970s energy crisis. Many
unscientific, intuition-based expensive construction experiments have attempted and failed to
achieve zero energy - the total elimination of heating-and-cooling energy bills.
Passive solar building construction may not be difficult or expensive (using off-the-shelf existing
materials and technology), but the scientific passive solar building design is a non-trivial
engineering effort that requires significant study of previous counter-intuitive lessons learned,
and time to enter, evaluate, and iteratively refine the simulation input and output.
One of the most useful post-construction evaluation tools has been the use
of thermography using digital thermal imaging cameras for a formal quantitative scientific energy
audit. Thermal imaging can be used to document areas of poor thermal performance such as the
negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter night or hot summer
day.
The scientific lessons learned over the last three decades have been captured in sophisticated
comprehensive building energy simulation computer software systems (like U.S. DOE Energy
Plus, et al.).
Scientific passive solar building design with quantitative cost benefit product optimization is not
easy for a novice. The level of complexity has resulted in ongoing bad-architecture, and many
intuition-based, unscientific construction experiments that disappoint their designers and waste a
significant portion of their construction budget on inappropriate ideas.
The economic motivation for scientific design and engineering is significant. If it had been applied
comprehensively to new building construction beginning in 1980 (based on 1970's lessons
learned), America could be saving over $250,000,000 per year on expensive energy and related
pollution today.[citation needed]
Since 1979, Passive Solar Building Design has been a critical element of achieving zero
energy by educational institution experiments, and governments around the world, including the
U.S. Department of Energy, and the energy research scientists that they have supported for
decades. The cost effective proof of concept was established decades ago, but cultural
assimilation into architecture, construction trades, and building-owner decision making has been
very slow and difficult to change.[citation needed]

The new terms "Architectural Science" and "Architectural Technology" are being added to some
schools of Architecture, with a future goal of teaching the above scientific and energyengineering principles.[citation needed]

The solar path in passive design[edit]

Solar altitude over a year; latitude based on New York, New York

Main articles: Sun path and Position of the Sun

The ability to achieve these goals simultaneously is fundamentally dependent on the seasonal
variations in the sun's path throughout the day.
This occurs as a result of the inclination of the Earth's axis of rotation in relation to its orbit.
The sun path is unique for any given latitude.
In Northern Hemisphere non-tropical latitudes farther than 23.5 degrees from the equator:

The sun will reach its highest point toward the south (in the direction of the equator)

As winter solstice approaches, the angle at which the sun rises and sets progressively
moves further toward the South and the daylight hours will become shorter

The opposite is noted in summer where the sun will rise and set further toward the North
and the daylight hours will lengthen[5]

The converse is observed in the Southern Hemisphere, but the sun rises to the east and sets
toward the west regardless of which hemisphere you are in.
In equatorial regions at less than 23.5 degrees, the position of the sun at solar noon will oscillate
from north to south and back again during the year.[6]
In regions closer than 23.5 degrees from either north-or-south pole, during summer the sun will
trace a complete circle in the sky without setting whilst it will never appear above the horizon six
months later, during the height of winter.[7]
The 47-degree difference in the altitude of the sun at solar noon between winter and summer
forms the basis of passive solar design. This information is combined with local climatic data
(degree day) heating and cooling requirements to determine at what time of the year solar gain
will be beneficial for thermal comfort, and when it should be blocked with shading. By strategic
placement of items such as glazing and shading devices, the percent of solar gain entering a
building can be controlled throughout the year.
One passive solar sun path design problem is that although the sun is in the same relative
position six weeks before, and six weeks after, the solstice, due to "thermal lag" from the thermal
mass of the Earth, the temperature and solar gain requirements are quite different before and

after the summer or winter solstice. Movable shutters, shades, shade screens, or window quilts
can accommodate day-to-day and hour-to-hour solar gain and insulation requirements.
Careful arrangement of rooms completes the passive solar design. A common recommendation
for residential dwellings is to place living areas facing solar noon and sleeping quarters on the
opposite side.[8] A heliodon is a traditional movable light device used by architects and designers
to help model sun path effects. In modern times, 3D computer graphics can visually simulate this
data, and calculate performance predictions.[4]

Passive solar thermodynamic principles[edit]

Personal thermal comfort is a function of personal health factors (medical, psychological,
sociological and situational), ambient air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air movement
(wind chill, turbulence) and relative humidity (affecting human evaporative cooling). Heat
transfer in buildings occurs through convection, conduction, and thermal radiation through roof,
walls, floor and windows.[9]

Convective heat transfer[edit]

Convective heat transfer can be beneficial or detrimental. Uncontrolled air infiltration from
poor weatherization / weatherstripping / draft-proofing can contribute up to 40% of heat loss
during winter;[10] however, strategic placement of operable windows or vents can enhance
convection, cross-ventilation, and summer cooling when the outside air is of a comfortable
temperature and relative humidity.[11] Filtered energy recovery ventilation systems may be useful
to eliminate undesirable humidity, dust, pollen, and microorganisms in unfiltered ventilation air.
Natural convection causing rising warm air and falling cooler air can result in an uneven
stratification of heat. This may cause uncomfortable variations in temperature in the upper and
lower conditioned space, serve as a method of venting hot air, or be designed in as a naturalconvection air-flow loop for passive solar heat distribution and temperature equalization. Natural
human cooling by perspiration and evaporation may be facilitated through natural or forced
convective air movement by fans, but ceiling fans can disturb the stratified insulating air layers at
the top of a room, and accelerate heat transfer from a hot attic, or through nearby windows. In
addition, high relative humidityinhibits evaporative cooling by humans.

Radiative heat transfer[edit]

The main source of heat transfer is radiant energy, and the primary source is the sun. Solar
radiation occurs predominantly through the roof and windows (but also through walls). Thermal
radiation moves from a warmer surface to a cooler one. Roofs receive the majority of the solar
radiation delivered to a house. A cool roof, or green roof in addition to a radiant barrier can help
prevent your attic from becoming hotter than the peak summer outdoor air
temperature[12] (see albedo, absorptivity, emissivity, andreflectivity).
Windows are a ready and predictable site for thermal radiation.[13] Energy from radiation can
move into a window in the day time, and out of the same window at night. Radiation
uses photons to transmit electromagnetic waves through a vacuum, or translucent medium. Solar
heat gain can be significant even on cold clear days. Solar heat gain through windows can be
reduced by insulated glazing, shading, and orientation. Windows are particularly difficult to
insulate compared to roof and walls. Convective heat transfer through and around window
coverings also degrade its insulation properties.[13] When shading windows, external shading is
more effective at reducing heat gain than internal window coverings.[13]
Western and eastern sun can provide warmth and lighting, but are vulnerable to overheating in
summer if not shaded. In contrast, the low midday sun readily admits light and warmth during the
winter, but can be easily shaded with appropriate length overhangs or angled louvres during
summer and leaf bearing summer shade trees which shed their leaves in the fall. The amount of
radiant heat received is related to the location latitude, altitude, cloud cover, and seasonal /
hourly angle of incidence (see Sun path andLambert's cosine law).

Another passive solar design principle is that thermal energy can be stored in certain building
materials and released again when heat gain eases to stabilize diurnal (day/night) temperature
variations. The complex interaction of thermodynamic principles can be counterintuitive for firsttime designers. Precise computer modeling can help avoid costly construction experiments.

Site specific considerations during design[edit]

Latitude, sun path, and insolation (sunshine)

Seasonal variations in solar gain e.g. cooling or heating degree days,
solar insolation, humidity

Diurnal variations in temperature

Micro-climate details related to breezes, humidity, vegetation and land contour

Obstructions / Over-shadowing - to solar gain or local cross-winds

Design elements for residential buildings in temperate

climates[edit]

Placement of room-types, internal doors and walls, and equipment in the house.
Orienting the building to face the equator (or a few degrees to the East to capture the
morning sun)[8]
Extending the building dimension along the east/west axis
Adequately sizing windows to face the midday sun in the winter, and be shaded in the
summer.
Minimising windows on other sides, especially western windows [13]

Erecting correctly sized, latitude-specific roof overhangs,[14] or shading elements

(shrubbery, trees, trellises, fences, shutters, etc.)[15]

Using the appropriate amount and type of insulation including radiant barriers and bulk
insulation to minimise seasonal excessive heat gain or loss

Using thermal mass to store excess solar energy during the winter day (which is then reradiated during the night)[16]

The precise amount of equator-facing glass and thermal mass should be based on careful
consideration of latitude, altitude, climatic conditions, and heating/cooling degree
dayrequirements.
Factors that can degrade thermal performance:

Deviation from ideal orientation and north/south/east/west aspect ratio

Excessive glass area ("over-glazing") resulting in overheating (also resulting in glare and
fading of soft furnishings) and heat loss when ambient air temperatures fall

Installing glazing where solar gain during the day and thermal losses during the night
cannot be controlled easily e.g. West-facing, angled glazing, skylights [17]
Thermal losses through non-insulated or unprotected glazing
Lack of adequate shading during seasonal periods of high solar gain (especially on the
West wall)
Incorrect application of thermal mass to modulate daily temperature variations
Open staircases leading to unequal distribution of warm air between upper and lower
floors as warm air rises

High building surface area to volume - Too many corners

Inadequate weatherization leading to high air infiltration

Lack of, or incorrectly installed, radiant barriers during the hot season. (See also cool
roof and green roof)

Insulation materials that are not matched to the main mode of heat transfer (e.g.
undesirable convective/conductive/radiant heat transfer)

Efficiency and economics of passive solar heating [edit]

Darmstadt University of Technology in Germanywon the 2007 Solar Decathlon in Washington, D.C.with
this passive house designed specifically for the humid and hot subtropical climate.[18]

Technically, PSH is highly efficient. Direct-gain systems can utilize (i.e. convert into "useful" heat)
65-70% of the energy of solar radiation that strikes the aperture or collector.
Passive solar fraction (PSF) is the percentage of the required heat load met by PSH and hence
represents potential reduction in heating costs. RETScreen International has reported a PSF of
20-50%. Within the field of sustainability, energy conservation even of the order of 15% is
considered substantial.
Other sources report the following PSFs:

5-25% for modest systems

40% for "highly optimized" systems

Up to 75% for "very intense" systems

In favorable climates such as the southwest United States, highly optimized systems can exceed
75% PSF.[19]
For more information see Solar Air Heat

Key passive solar building design concepts[edit]

There are six primary passive solar energy configurations:[20]

direct solar gain

indirect solar gain

isolated solar gain

heat storage

insulation and glazing

passive cooling

Direct solar gain[edit]

Direct gain attempts to control the amount of direct solar radiation reaching the living space. This
direct solar gain is a critical part of passive solar house designation as it imparts to a direct gain.
The cost effectiveness of these configurations are currently being investigated in great detail and
are demonstrating promising results.[21]

Indirect solar gain[edit]

Indirect gain attempts to control solar radiation reaching an area adjacent but not part of the
living space. Heat enters the building through windows and is captured and stored inthermal
mass (e.g. water tank, masonry wall) and slowly transmitted indirectly to the building
through conduction and convection. Efficiency can suffer from slow response (thermal lag) and
heat losses at night. Other issues include the cost of insulated glazing and developing effective
systems to redistribute heat throughout the living area.

Isolated solar gain[edit]

Isolated gain involves utilizing solar energy to passively move heat from or to the living space
using a fluid, such as water or air by natural convection or forced convection. Heat gain can
occur through a sunspace, solarium or solar closet. These areas may also be employed usefully
as a greenhouse or drying cabinet. An equator-side sun room may have its exterior windows
higher than the windows between the sun room and the interior living space, to allow the low
winter sun to penetrate to the cold side of adjacent rooms. Glass placement and overhangs
prevent solar gain during the summer. Earth cooling tubes or other passive cooling techniques
can keep a solarium cool in the summer.
Measures should be taken to reduce heat loss at night e.g. window coverings or movable window
insulation.
Examples:

Thermosiphon

Barra system

Double envelope house

Thermal buffer zone[22]

Solar space heating system

Solar chimney

Heat storage[edit]
The sun doesn't shine all the time. Heat storage, or thermal mass, keeps the building warm when
the sun can't heat it.
In diurnal solar houses, the storage is designed for one or a few days. The usual method is a
custom-constructed thermal mass. This includes a Trombe wall, a ventilated concrete floor, a
cistern, water wall or roof pond. It is also feasible to use the thermal mass of the earth itself,
either as-is or by incorporation into the structure by banking or using rammed earth as a
structural medium.[23]
In subarctic areas, or areas that have long terms without solar gain (e.g. weeks of freezing fog),
purpose-built thermal mass is very expensive. Don Stephens pioneered an experimental
technique to use the ground as thermal mass large enough for annualized heat storage. His
designs run an isolated thermosiphon 3 m under a house, and insulate the ground with a 6 m
waterproof skirt.[24]

Insulation[edit]
Main article: Building insulation
Thermal insulation or superinsulation (type, placement and amount) reduces unwanted leakage
of heat.[9] Some passive buildings are actually constructed of insulation.

Special glazing systems and window coverings [edit]

Main articles: Insulated glazing and Window covering
The effectiveness of direct solar gain systems is significantly enhanced by insulative (e.g. double
glazing), spectrally selective glazing (low-e), or movable window insulation (window quilts, bifold
interior insulation shutters, shades, etc.).[25]
Generally, Equator-facing windows should not employ glazing coatings that inhibit solar gain.
There is extensive use of super-insulated windows in the German Passive House standard.
Selection of different spectrally selective window coating depends on the ratio of heating versus
cooling degree days for the design location.

Glazing selection[edit]
Equator-facing glass[edit]
The requirement for vertical equator-facing glass is different from the other three sides of a
building. Reflective window coatings and multiple panes of glass can reduce useful solar gain.
However, direct-gain systems are more dependent on double or triple glazing to reduce heat
loss. Indirect-gain and isolated-gain configurations may still be able to function effectively with
only single-pane glazing. Nevertheless, the optimal cost-effective solution is both location and
system dependent.
Roof-angle glass / Skylights[edit]
Skylights admit harsh direct overhead sunlight and glare[26] either horizontally (a flat roof) or
pitched at the same angle as the roof slope. In some cases, horizontal skylights are used with
reflectors to increase the intensity of solar radiation (and harsh glare), depending on the
roof angle of incidence. When the winter sun is low on the horizon, most solar radiation reflects
off of roof angled glass ( the angle of incidence is nearly parallel to roof-angled glass morning
and afternoon ). When the summer sun is high, it is nearly perpendicular to roof-angled glass,

which maximizes solar gain at the wrong time of year, and acts like a solar furnace. Skylights
should be covered and well-insulated to reducenatural convection ( warm air rising ) heat loss on
cold winter nights, and intense solar heat gain during hot spring/summer/fall days.
The equator-facing side of a building is south in the northern hemisphere, and north in the
southern hemisphere. Skylights on roofs that face away from the equator provide mostly indirect
illumination, except for summer days when the sun rises on the non-equator side of the building
(depending on latitude). Skylights on east-facing roofs provide maximum direct light and solar
heat gain in the summer morning. West-facing skylights provide afternoon sunlight and heat gain
during the hottest part of the day.
Some skylights have expensive glazing that partially reduces summer solar heat gain, while still
allowing some visible light transmission. However, if visible light can pass through it, so can
some radiant heat gain (they are both electromagnetic radiation waves).
You can partially reduce some of the unwanted roof-angled-glazing summer solar heat gain by
installing a skylight in the shade of deciduous (leaf-shedding) trees, or by adding a movable
insulated opaque window covering on the inside or outside of the skylight. This would eliminate
the daylight benefit in the summer. If tree limbs hang over a roof, they will increase problems with
leaves in rain gutters, possibly cause roof-damaging ice dams, shorten roof life, and provide an
easier path for pests to enter your attic. Leaves and twigs on skylights are unappealing, difficult
to clean, and can increase the glazing breakage risk in wind storms.
"Sawtooth roof glazing" with vertical-glass-only can bring some of the passive solar building
design benefits into the core of a commercial or industrial building, without the need for any roofangled glass or skylights.
Skylights provide daylight. The only view they provide is essentially straight up in most
applications. Well-insulated light tubes can bring daylight into northern rooms, without using a
skylight. A passive-solar greenhouse provides abundant daylight for the equator-side of the
building.
Infrared thermography color thermal imaging cameras ( used in formal energy audits ) can
quickly document the negative thermal impact of roof-angled glass or a skylight on a cold winter
night or hot summer day.
The U.S. Department of Energy states: "vertical glazing is the overall best option for
sunspaces."[27] Roof-angled glass and sidewall glass are not recommended for passive solar
sunspaces.
The U.S. DOE explains drawbacks to roof-angled glazing: Glass and plastic have little structural
strength. When installed vertically, glass (or plastic) bears its own weight because only a small
area (the top edge of the glazing) is subject to gravity. As the glass tilts off the vertical axis,
however, an increased area (now the sloped cross-section) of the glazing has to bear the force of
gravity. Glass is also brittle; it does not flex much before breaking. To counteract this, you usually
must increase the thickness of the glazing or increase the number of structural supports to hold
the glazing. Both increase overall cost, and the latter will reduce the amount of solar gain into the
sunspace.
Another common problem with sloped glazing is its increased exposure to the weather. It is
difficult to maintain a good seal on roof-angled glass in intense sunlight. Hail, sleet, snow, and
wind may cause material failure. For occupant safety, regulatory agencies usually require sloped
glass to be made of safety glass, laminated, or a combination thereof, which reduce solar gain
potential. Most of the roof-angled glass on the Crowne Plaza Hotel Orlando Airport sunspace
was destroyed in a single windstorm. Roof-angled glass increases construction cost, and can
increase insurance premiums. Vertical glass is less susceptible to weather damage than roofangled glass.
It is difficult to control solar heat gain in a sunspace with sloped glazing during the summer and
even during the middle of a mild and sunny winter day. Skylights are the antithesis of zero energy
building Passive Solar Cooling in climates with an air conditioning requirement.
Angle of incident radiation[edit]

The amount of solar gain transmitted through glass is also affected by the angle of the
incident solar radiation. Sunlight striking glass within 20 degrees of perpendicular is mostly
transmitted through the glass, whereas sunlight at more than 35 degrees from perpendicular is
mostly reflected[28]
All of these factors can be modeled more precisely with a photographic light meter and
a heliodon or optical bench, which can quantify the ratio of reflectivity to transmissivity, based
on angle of incidence.
Alternatively, passive solar computer software can determine the impact of sun path, and
cooling-and-heating degree days on energy performance. Regional climatic conditions are often
available from local weather services.

Operable shading and insulation devices[edit]

A design with too much equator-facing glass can result in excessive winter, spring, or fall day
heating, uncomfortably bright living spaces at certain times of the year, and excessive heat
transfer on winter nights and summer days.
Although the sun is at the same altitude 6-weeks before and after the solstice, the heating and
cooling requirements before and after the solstice are significantly different. Heat storage on the
Earth's surface causes "thermal lag." Variable cloud cover influences solar gain potential. This
means that latitude-specific fixed window overhangs, while important, are not a complete
seasonal solar gain control solution.
Control mechanisms (such as manual-or-motorized interior insulated drapes, shutters, exterior
roll-down shade screens, or retractable awnings) can compensate for differences caused by
thermal lag or cloud cover, and help control daily / hourly solar gain requirement variations.
Home automation systems that monitor temperature, sunlight, time of day, and room occupancy
can precisely control motorized window-shading-and-insulation devices.

Exterior colors reflecting - absorbing[edit]

Materials and colors can be chosen to reflect or absorb solar thermal energy. Using information
on a Color for electromagnetic radiation to determine its thermal radiationproperties of reflection
or absorption can assist the choices.
See Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory: "Cool Colors"

Landscaping and gardens[edit]

Main article: Energy-efficient landscaping
Energy-efficient landscaping materials for careful passive solar choices
include hardscape building material and "softscape" plants. The use of landscape
design principles for selection of trees, hedges, and trellis-pergola features with vines; all can be
used to create summer shading. For winter solar gain it is desirable to use deciduous plants that
drop their leaves in the autumn gives year round passive solar benefits. Nondeciduous evergreen shrubs and trees can be windbreaks, at variable heights and distances, to
create protection and shelter from winter wind chill. Xeriscaping with 'mature size
appropriate' native species of-and drought tolerant plants, drip irrigation, mulching, and organic
gardening practices reduce or eliminate the need for energy-and-water-intensive irrigation, gas
powered garden equipment, and reduces the landfill waste footprint. Solar powered landscape
lighting and fountain pumps, and covered swimming pools and plunge pools with solar water
heaters can reduce the impact of such amenities.

Sustainable gardening

Sustainable landscaping

Sustainable landscape architecture

Other passive solar principles[edit]

Passive solar lighting[edit]
Main article: Passive solar lighting
Passive solar lighting techniques enhance taking advantage of natural illumination for interiors,
and so reduce reliance on artificial lighting systems.
This can be achieved by careful building design, orientation, and placement of window sections
to collect light. Other creative solutions involve the use of reflecting surfaces to admit daylight
into the interior of a building. Window sections should be adequately sized, and to avoid overillumination can be shielded with a Brise soleil, awnings, well placed trees, glass coatings, and
other passive and active devices.[20]
Another major issue for many window systems is that they can be potentially vulnerable sites of
excessive thermal gain or heat loss. Whilst high mounted clerestory window and
traditional skylights can introduce daylight in poorly oriented sections of a building, unwanted
heat transfer may be hard to control.[29][30] Thus, energy that is saved by reducing artificial lighting
is often more than offset by the energy required for operating HVAC systems to maintain thermal
comfort.
Various methods can be employed to address this including but not limited to window
coverings, insulated glazing and novel materials such as aerogel semi-transparent
insulation, optical fiber embedded in walls or roof, or hybrid solar lighting at Oak Ridge National
Laboratory.
Reflecting elements, from active and passive daylighting collectors, such as light shelves, lighter
wall and floor colors, mirrored wall sections, interior walls with upper glass panels, and clear or
translucent glassed hinged doors and sliding glass doors take the captured light and passively
reflect it further inside. The light can be from passive windows or skylights and solar light tubes or
from active daylighting sources. In traditional Japanese architecture the Shji sliding panel doors,
with translucent Washi screens, are an original precedent. International style, Modernist and Midcentury modern architecture were earlier innovators of this passive penetration and reflection in
industrial, commercial, and residential applications.

Passive solar water heating[edit]

Main article: Solar hot water
There are many ways to use solar thermal energy to heat water for domestic use. Different
active-and-passive solar hot water technologies have different location-specific economic cost
benefit analysis implications.
Fundamental passive solar hot water heating involves no pumps or anything electrical. It is very
cost effective in climates that do not have lengthy sub-freezing, or very-cloudy, weather
conditions.[31] Other active solar water heating technologies, etc. may be more appropriate for
some locations.
It is possible to have active solar hot water which is also capable of being "off grid" and qualifies
as sustainable. This is done by the use of a photovoltaic cell which uses energy from the sun to
power the pumps.[citation needed]

Comparison to the Passive House standard in Europe[edit]

Main article: Passive house
There is growing momentum in Europe for the approach espoused by the Passive
House (Passivhaus in German) Institute in Germany. Rather than relying solely on traditional
passive solar design techniques, this approach seeks to make use of all passive sources of heat,
minimises energy usage, and emphasises the need for high levels of insulation reinforced by
meticulous attention to detail in order to address thermal bridging and cold air infiltration. Most of
the buildings built to the Passive House standard also incorporate an active heat recovery
ventilation unit with or without a small (typically 1 kW) incorporated heating component.

The energy design of Passive House buildings is developed using a spreadsheet-based

modeling tool called the Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) which is updated periodically.
The current version is PHPP2007, where 2007 is the year of issue. A building may be certified as
a "Passive House" when it can be shown that it meets certain criteria, the most important being
that the annual specific heat demand for the house should not exceed 15kWh/m 2a.

Design tools[edit]
Traditionally a heliodon was used to simulate the altitude and azimuth of the sun shining on a
model building at any time of any day of the year.[32] In modern times, computer programs can
model this phenomenon and integrate local climate data (including site impacts such
as overshadowing and physical obstructions) to predict the solar gain potential for a particular
building design over the course of a year. GPS-based smartphone applications can now do this
inexpensively on a hand held device. These design tools provide the passive solar designer the
ability to evaluate local conditions, design elements and orientation prior to construction. Energy
performance optimization normally requires an iterative-refinement design-and-evaluate process.
There is no such thing as a "one-size-fits-all" universal passive solar building design that would
work well in all locations.

Levels of application[edit]
Many detached suburban houses can achieve reductions in heating expense without obvious
changes to their appearance, comfort or usability.[33] This is done using good siting and window
positioning, small amounts of thermal mass, with good-but-conventional insulation,
weatherization, and an occasional supplementary heat source, such as a central radiator
connected to a (solar) water heater. Sunrays may fall on a wall during the daytime and raise the
temperature of its thermal mass. This will then radiate heat into the building in the evening.
External shading, or a radiant barrier plus air gap, may be used to reduce undesirable summer
solar gain.
An extension of the "passive solar" approach to seasonal solar capture and storage of heat and
cooling. These designs attempt to capture warm-season solar heat, and convey it to a seasonal
thermal store for use months later during the cold season ("annualised passive solar.") Increased
storage is achieved by employing large amounts of thermal mass or earth coupling. Anecdotal
reports suggest they can be effective but no formal study has been conducted to demonstrate
their superiority. The approach also can move cooling into the warm season. Examples:

Passive Annual Heat Storage (PAHS) - by John Hait

Annualized Geothermal Solar (AGS) heating - by Don Stephen

Earthed-roof

A "purely passive" solar-heated house would have no mechanical furnace unit, relying instead on
energy captured from sunshine, only supplemented by "incidental" heat energy given off by
lights, computers, and other task-specific appliances (such as those for cooking, entertainment,
etc.), showering, people and pets. The use of natural convection air currents (rather than
mechanical devices such as fans) to circulate air is related, though not strictly solar design.
Passive solar building design sometimes uses limited electrical and mechanical controls to
operate dampers, insulating shutters, shades, awnings, or reflectors. Some systems enlist small
fans or solar-heated chimneys to improve convective air-flow. A reasonable way to analyse these
systems is by measuring their coefficient of performance. A heat pump might use 1 J for every 4
J it delivers giving a COP of 4. A system that only uses a 30 W fan to more-evenly distribute
10 kW of solar heat through an entire house would have a COP of 300.
Passive solar building design is often a foundational element of a cost-effective zero energy
building.[34][35] Although a ZEB uses multiple passive solar building design concepts, a ZEB is
usually not purely passive, having active mechanical renewable energy generation systems such

as: wind turbine, photovoltaics, micro hydro, geothermal, and other emerging alternative energy
sources.

What Is the Difference Between

Active & Passive Solar Collectors?
by Karyn Maier, Demand Media

SHARE
RSS
PRINT
EMAIL

Windows act as collectors in a passive solar design, while active solar systems use
additional equipment.

The use of solar radiation for energy is an ancient concept, but recent concerns
about the environmental impact of burning fossil fuels have made solar energy a hot
topic. Modern solar energy technologies harness the heat generated from the sun to
power residential and industrial heating and cooling systems through the use of
photovoltaic, or PV, panels. Also known as solar cells, these devices capture and
convert solar power into electrical energy. How this energy is collected and
distributed defines the difference between active and passive solar collectors.

Passive Solar Design

A passive solar system does not involve mechanical devices or the use of
conventional energy sources beyond that needed to regulate dampers and other
controls, if any. Classic examples of basic passive solar structures are greenhouses,
sunrooms and solariums -- as the sun's rays pass through the glass windows, the
interior absorbs and retains the heat. Modeling this concept in your home can cut
heating costs by half compared to heating the same home by traditional means
without the use of passive solar (see References 1). In terms of design, success of
the passive solar system depends on orientation and the thermal mass of the

structure's exterior walls, which means their ability to store and redistribute heat
(see References 2).

Passive Solar Collectors

A passive solar system typically relies on south-facing windows as collectors to
capture solar energy, although some systems may also use supplemental PV panels.
In any case, the goal is to redistribute the energy collected according to a
fundamental law of thermodynamics, which states that heat moves from warm to
cool areas and surfaces (see References 3). The simplest method of transferring the
heat from passive solar collectors is through convection. To illustrate, think of a
sunroom with windows on a southern wall. As the sun's rays travel through the glass,
the heat is directed into the room. It then rises to areas where the air is cooler,
including other rooms beyond and above.

Energy management
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Energy management includes planning and operation of energy production and energy
consumption units. Objectives are resource conservation, climate protection and cost savings,
while the users have permanent access to the energy they need. It is connected closely
to environmental management, production management, logistics and other established
business functions. The VDI-Guideline 4602 released a definition which includes the economic
dimension: Energy management is the proactive, organized and systematic coordination of
procurement, conversion, distribution and use of energy to meet the requirements, taking into
account environmental and economic objectives.[1]
Contents
[hide]

1 Organizational integration

2 Energy management in operational functions

o

2.1 Facility management

2.2 Logistics

2.3 Energy procurement

2.4 Production

2.5 Production planning and control

2.6 Maintenance

2.7 Information technology

3 Energy strategies
o

3.1 Potential energy strategies

3.2 Energy strategies of companies

3.3 Energy strategies of politics

3.4 Ethical and normative basis of the energy strategies

4 See also

5 External links

6 References

Organizational integration[edit]
It is important to integrate the energy management in the organizational structure, so that the
energy management can be implemented. Responsibilities and the interaction of the decision
makers should be regularized. The delegation of functions and competencies extend from the top
management to the executive worker. Furthermore, a comprehensive coordination can ensure
the fulfillment of the tasks.
It is advisable to establish a separate organizational unit energy management in large or
energy-intensive companies. This unit supports the senior management and keeps track. It
depends on the basic form of the organizational structure, where this unit is connected. In case
of a functional organization the unit is located directly between the first (CEO) and the second
hierarchical level (corporate functions such as production, procurement, marketing). In a
divisional organization, there should be a central and several sector-specific energy
management units. So the diverse needs of the individual sectors and the coordination between
the branches and the head office can be fulfilled. In amatrix organization the energy
management can be included as a matrix function and thus approach most functions directly.

Energy management in operational functions[edit]

Facility management[edit]
Facility management is an important part of energy management, because a huge proportion
(average 25 per cent) of complete operating costs are energy costs. According to
the International Facility Management Association (IFMA), facility management is "a profession
that encompasses multiple disciplines to ensure functionality of the built environment by
integrating people, place, processes and technology."
The central task of energy management is to reduce costs for the provision of energy in buildings
and facilities without compromising work processes. Especially the availability and service life of
the equipment and the ease of use should remain the same. The German Facility Management
Association (GEFMA e.V.) has published guidelines (e.g. GEFMA 124-1 and 124-2), which
contain methods and ways of dealing with the integration of energy management in the context
of a successful facility management.[2] In this topic the facility manager has to deal with economic,
ecological, risk-based and quality-based targets. He tries to minimize the total cost of the energyrelated processes (supply, distribution and use). [3]

The Passivhaus uses a combination of low-energy building techniques and technologies.

The most important key figure in this context is kilowatt-hours per square meter per year
(kWh/ma). Based on this key figure properties can be classified according to their energy
consumption.

Europe: In Germany a low-energy house can have a maximum energy consumption of

70 kWh/ma.

North America: In the United States, the ENERGY STAR program is the largest program
defining low-energy homes. Homes earning ENERGY STAR certification use at least 15%
less energy than standard new homes built to the International Residential Code, although
homes typically achieve 20%-30% savings.[4]

In comparison, the Passive house (Passivhaus in German) ultra-low-energy standard, currently

undergoing adoption in some other European countries, has a maximum space heating
requirement of 15 kWh/ma. A Passive House is a very well-insulated and virtually air-tight
building. It does not require a conventional heating system. It is heated by solar gain and internal
gains from people. Energy losses are minimized. [5]
There are also buildings that produce more energy (for example by solar water
heating or photovoltaic systems) over the course of a year than it imports from external sources.
These buildings are called energy-plus-houses.[6]
In addition, the work regulations manage competencies, roles and responsibilities. Because the
systems also include risk factors (e.g., oil tanks, gas lines), you must ensure that all tasks are
clearly described and distributed. A clear regulation can help to avoid liability risks. [7]

Logistics[edit]

Carriage of goods

Logistics is the management of the flow of resources between the point of origin and the point of
destination in order to meet some requirements, for example of customers or corporations.
Especially the core logistics task, transportation of the goods, can save costs and protect the
environment through efficient energy management. The relevant factors are the choice of means
of transportation, duration and length of transportation and cooperation with logistics service
providers.
The logistics causes more than 14% percent of CO2 emissions worldwide. For this reason the
term Green Logistics is becoming increasingly important.
Possible courses of action in terms of green logistics are:[8]

Shift to ecofriendly transport carrier such as railroad and waterway

Route and load optimization

Formation of corporate networks, which are connected by logistics service

Optimizing physical logistics processes by providing a sophisticated IT support

Besides transportation of goods, the transport of persons should be an important part of the
logistic strategy of organizations. In case of business trips it is important to attract attention to the
choice and the proportionality of the means of transport. It should be balanced whether a
physical presence is mandatory or a telephone or video conference is just as useful. Home Office
is another possibility in which the company can protect the environment indirectly.[9]

Energy procurement[edit]
Procurement is the acquisition of goods or services. Energy prices fluctuate constantly, which
can significantly affect the energy bill of organizations. Therefore poor energy procurement
decisions can be expensive. Organizations can control and reduce energy costs by taking a
proactive and efficient approach to buying energy. Even a change of the energy source can be a
profitable and eco-friendly alternative.[10]

Production[edit]
Production is the act of creating output, a good or service which has value and contributes to the
utility of individuals.[11] This central process may differ depending on the industry. Industrial
companies have facilities that require a lot of energy. Service companies, in turn, do not need
many materials, their energy-related focus is mainly facility management or Green IT. Therefore
the energy-related focus has to be identified first, then evaluated and optimized.

Production planning and control[edit]

Usually, production is the area with the largest energy consumption within an organization.
Therefore also the production planning and control becomes very important. It deals with the
operational, temporal, quantitative and spatial planning, control and management of all
processes that are necessary in the production of goods and commodities. The "production
planner" should plan the production processes so that they operate on an energy efficient way.
For example, strong power consumer can be moved into the night time. Peaks should be
avoided for the benefit of a unified load profile.
The impending changes in the structure of energy production require an increasing demand for
storage capacity. The Production planning and control has to deal with the problem of
limited storability of energy. In principle there is the possibility to store energy electrically,
mechanically or chemically. Another trend-setting technology is lithium-based electrochemical
storage, which can be used in electric vehicles or as an option to control the power grid. The
German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology realized the significance of this topic and
established an initiative with the aim to promote technological breakthroughs and support the
rapid introduction of new energy storage.[12]

Maintenance[edit]
Maintenance is the combination of all technical and administrative actions, including supervision
actions, intended to retain an item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform a required
function.[13] Detailed maintenance is essential to support the energy management. Hereby power
losses and cost increases can be avoided.[14]
Examples of how it is possible to save energy and costs with the help of maintenance:

Defrost the fridges

Check the barometer of cars and trucks

Insulation of hot systems

Improve leaks in building envelopes

Information technology[edit]
The center of an environmental and resource saving structure of information technology is Green
IT. In the article Harnessing Green IT: Principles and Practices, San Murugesan defines the field
of green computing as "the study and practice of designing, manufacturing, using, and disposing
of computers, servers, and associated subsystemssuch as monitors, printers, storage devices,
and networking and communications systems efficiently and effectively with minimal or no
impact on the environment.[15] This includes the optimization of resource consumption during
manufacturing, operation and disposing of computers. With the help of IT, work processes can be
eliminated or improved energetically.[16]
Approaches:

Production of devices: You should make sure that the equipment was manufactured
resource-conserving and consume less power than comparable devices.

Purchase and operation of equipment: Energy Star is an international standard

for energy efficient consumer products originated in the United States of America. The
Energy Star label can help to identify energy efficient devices. Important elements are for
example more efficient power adapter, a modern stand-by and sleep mode. [17]

IT support: Many programs support organizations to conserve energy. This includes large
ERP systems as well as the IT support of small systems. There are also commercial energy
management systems.

Energy strategies[edit]
A long-term energy strategy should be part of the overall strategy of a company. This strategy
may include the objective of increasing the use of renewable energies. Furthermore, criteria for
decisions on energy investments, such as yield expectations, are determined. [18] By formulating
an energy strategy companies have the opportunity to avoid risks and to assure a competitive
advance against their business rivals.[19]

Potential energy strategies[edit]

According to Kals there are the following energy strategies:[20]

Passive Strategy: There is no systematic planning. The issue of energy and

environmental management is not perceived as an independent field of action. The
organization only deals with the most essential subjects.

Strategy of short-term profit maximization: The management is concentrating exclusively

on measures that have a relatively short payback period and a high return. Measures with
low profitability are not considered.

Strategy of long-term profit maximization: This strategy includes that you have a high
knowledge of the energy price and technology development. The relevant measures (for
example, heat exchangers or power stations) can have durations of several decades.
Moreover, these measures can help to improve the image and increase the motivationof the
employees.

Realization of all financially attractive energy measures: This strategy has the goal to
implement all measures that have a positive return on investment.

Maximum strategy: For the climate protection one is willing to change even the object of
the company.

In reality, you usually find hybrid forms of different strategies.

Energy strategies of companies[edit]

Many companies are trying to promote its image and time protect the climate through a proactive
and public energy strategy. General Motors (GM) strategy is based on continuous improvement.
Furthermore they have six principles: e.g. restoring and preserving the environment, reducing
waste and pollutants, educating the public about environmental conservation, collaboration for
the development of environmental laws and regulations.[21]
Nokia created its first climate strategy in 2006. The strategy tries to evaluate the energy
consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of products and operations and sets reduction
targets accordingly.[22] Furthermore, their environmental efforts is based on four key issues:
substance management, energy efficiency, recycling, promoting environmental sustainability.[23]
The energy strategy of Volkswagen (VW) is based on environmentally friendly products and a
resource-efficient production according to the "Group Strategy 2018". [24] Almost all locations the of
the Group are certified to the international standard ISO 14001 for environmental management
systems.[25]
When looking at the energy strategies of companies it is important to you have the
topic greenwashing in mind. This is a form of propaganda in which green strategies are used to
promote the opinion that an organization's aims are environmentally friendly.[26]

Energy strategies of politics[edit]

Even many countries formulate energy strategies. The Swiss Federal Council decided in May
2011 to resign nuclear energy medium-dated. The nuclear power plants will be shut down at the
end of life and will not be replaced. In Compensation they put the focus on energy
efficiency, renewable energies, fossil energy sources and the development ofwater power.[27]
The European Union has clear instructions for its members. The "20-20-20-targets" include, that
the Member States have to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 20% below 1990 levels,
increase energy efficiency by 20% and achieve a 20% share of renewable energy in total energy
consumption by 2020.[28]

Ethical and normative basis of the energy strategies [edit]

The basis of every energy strategy is the corporate culture and the related ethical standards
applying in the company.[29] Ethics, in the sense of business ethics, examines ethical principles
and moral or ethical issues that arise in a business environment. Ethical standards can appear in
company guidelines, energy and environmental policies or other documents.
The most relevant ethical ideas for the energy management are:

Utilitarianism: This form of ethics has the maxim that the one acts are good or right,
whose consequences are optimal for the welfare of all those affected by the action (principle
of maximum happiness). In terms of energy management, the existence of external costs
should be considered. They do not directly affect those who profit from the economic activity
but non-participants like future generations. This error in the market mechanism can be
solved by the internalization of external costs.[30]

Argumentation Ethics: This fundamental ethical idea says that everyone who is affected
by the decision, must be involved in decision making. This is done in a fair dialogue, the
result is completely uncertain.[31]

Deontological ethics: The deontological ethics assigns individuals and organizations

certain obligations. A general example is the golden rule: "One should treat others as one
would like others to treat oneself." Therefore everyone should manage their duties and make
an energy economic contribution.[31]