How DNA profiles are made from a small sample of DNA:

1. Get DNA sample from tissue, blood or semen as it will be easy to collect.
2. DNA must be cut into fragments using restriction endonucleases.
3. DNA fragments will underdo PCR alongside free nucleotides (Increase temperature
to 90'C to break the hydrogen bonds between DNA strands, decrease temperature to
55'C to allow annealing of primers to the DNA strands, Increase temperature to 75'C
as this is the optimum temperature for DNA polymerase to work as it will bind the free
nucleotides to the DNA fragments.
4. This process must be repeated several times to get many copies of DNA (many or
multiple are interchangeable here).
5. Put the DNA fragments into agarose wells.
6. Apply a potential difference from the negative electrode, causing the negatively
charged DNA fragments to move towards the positive electrode. (Longer fragments of
DNA will travel a shorter distance and shorter fragments of DNA will travel a longer
distance).
7. This will produce a DNA profile with a series of bands which may differ in size and
width.
8. Can be used to compare different peoples DNA and see if there is a genetic
relationship between the two.
How DNA profiles of two species are compared:
Compare total number of bands, their position and width.
How phagocytosis and lysosome action leads to APC by macrophages:
Bacteria taken in my macrophage.
Phagosome (vacuole formed around a particle absorbed by phagocytosis) fuses
with lysosome.
Enzyme e.g. protease from lysosome breaks down bacteria.
Part of the bacteria is presented on macrophages cell surface membrane.
How macrophages present antigens to T helper cells:
Macrophage binds to T helper cell as the MHC on the macrophage binds to the
CD4 receptor on the T helper cell.
How evolutionary race between some bacteria affects antigen presentation
to T helper cells:
A mutation has occurred in the DNA of the bacteria.
This has caused a change in the antigen of the bacteria.
The memory T helper cells wont recognise the new antigen.
Thus a new primary immune response is needed e.g. new antigen needs to be
presented to the T helper cell to activate another population of T helper cells.
Two greenhouse gases are:
Carbon dioxide.
Methane.
First generation biofuels could reduce global warming instead of
petrol/diesel because:
Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas.
Carbon dioxide is taken in for photosynthesis for carbon fixation during the
production of plants for biofuels thus there is no net change of carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere when biofuels are burnt.
Biofuels are carbon neutral!

Why cellulose has to be treated with enzymes before bacteria can use it as
an energy source:
Bacteria cannot breakdown cellulose fast enough so enzymes like cellulase are
needed to break down cellulose into beta glucose by hydrolysing 1,4 glycosidic
bonds.
The changes in distribution of organisms after glaciers disappear are:
As time increases, the biodiversity of organisms increases.
Primary succession occurs whereby pioneer species such as lichens are the first
organisms to colonise bare rock.
These pioneers improve the conditions for plants by changing rock into soil.
There will be competition, limiting the species currently present e.g. newer
species outcompete previous species.
What a niche is:
The role of an organism within its ecosystem.
The specie the question is talking about is a producer (because its a plant) and
so it provides food for other organisms.
It also improves the soil e.g. holds soil structure together.
It provides shelter for organisms.
How

to carry out a study of the distribution of X:

Use transect from ____.
Sample along the transect using a quadrat.
These sample sites along the transect are selected using systematic sampling.
Estimate abundance e.g. through number of plants.

One abiotic factor that affects the abundance of the plant and how it can be
measured:
Light affects it
Can be measured using light probe and reading should be taken at the height of
the plant.
Take several readings and get an average.
Effect of temperature on decomposition (of leaves):
Increase in temperature would increase rate of decomposition up to an optimum
temperature.
Enzymes are used in decomposition.
Increased heat results in an increase in the number of collision between
enzymes and substrates thus increase rate of reaction.
Above a certain temperature, the rate of decomposition would decrease as
enzymes become denatured.
The role of RUBISCO in the production of GALP in the light-independent
reaction is:
RUBISCO is an enzyme in the Calvin cycle.
Its involved in carbon fixation to form GP.
GP is converted into GALP using ATP and reduced NADP.
How the membranes inside the chloroplast are involved in photosynthesis:
Thylakoid membranes are the site of light-dependent reactions.

Has chlorophyll, electron carrier proteins etc. within its membrane.

Also has ATPase in it.
Provides space for the accumulation of protons.

Structure of enzymes:
Globular proteins with active site.
Has charged R groups on the outside that are hydrophilic.

How

anti-viral drugs would work in people w/ HIV:

Drugs would prevent viral replication.
T helper cells wouldnt be killed by the virus particles leaving the cell.
Inhibits reverse transcriptase so that viral DNA cant be made from viral RNA.
Inhibits integrase so that viral DNA cannot integrate into host genome.

Division that occurs when T helper cell is cloned:

Mitosis.
How a microscope slide could be prepared to observe cell division in T
helper cells:
Make a slide of T cells from the blood.
Use a stain like acetic orcein.
Heat stain using acid.
Look at mitotic features.
The

role of T helper cells in the immune response:

Cytokines from T helper cells stimulate B cells.
B effector cells differentiate into plasma cells that produce antibodies.
Also activate T killer cells that destroy infected host cells.

How is Golgi apparatus involved in T helper cells:

It packages proteins like cytokines, CD4 receptors etc.
These synthesised proteins then leave by exocytosis.
Judging reliability by looking at graph:
Long error bars indicate low reliability.
Overlapping error bars are less reliable.
Why antibiotics cannot be used to treat infections caused by viruses:
Viruses are non-living and have no target sites for antibiotics.
Two ways hospitals can reduce spread of infections caused by viruses
include:
Use hand washes.
Reduce proximity of patients to each other (i.e. isolate them!).
NPP is:
Rate of production of energy incorporated into biomass.
NPP = GPP R in producers.

The relationship between NPP and rainfall and temperature:

Temperature:
NPP depends on photosynthesis; the higher the temp the more NPP.
Enzymes in photosynthesis can works faster so more enzyme-substrates are
formed.
Rainfall:
Increase in rainfall increases NPP.
Water is needed for light-dependent reaction as it transports mineral ions/amino
acids/sucrose.
Two structures that would classify an organism as eukaryotic:
Chloroplast.
Nucleus.
How a colony of genetically identical cells could develop from a single
original cell:
Mitosis.
Followed by cytokinesis.
Repeated several times.
Why the following are important in production of carbohydrates in
photosynthetic cells:
Thin lamina:
Maximum gas exchange so more carbon dioxide is used in Calvin cycle.
Vessels in midrib:
Transport in xylem of water to leaves; water for light-dependent reactions for
photolysis as a source of hydrogen ions
Transport in phloem of sucrose away from leaves.
How

GALP formed can be used to synthesise the cellulose in plant cell walls:
GALP converts to glucose, which is beta glucose.
Glycosidic bonds forms between carbon 1 and carbon 4 by condensation.
This forms straight chains of glucose.

Production of biofuels isnt carbon neutral because:

Carbon neutral means that carbon dioxide produced = carbon dioxide used.
Forests act as carbon sinks.
Deforestation results in net increase in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Less plants means less carbon dioxide is removed by photosynthesis.
Burning trees can produce carbon dioxide.
Increased decomposition produces carbon dioxide.
Using fossil fuels by lorries/machinery to clear the land produces carbon
dioxide.
How

combustion products from burning fuels may lead to global warming:

It produces a greenhouse such as carbon dioxide.
These gases build up in the upper atmosphere.
They absorb infrared radiation reflected from earths surface.
Increased levels of these gases increases greenhouse effect so mean
temperature of earths surface increases.

GPP = 10400; efficiency of grassland is 45%; calculate NPP and R:

NPP = 0.45x10400 = 4680.
10400-4680 = R.
Relationship between GPP and NPP:
NPP = GPP R
55% of GPP energy is lost as heat to provide for active transport.
NPP is stored energy.
NPP values would be useful for a farmer who wants to use his land for cattle
because:
Cattle are primary consumers therefore gain energy available as NPP.
So itll affect yield of meat/milk so changing to a more NPP yielding crop may be
useful.
Triplet code means:
Each amino acid is coded for by three bases e.g. 12 bases code for 4 amino
acids.
Non-overlapping code means:
That each triplet is discrete as each base is only used once in a triplet e.g. AAT
AAC CAG TTT give 4 distinct triplets.
Degenerate means:
That more than one code can be used for a particular amino acid e.g. stop code
e.g. both AAT and AAC code for leucine.
How translation of mRNA synthesises part of a polypeptide molecule (i.e.
transcription):
Refer to the mRNA sequence of the question.
Ribosome is involved.
Each tRNA molecule is attached to a specific amino acid.
Anticodons on tRNA bind to codons on mRNA and hydrogen bonds between the
bases of mRNA and tRNA form.
Peptide bonds form between adjacent amino acids.
Two differences between genetic material of bacteria and viruses:
Bacteria have DNA, viruses can have DNA/RNA.
Bacteria have circular genetic material, viruses has linear genetic material.
How macrophages ingest bacteria:
Phagocytosis i.e. formation of pseudopodia around bacteria to engulf it.
Bacterium inside vacuole.
Why treatment with antibiotics may not be effective against dormant
bacteria in tubercles:
Bacteria are inside macrophages and has waxy layer.
Also may be resistant to these antibiotics.
How artificial active immunity develops following a vaccination:

Attenuated pathogens are put into the person, which stimulates an immune
response.
T helper cell activates e.g. macrophages become APCs as they engulf antigen
by endocytosis.
B cells activated as B cells become APCs and cytokines from T helper cells
stimulates.
T killer cells activate as they attack infected cells with APC and are stimulated
by cytokines.
Memory cells produce.

Why activity of bacteria e.g. TB and inhibition of T cells can lead to death:
Further lung damage and severe breathing problems e.g. cannot obtain enough
oxygen.
Mycobacterium gets into blood/lump leading to organ failure that leads to death.
Reduced immune response due to loss of T cells.
So no T helper cells that produce cytokines, no T killer cells so infected cells
wont be destroyed and no B cells so no antibodies produced.
Thus opportunistic infections can arise and cause death.
Why viruses cant infect cells if they land on unbroken skin:
Skin is a barrier made out of keratin.
There are also no receptors for the virus.
Why a common cold virus cannot infect cells if they enter blood through a
cut in the skin:
The virus only attached to specific receptors that arent present on blood cells.
Why

species dont interbreed:

Reproductive isolation.
Different breeding times.
Dont recognise courtship displays.
Physically incompatible e.g. different genitalia.

Why the rate of change in the appearance of species can be slow:

They share the same habitat so they experience the same environmental
conditions.
Thus will have the same section pressures.
Also, both are well adapted to their environment so no mutations may have
occurred that improve their survival.
Thus few changes in allele frequency and gene pool remain stable.
Also theres very little change to an environment over time.
Why reproducing asexually and sexually is advantageous to lichens:
Advantage of sexual reproduction is greater gene pool.
Advantage of asexual reproduction is conserves advantageous alleles.
How

percentage cover of a species can be determined:

Use quadrat
Systematic sampling of the area.
Count number of squares containing the species.

How light intensity can be measured at the surface of something:

Use light probe and take several measurements.
How

whatever data collected could be used to show a relationship:

Plot a scatter graph of Y against X.
Look for a correlation
Use a statistics test e.g. Spearmans rank.

How

GP can be used to synthesise starch:

GP converts to GALP using ATP and reduced NADP.
GALP converts to glucose which is an alpha glucose.
Glycosidic bonds form by condensation; these bonds are 1-4 and 1-6 glycosidic
bonds.
Amylose and amylopectin are a part of starch; amylose is straight chain and has
1-4 bonds whereas amylopectin is branched and has both 1-4 and 1-6 bonds.

How forest fires can lead to global warming:

Fire produces carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas.
These gases form a layer in the upper atmosphere and absorb infrared radiation
reflected form Earth.
This increases mean temperature of surface area of earth.
Less carbon dioxide is removed by photosynthesis as the trees are GONE.
Biofuels are good because:
They are possibly carbon neutral.
Plants are used for biofuels.
Carbon dioxide is used by the plants that are needed in biofuel production.
Thus using biofuels can replace fossil fuel use.
GPP means:
Rate of energy incorporated into biomass in plants.
Why NPP is less than GPP:
Energy is lost as heat by respiration.
Advantage for why most amino acids have more than one code:
Effects of mutations are reduced.
Third base can be altered with no effect on the resulting polypeptide.
Stop codons:
Stop codons occur at the end of the gene on a DNA and are transcribed as
mRNA.
Theyll be recognised by ribosome and they signal end of the polypeptide during
translation.
How amino acids are joined together in a polypeptide:
Peptide bonds between amine group and carboxyl group in a condensation
reaction.
How antibodies help a person recover:

Antibodies bind to bacteria and enhance phagocytosis as a result as they

immobilise bacteria.

Species:
Organism that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Characteristic features of antibodies:
Y shape of 4 peptide chains with disulphide bridges between peptides.
Produced by plasma cells.
Is a glycoprotein.
How scientists can develop a means of producing active immunity to HIV
infection:
Artificial active immunity through vaccination containing synthetic antigen.
Humoral immune response to synthetic antigen.
Process of producing effector B cells e.g. clonal expansion of B cells through
cytokines released by T helper cells.
Why data about HIV infections are often estimates:
HIV infection doesnt always produce symptoms.
Test is needed to detect HIV and only those suspect of having it would have a
test.
Chemical reaction involved in digestion of cellulose by enzymes:
Hydrolysis.
Likely product of digestion of cellulose by bacteria:
Glucose.
What would happen if number of animals in a clear area in forests
decreased:
Taller growing plants could develop in the clear areas.
Loss of clear zones.
Different animals appear.

Reproductively-isolated populations are:

No interbreeding between species due to a geographical barrier.
Different behaviours and incompatible genitalia.
Each population has a discrete gene pool e.g. restricted gene flow, different
mutations, different alleles
How

forensic entomology is used:

Body dead for a while because more than one species of insect is present.
Succession of insect species.
Life cycle times of insects are used which depend on temp.

How body temperature could determine time of death:

Drop in body temp is linked to time after death.
Factors affecting temperature drop e.g. ambient temperature, body size,
clothing.

How

Useful because time of death can be calculated if ambient temperature is

known.
Only useful for short period of time following a day e.g. 24h
state of decomposition could determine time of death:
Body decomposes in a specific sequence with time.
Factors affecting decomposition e.g. wounds.
Not useful if entire body had decomposed.

Why DNA can be described as a double-stranded polynucleotide:

Because made of two strands that are joined by hydrogen bonds between
bases.
Polynucleotides of many nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds.
DNA Profiling
Polymerase is the. enzyme used in the Polymerase Chain Reaction to amplify
DNA in a small sample of blood taken from a crime scene.
Gel Electrophoresis is the process used to separate DNA fragments to create a
DNA profile
Describe how gel electrophoresis can be used to analyse DNA. (3)
*First, a DNA sample will be collected from blood, saliva or semen etc; *these small
samples of DNA can then be amplified by PCR. DNA profiling then takes place which
uses *restriction enzymes to break the DNA and then *uses electro potential
difference, with the DNA in a gel, to draw the bands apart. *The DNA is stained so it
can be seen and will *show up as bands/bars. *The number of bands that match
indicates the similarity of the DNA.

Name substances X, Y and Z:

Substance X ...........DNA Primers
Substance Y......... (mono)nucleotides
Substance Z ..........DNA Strands
What are the temperatures for?
T1: Heated to 9095 C

T2: Cooled to 5560 C

T3: Heated to 75 C

Using DNA profiling explain how a suspect is found guilty. (5)

A DNA match is needed, this means that *all of the bands in the sample are the same
as the ones shown in the evidence sample. *DNA profiling assumes every individuals
DNA is unique/different; *apart from identical twins. *DNA profiling analyses the
introns/noncoding blocks/STR parts of DNA as the *non-coding areas are hypervariable
because *there are a large number of introns/non-coding blocks and so there can be
*many combinations of STRs at each locus.
Suggest how DNA profiling could be useful to scientists who examine fossils
of animals and plants. (2)
*Comparisons could be made between DNA from fossils and other organisms *to find
genetic relationships/how closely related they are. It may also be *used in
taxonomy/classification *to understand evolutionary lines/to determine a common
ancestor.
Explain how the results of DNA profiling of tissue samples from the two subspecies could be used to provide evidence that they share common
ancestry. (3)
DNA profiling will *produce bands that will have spread to *certain positions.
*Common/similar bands will contain similar DNA fragments; *the more similar these
patterns, the closer the relationship/more likely the sub-species will have a recent
common ancestor. *There will still be very few differences between the DNA of subspecies.
Suggest how DNA analysis could give further evidence for evolution. (2)
DNA analysis could show the *similarity (of DNA) and indicate the closeness of a
genetic relationship *because genes are sections of DNA and these *genes are the
codes for proteins.
Why cant species of plants be identified from woody (xylem) material using
PCR and DNA profiling? (2)
Because *xylem/wood is made of dead material/has no living
material/cytoplasm/nuclei/ mitochondria, meaning *no DNA / nucleic acid is present in
the material.
Suggest why DNA polymerase from human sources is not suitable for use in
a PCR machine. (2)
*Because human enzymes will not work at high/ above 37oC temperatures due to
*denaturation (change in shape of active site) at the temperatures found in the PCR
(55-95C).
Explain why evidence from DNA profiles may not be absolutely conclusive.
(2)

*DNA profiling has several stages and *artefacts/contamination can arise at any stage.
Furthermore as *only a few sequences/a small portion of DNA is analysed it is
*possible to get two identical profiles from unrelated individuals or for *identical
twins/closely-related individuals to show the same profile. Thus the minimum amount
to be analysed is 10STRs
Decomposition and forensics
The first stage in the decomposition of a cow pat is known as putrefaction.
Explain how carbon dioxide and ammonia are formed during this stage of
decomposition. (4)
*Microorganisms/microbes/bacteria/fungi are decomposers that *convert organic
compounds to carbon dioxide and *nitrogen compounds/proteins/amino acids/urea to
ammonia. *Aerobic/ anaerobic respiration *of the microorganisms/bacteria/fungi is the
process whereby this occurs.
Suggest why the time taken for a cow pat to decompose changes at
different times of the year. (3)
*Because in the warmer times of the year the process will be faster as more heat
energy is available and so kinetic energy is available for enzyme reactions/ to speed
up the metabolism but less is available in the winter months (temperature effect).
*There will also need to be sufficient water availability for the microorganisms to
survive (*e.g. If frozen it cannot be accessed) however *too much water can lead to
waterlogging which reduces oxygen availability and thus the amount of energy
produced for decomposition.
There may also be *more insects/decomposers in summer. The *rate at which the
microorganisms grow will also be a factor as it depends on how much food is available
and how long they will be there to decompose the pat.
Suggest how woodlice are involved in the recycling of carbon. (3)
*The carbon/organic compounds in plant material are broken down in *digestion to
provide respiratory substrates, *carbon dioxide is then released from them in
respiration. *This carbon dioxide is available for photosynthesis. The carbon consumed
may also become a part of the woodlices biomass until it is eaten or dies and
decomposes to release it.
Describe the role of microorganisms in the recycling of the carbon from
compounds in a dead animal. (3)
Decomposition/putrefaction occurs by microorganisms, they may digest the carbon in
the animal and then release the carbon into the atmosphere by *respiration where the
*carbon dioxide is used for photosynthesis. *Methane is released in anaerobic
conditions and is *available as fuel.
Suggest three factors that could influence the rate at which a body cools
after death. (3)
*(Body) mass/ BMI / weight; *(subcutaneous) fat; *surface area; *ambient
temperature, *immersion in water; *age (of person at death); *skin colour; *thickness
of hair; *gender; *clothing; *blood loss; *humidity; *air movement; *{core / body}
temperature at time of death.
Suggest two environmental factors that influence the rate of progress of
rigor mortis in a muscle immediately after death. (2)
*Physical damage; *immersion in water; *(external) temperature; *burning;
*electrocution; *clothing; *wind/air movements; *(Presence of drugs in the body: bio)

Suggest why a forensic scientist would need to consider rigor mortis in

several muscles of a body when estimating the time of death. (4)
Because *not all muscles will contract/relax/reach (full) rigor mortis at the same time;
*e.g. jaw muscle will contract fully before the leg muscle. *Full contraction/rigor in
muscle does not last very long; for example the *leg is still contracting while jaw is
relaxing.
Suggest how the time of death of a white rhinoceros could be determined if
it is discovered several days after being killed. (5)
You could work out the time of death by looking at the *stage of succession on the
body (if it has been a long period of time). You could also use *(forensic) entomology
which involves identifying *the life cycle stages/ species of insect on the body *e.g.
fly, beetle, wasp. You could also work out the time of death by looking at the
*decomposition of the body as there are *different stages of decomposition.
Decomposition involves *putrefaction (discolouration of abdomen that spreads),
liquefaction of tissue, bloating and production of gases.*All of this information
(insects, succession etc) is used to determine time of death, each of these methods
conclusions are *influenced by an external factor such as temperature that influences
the rate of succession/insect development/ decomposition.
Suggest how Body Temperature would be useful in determining the time of
death (2)
*A drop in body temperature is linked to the amount of time that has passed after
death e.g. algor mortis, *many factors affect the temperature drop e.g. environmental
temperature, body size, clothing. It is useful because *time of death can be calculated
if the (ambient) temperature is known however it is *only useful for a short period of
time following death e.g. 24 hours/a day.
Suggest how the state of decomposition would be useful in determining the
time of death (2)
Because the *body decomposes in a specific sequence over time it can be useful in
determining time after death but *many factors affect the rate of decomposition e.g.
environmental temperature or the presence of wounds. It will also *not be useful if all
the body has decomposed.
Protein Synthesis
Statement True False? (3)
AACTAGT TGGCAAGTGGTCAC
This sequence of bases could be used as a template during translation F
A strand of mRNA could be synthesised using this sequence T
This sequence codes for 7 amino acids during protein synthesis T
Thymine cant be found in.. mRNA
A cistron is..the sequence of triplets on a section of DNA used to form
a strand of pre-mRNA
A Peptide Bond.. links the amino acids in the primary structure of a
protein
Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme is used to produce DNA from viral RNA
in an infected cell
Transcription takes place In the nucleus
The amino acids in a primary structure are linked together in
the ........Ribosome
Nucleotide is the.term used to describe each of the sub-units in a molecule
of RNA

Name and describe the structures where the polypeptide chain of an

enzyme would be synthesised. (2)
The polypeptide chain would be synthesised on the *ribosomes attached to the
membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. *The ribosomes consist of rRNA and
are a protein component of two sub-units/ a large and small sub-unit.
Explain why a molecule of DNA can be described as a double-stranded
polynucleotide. (3)
*It is double-stranded because it is made of two strands *joined by hydrogen bonds
between the bases and it is *a polynucleotide of many nucleotides that are *linked by
phosphodiester bonds.
Explain how pre-mRNA is formed during transcription in the nucleus. (3)
First the *DNA strands separate/unzip by the use of *DNA helicase, *one DNA strand of
12bases is used as a template (to form mRNA) *from free nucleotides via
complementary base pairing and the formation of hydrogen bonds between the bases.
RNA-polymerase catalyses the transcription process.
Describe how free nucleotides are bonded together in the correct sequence
in the formation of pre-mRNA. (3)
*The sequence of bases/nucleotides on DNA determines the sequence on (pre-)mRNA,
the codons will *bond in complementary base pairs (give example eg. GTA= CAU) by
the formation of *phosphodiester bonds in *condensation reactions. This process is
catalysed by *RNA-Polymerase.
Explain how the translation of mRNA into the sequence of amino acids in a
ribosome occurs. (3)
*A specific amino acid is attached to tRNA (coded for by the anticodon). *The
anticodon on tRNA binds to the codon/triplet on the mRNA strand, only two tRNA
molecules are held in the ribosome at any one time. When a third tRNA comes along
the first tRNA detaches, after the *peptide bonds have formed between the adjacent
amino acids. *Peptidyl transferase catalyses this process.
Suggest why the final triplet of nucleotides, on a strand of mRNA involved in
the synthesis of a sequence of amino acids, did not correspond with any
anticodon on tRNA. (2)
Because it was a *stop codon and is *used to end the sequencing/further attachment
of tRNA and signal the *release of the polypeptide from the ribosome.
Explain the function of the codons at each end of a strand of mRNA, during
the process of translation. (2)
*They function as start/stop/nonsense codons. The *start (codon) is needed to begin
the Polypeptide/protein synthesis and *the stop/nonsense (codon) is needed to end
polypeptide synthesis.
Suggest why a variety of different protein structures could be formed from
the polypeptides synthesised using the mRNA molecules from a single gene.
(3)
*Because there are many variations of exons/mRNA which lead to *different primary
structures of a protein/sequence of amino acids. The *secondary and tertiary structure
of the proteins depends on the primary structure. There will also be a variety because
there are *different bonds, some are hydrogen/ionic/disulphide bonds, the proteins
formed will also have *different 3D shapes.

Describe how the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule would be used to

form the primary structure of a protein. (5)
*The sequence of bases forming the genetic code determines the amino acid
sequence as *one triplet codes for an amino acid. *The DNA acts as a template during
transcription (e.g. DNA unzips by helicase and mRNA is synthesised).*Posttranscriptional modification of mRNA then occurs where introns (non-coding regions of
DNA) are removed by splicing using the enzyme spliceosome, leaving only exons
behind in the mRNA to join back together. After modification the *mRNA moves from
nucleus to the cytoplasm through a pore in the nuclear membrane, so that
*translation may occur on the ribosomes found attached to the rER (ribosomes aid
codon-anticodon interaction). *tRNA then carries an amino acid to the ribosome and
joins with its complementary base pair, *forming peptide bonds between the amino
acids forming the primary structure of a protein this is the sequence/order of amino
acids specified in DNA.

Non-Specific Immune Response

Interferon is the enzyme released in secretions that interferes with protein
synthesis of viruses.
Histamine is the.chemical released by
white cells in connective tissue that
causes swelling

D = antigens / (glyco)proteins ;
E = B {lymphocytes / cells} / plasma cells ;
F = antibodies / immunoglobulins ;
G = macrophage / phagocyte / eq ;
H = enzymes / lysozyme ;
Explain why the processes shown in the
flow diagram will only happen in
response to some types of bacteria. (3)
Because the protein nature of
antigens/antibodies is different, the
*antigens are specific to each bacteria strain and the *antibodies need to be
complementary/specific to the antigen so that binding can take place. *Some bacteria
will have different/changed antigens to another, they may also have different
*slime/mucus capsules or be *inside body cells, this changes the effectiveness of the

antibodies. This is also a *primary infection meaning some antibodies are already
present from passive immunity or breast feeding.
Describe how the production and action of interferon differs from the
production and action of lysozyme. (3)
*Interferon is involved in viral infections, whereas lysozyme affects bacteria only.
*Interferon is produced only by infected cells, but lysozyme is present in all secretions
(i.e. saliva/phagocytes/neutrophils/macrophages. They have different roles, *interferon
inhibits replication of viruses and lysozyme kills/ destroys bacteria.
Suggest why the protein structure of lysozyme is important to the way in
which it acts against pathogens. (4)
*lysozyme is an enzyme and so it *has an active site with a specific shape for binding
with our cell membranes. *The lysozyme acts on the cell wall *of bacteria so that cell
lysis occurs.
Explain why an insect bite, which breaks the surface of the skin, may lead to
inflammation around the injury. (3)
Because *histamine is released as a result of damaged tissue/cells, *it is released from
mast cells/platelets. *Histamine causes the arterioles to dilate (vasodilation), which
increases blood flow and makes the capillaries more permeable allowing phagocytes
to reach the site more easily. *Inflammation involves
oedema/swelling/redness/heat/pain at the site of injury.
In order to reduce inflammation, a cream containing antihistamines might
be applied to the skin, around an insect bite. Suggest why applying this
cream might be better than taking tablets containing antihistamines. (3)
Because inflammation is *only a local reaction produced/that histamines produced
around the bite area and so *cream that has been applied to actual site of production
of histamine *will be more effective and have more rapid/ immediate relief as it will
create a *higher concentration of antihistamine at the site. *The antihistamines will
not be digested (by enzymes)/destroyed (by acid or enzymes) if they are applied in a
cream and not tablet. The *tablets may lower the immune response generally/lead to
unpleasant side-effects.
Specific Immune Response
Natural
passive
Artificial
passive
Natural active
Artificial active
When MRSA enters the blood it can
stimulate the production of several
different clones of plasma cells. These produce a variety of antibodies
(polyclonal antibodies). Suggest an explanation for this. (4)
Because the *bacterium is made of many different polymers/chemicals *which can act
as different antigens, *individual B-lymphocytes will recognise specific
antigens/antibodies are specific and so only certain *B-lymphocytes are activated by
T-lymphocytes. These cells of *B-lymphocytes will then divide by mitosis *to form
genetically identical plasma cells that secrete specific antibodies.

Suggest the advantage of using monoclonal antibodies, rather than

polyclonal antibodies, in the detection of antigens in the blood. (3)
Because a *specific antigen/virus/pathogen/bacterium can be identified as the
*specific/ monoclonal antibody binds to a specific antigen. As a result *specific
treatment can be given that will *avoid unnecessary use of drugs/treatment and will
be *more likely to be effective.
State two characteristic features of antibodies. (2)
*They have glycoproteins in their cell walls; have a *specific (3D) shape, L and H
regions, Y-shape, 4 (peptide) chains, disulphide bridges between peptides, hinge
region; they also *have an antigen-binding site/variable region; all antibodies *have a
similar/constant region; they are *produced by plasma cells/present on B cells; *their
role is opsonisation, immobilisation, agglutination, lysis of foreign cells.
Antibiotics
Bactericidal antibiotics is the name of antibiotics, such as vancomycin, that
kill bacterial cells
The epidermis is. a part of the skin that forms a physical barrier against
infection by pathogenic bacteria
What are bactericidal antibiotics?
Antibiotics that kill/destroy bacteria cells by weakening their cell walls so their cells
burst
Ignore reference to stopping growth
Suggest how bacterial cells are killed by vancomycin (antibiotic). (2)
The antibiotic may *weaken the bacteriums cell wall or not allow it to form properly
*so the cell bursts easily, perhaps *during division.
What are bacteriostatic antibiotics?
Antibiotics that stop cells from increasing in number/replicating by preventing cell
division.
Explain what is meant by the terms bacteriostatic antibiotic and bactericidal
antibiotic. (3)
*An antibiotic is used to control/kill/prevent reproduction of bacteria. *Bacteriostatic
antibiotics will prevent the reproduction/division/multiplication/growth of bacteria
whereas *bactericidal antibiotics will destroy/kill the bacteria.
Suggest why antibiotics may be used as part of the treatment for influenza.
(2)
Because *influenza may allow the development of other diseases e.g. opportunistic
infections and *the antibiotics will kill/inhibit growth of these bacteria.
Suggest why health authorities in the USA are encouraging the reduction in
the number of prescriptions of antibiotics. (2)
Because *some bacteria are resistant to the antibiotics and this *resistance is genetic
and can be passed on. *MRSA, for example is already resistant to many antibiotics.
Explain why doctors have been advised to limit the prescription of
antibiotics. (2)
Because *antibiotics act as a selective pressure, *some bacteria are already resistant
to some antibiotics. These *resistant bacteria survive and pass on the resistance gene

so that the antibiotic is no longer effective. *Some infections cannot be treated with
antibiotics (ie viral infections)
Describe how you could investigate the effect of different antibiotics on
bacteria. (4)
*Bacteria could be distributed evenly by lawn spreading, *multidisks or wells in the
agar may then be placed at known positions to see the effectiveness of the antibiotic.
The *same concentration of antibiotics must be used and the petri dish must be set
using a sterile/aseptic technique/conditions. The dish must then be kept *incubated at
a suitable temperature (below 30C to prevent the growth of pathogens) and *the lid
of the petri dish not all the way fastened to prevent the growth of anaerobic bacteria.
You can measure the effectiveness by measuring the clear area/inhibition zone around
the antibiotic area. The investigation should be *repeated with both the same
conditions and bacteria and *different bacteria to asses overall effectiveness.
Suggest why medications, other than antibiotics, are needed to treat the
most severe cases of BRD (viral infection). (2)
Because the infection *involves both viruses (and bacteria via opportunistic
infections), and (usually) antibiotics are only effective against bacteria/do not affect
viruses. Thus *other medication will be needed to deal with viruses.
Suggest why it might be advisable to change the antibiotic being used, in
the treatment of (cattle), once a pathogen has been identified. (3)
Because the specified *antibiotic used is the most effective against the now known
bacterium. *None of the antibiotics are 100% effective/some bacteria may survive or
*be resistant or a *resistant strain may develop/be prevented by changing the
antibiotic.
Suggest how the constitution of blood may change if an ill person is treated
with antibiotic drugs. (2)
There will be *fewer lymphocytes as *the lymphocytes are no longer needed as the
*antibiotics have killed/destroyed the bacteria.
Or:
There are *more lymphocytes as there has been a *clonal expansion of lymphocytes
because the *antibiotics have not killed all the bacteria yet.
Suggest how the constitution of blood may change if an ill person is given a
placebo. (2)
*A placebo has no effect on the bacteria *so there will be more bacteria, and *thus
more lymphocytes due to *clonal expansion.
Vaccinations and prevention.
Suggest how scientists may be able to develop a means of producing active
immunity to HIV infection using synthetic HIV antigens. (5)
*This will be a method of *artificial (active) immunity, perhaps by using a
*vaccine/vaccination *containing the synthetic molecule/(synthetic) antigen/
(synthetic) glycoprotein.
*A specific/humoral immune response to the synthetic antigen will be stimulated, i.e.
*Effector B cells will be produced by clonal expansion of B cells, involving cytokines or
T helper cells will activate B cells. These will then *produce B memory cells that will
cause (2G12) antibodies to be produced faster/in greater concentration on reinfection
(secondary immune response).

Describe how a vaccine gives active immunity against PWMS. (3)

*You may use the virus as a vaccine, *which will contain a modified/attenuated/
harmless/similar form of the virus that *contains the virus antigen. The vaccine will
stimulate the *activation of (specific) B cell/T cell/lymphocytes and cause the
*production of B/T memory cells; this means that the *body is now able to produce
(specific) antibodies faster/at higher concentration on another exposure to the virus.

State two ways in which the skin flora can help to protect a person from
infection by pathogenic bacteria. (2)
*They provide interspecific competition for nutrients and *for space. They also
*secrete chemicals/substances/lysozyme OR affects pH so the pathogenic bacteria
cannot survive there. They also *stimulate the (skin) immune system.
Suggest why the rate of MRSA infection in different hospitals differs. (3)
*One hospital may have stricter hygiene practices such as strict *hand washing
regimes for doctors/nurses/medical staff/visitors *particularly when dealing with open
wounds. *The nurses may also have to wear suitable clothing such as no ties or long
sleeves or have *antiseptic (solutions) readily available such as *gels, pastes, alcohol
rubs. Patients may also be *isolated if they are a suspected cases of MRSA or
screening of admissions to ensure they are clean. Better hospitals may also monitors
the use of antibiotics or have *fewer patients/visitors passing in and out.
In a study in a London hospital, it was found that pillows contaminated with
bacteria could spread infections between patients. Suggest how this
hospital could improve the prevention and control of the spread of
infections. (3)
*Hospitals will have to change a code of practice/protocol/policy/standards currently
present for dealing with hospital acquired infections. They may introduce *clothing
rules for hospital workers such as no long sleeves or jewellery (reduces places
pathogens can hide); they may also *improve laundry services of bed linen e.g.
increased washing frequency/higher washing temperature. They may also *use special
pillow cases/treat the pillow cases e.g. microfilters, treated with antibacterials,
sterilisation, disposable pillow cases or they could *use special procedures when
carrying pillow cases/bed linen to the laundry e.g. sealed plastic bags to prevent it
spreading to the workers. *Screening of patients/isolation of infected patients could
help as the
infected can be isolated to
reduce the
spread of infection. *Hand
washing
regimes before and after
seeing
patients could also reduce the
spread.
HIV

Name two types of cell that HIV enters in the immune system.
*T helper/CD4 positive cell/lymphocytes; *phagocytic cells e.g. macrophages,
dendritic cell
State how the genetic material in HIV differs from the genetic material in
the Mycobacterium tuberculosis that causes TB. (2)

*RNA is found in HIV/ virus and DNA in the bacterium/TB, *the nucleic acid in the
bacterium is circular whereas it is linear in HIV. *There are also plasmids in bacterium
and no plasmids in HIV.
One of the ways in which HIV may enter the blood is through the use of
infected needles. Explain why unbroken skin is an effective barrier against
HIV infection. (2)
*Keratin/protein in skin surface/epidermis *forms a physical/impenetrable barrier to
HIV.
Suggest one effect that HIV causing T killer cells to destroy T helper cells
will have on one other component of the infected persons blood. (1)
*B cells/lymphocytes not activated resulting in fewer antibodies and *T killer cells
increasing due to demand for use.
Describe the change in numbers of CD4 T-lymphocytes during the first 6
weeks after infection with HIV. (2) *Overall numbers will decrease. *There will be
a small decrease in the first week/between weeks 4-6; *however the decrease is
greatest between weeks 1-3
Explain the change in numbers of CD4 T-lymphocytes during the first 6
weeks after infection with HIV. (5)
*The glycoprotein/gp120 on the virus *binds with receptors/CD4 *on (surface)
membrane of lymphocytes, the *viral RNA then enters the lymphocyte. Once inside
the *viral RNA is used to produce viral DNA (in the lymphocyte) *by action of reverse
transcriptase *allowing the formation of new viruses. The *lymphocyte is then
destroyed when new viruses bud out of/leave the cell. The *T killer cells then destroy
the infected T helper cells/lymphocytes.
How is HIV able to enter the immune systems cells? (3)
*First, the HIV binds to (CD4) receptors on cell surface membrane (CD4 receptors are
found on the lymphocytes) *using the gp120/glycoproteins on the virus surface. *The
virus envelope then fuses with the hosts cell surface membrane allowing viral RNA to
enter the host cell. *Macrophages also have CD4 receptors and may be infected in
phagocytosis.
Describe the sequence of events following infection by HIV, which may lead
to the death of the patient. (6)
The HIVs *viral RNA is used in reverse transcription using the enzyme, *reverse
transcriptase, to *produce viral DNA using viral RNA as a copy. *The viral DNA is then
incorporated into the host cells DNA/genome by the use of the enzyme *integrase.
The hosts DNA can now be used in the *production of more viruses/viral RNA and
proteins, these virus molecules may then bud out of the cell to *infect further (T
helper) cells and destroy the recent host cell by *cell lysis. *THelper cells are needed
in the immune response to produce cytokines, activate B cells/ killer cells. *Meanwhile
there is destruction of infected (T helper) cells by T killer cells, which also contributes
to *lowering the immunity to other diseases.
*Death may be caused by e.g. opportunistic disease, pneumonia, TB, Kaposis
sarcoma, cancer, dementia, extreme weight loss, meningitis, and toxoplasmosis.
Suggest why effective treatment of HIV in human populations will require
the continual development of a mixture of many new drugs. (4)
Because *HIV has many varieties of strains/antigens/protein coats, *some of these
strains are/will become resistant to a specific/particular drug and so *would survive if

only one/the same drug was used. *A mixture of drugs has more chance of getting rid
of all/ more strains.
*A concoction of drugs are used together because viruses have a rapid rate of
mutation and a *rapid rate of multiplication.
Suggest why data about HIV infections are often estimates. (2)
*Because HIV infection does not always produce symptoms (*especially in the latency
period) or are *common of other diseases and so can be confused. In some cases a
*test is needed to detect the symptomless HIV. *Only people who suspect they may
have contracted HIV would have a test, *some people may not want to be
tested/impossible to test everyone for statistics, especially as *new cases are
arising/HIV patients are dying all the time or as *new strains of the virus are arising.
TB
State one characteristic symptom of TB other than coughing
Tubercules; bloody sputum; (general)body tissue wastage
Mycobacterium tuberculosis ..causes TB
Why is ingesting food containing TB unlikely to lead to its development? (2)
Because the *bacteria is killed in the stomach/mouth/saliva/gastric juice *by
HCL/lysozymes
Describe how the organisms that cause TB are taken up by macrophages. (3)
First the *bacterium is recognised as non-self by the immune system, *they are
labelled as such by B lymphocytes/cells. They are taken up into macrophages by
*phagocytosis, the *process whereby phagocytes (macrophages or neutrophils) engulf
the foreign matter and *enclose it within a vacuole where it is destroyed by enzymes
contained in the lysosome.
Bacteria and Viruses

Suggest two reasons why bacteria that cause infection are not visible in a
photograph. (2)
Because the *bacteria are too small and magnification/resolution is too limited; the
bacteria may *not be stained or have been removed/destroyed e.g. by phagocytosis;
*the bacteria are not present in the blood shown e.g. only a small region is shown and
they may only be present at the site of the infection.

Photosynthesis:
Suggest reasons why 95% of the light hitting the surface of a leaf is not
used by the chloroplasts. (2)*Reflection; *incorrect wavelength/colour/ frequency;
*light doesnt hit the chloroplast/ chlorophyll, it is transmitted; *light being in excess
e.g. at max. photosynthesis so no more light can be used.
The light dependent reactions
The products of the light-dependent reactions that are used in the
light-independent reactions are reduced NADP and.... ATP Oxygen is
produced when water molecules are split in the process of photolysis
When light is absorbed by chlorophyll, it excites electrons
Describe the structures in a chloroplast that are involved in the LD reactions
(3)
The LD reactions involve the *thylakoids that are arranged into stacks of granum. *The
grana are connected by lamellae. The *thylakoid membrane contains electron carriers,
proteins and *photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophyll which are *arranged into
photosystems/quantasomes; the membrane also has *ATPase/ ATPase channels.
Explain how the energy from light is made available in ATP molecules for the
synthesis of organic materials. (6)
*The light dependent reactions occur in the thylakoids *in the granum in *accessory
pigments such as chlorophyll. The process begins when *light energy raises the
energy level of two electrons so that they are excited, the electrons are then *released
from the chlorophyll/ photosystem. They then travel down the *electron carrier chain,
travelling to each carrier molecule through a series of *oxidation and reduction (redox)
reactions, releasing energy/ *the electrons energy level falls. The energy released is
used to *synthesise ATP from ADP and an organic phosphate ion *(phosphorylation);
the *enzyme synthase/ synthetase is needed to make the ATP. *Photolysis of water
produces 2 electrons which are used to replace those lost from the chlorophyll.
Explain how oxygen is produced during the light-dependent reactions of
photosynthesis. (2) Using *energy from light the *photolysis *of water occurs that
produces/releases oxygen

The light independent reactions/ The Calvin Cycle

RuBP combines with carbon dioxide in The light-independent reactions of the
Calvin cycle. RUBISCO is the enzyme that catalyses carbon fixation. Carbon
fixation takes place in.. the stroma of a chloroplast.
Explain why the light-independent stage cannot take place without the lightdependent stage. (3)
Because the *products of the light-dependent stage are needed for/used in the lightindependent stage/Calvin cycle. *Thee products of the light-dependent stage are
reduced NADP and ATP, *rNADP is used in the reduction GP/carbon dioxide whilst *ATP
is used as a source of energy.

Suggest why the development of plants depends on the rate of carbon

fixation. (3)
*Carbon fixation produces {GP / eq}, this *product is converted to glucose/ starch/ eq.
*The faster the C- Fixation the faster the glucose/ starch production, as the *rate of
growth of a plant is dependent on the rate of C-Fixation, if this increases so will the
*GPP of the crop/plant.
Suggest how GALP may be used to synthesise cellulose. (5)
*GALP is a 3C molecule that is used in the formation of *glucose a 6C sugar. *This
synthesis involves enzymes; to make cellulose enzymes are also needed. *Cellulose
consists of -glucose molecules that are joined by *1-4 *glycosidic bonds in
*condensation reactions. *Cellulose is a polysaccharide (long chain molecule) and is
an *unbranched molecule; each cellulose chain is then joined together in
condensation reactions with 1-6 hydrogen bonds.
The rate of carbon fixation is higher at 25C than at 14C for each of the six
varieties of maize. Suggest an explanation for this. (2)
*Temperature change affects the kinetic energy/movement of molecules/particles
*therefore this effects number of collisions/enzyme-substrate complexes.
Global Warming:
Suggest one reason why some countries may decide to drain their marshy
peat lands for the production of biofuels. (1)
Producing Biofuels may
increase the *countrys income as they can *export more fuel and *import less
fossil/biofuels; the production of biofuels will also make *more jobs available to the
general public. *Biofuels are also renewable whereas *fossil fuels are finite. *Using
biofuels as an alternative to fossil fuels will help countries reach their carbon targets.
Using peat lands will also make sure that there is *no loss of farmland, reducing
ethical issues.
Suggest why the continued draining and clearance of peatlands may
contribute towards global warming even though they may be used to
produce biofuels. (5)
*The combustion of biofuels releases carbon dioxide that has been recently removed
from atmosphere therefore *there is no (net) increase in carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. This is a benefit as *carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas *that absorbs
infra-red radiation that has been reflected from the Earths surface, *it cannot escape
into space, therefore the *carbon dioxide will cause the mean surface temperature of
the Earth to increase. However, *clearing peat lands may release more carbon dioxide
as carbon was once trapped in peats thousands of years ago; this *causes a net gain
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The process of clearing the peat lands will
*involve machinery that releases carbon dioxide; the removal of any peat plants will
also *reduce photosynthesis and thus the amount of carbon dioxide removed from the
atmosphere
Suggest how scientists could use available data to predict future climate
change.(3)
Scientists could *extrapolate data *to use for modelling/investigation of correlations to
help* provide evidence for global warming. *Using this data along with other sources
will increase the predictions reliability.
Suggest why some scientists may not be convinced that data can be used to
predict future climate change. (3)

Because *there is not enough data to *confirm its reliability (*may be place specific).
The fact that there are *great fluctuations in most climate change data suggest that
there is no real trend (as scattered) and thus *poor representation of raw data. *A
scatter of results may show poor reliability.
In addition the method of* estimating temperature from growth rings of trees is
questionable as *other environmental changes affecting the trees are not taken into
account.
Scientists have estimated that.. will reduce CO2 production. Suggest
why the may be supported by organisations that are concerned about
global warming. (5)
*The idea will result in less carbon dioxide (or methane), *which are both greenhouse
gases/ cause the greenhouse effect *as they absorb/ trap heat/ infrared/ longer
wavelengths (of radiation) *reflected from the Earth. *A reduction in these gases
(CO2) will lead to a reduced greenhouse effect, *this means the Earths surface
temperature is less likely to rise and that there is a *reduced possibility of climate
change which can have effects such as the ice caps melting or crop failure.
(If relevant) *methane has a greater greenhouse effect than carbon dioxide.
Suggest why some scientists do not agree that a reduction in the use of
fossil fuels will prevent further global warming. (6)
*It is clear that carbon dioxide is produced by using fossil fuels, however there is *no
(direct) evidence that increased carbon dioxide concentrations leads to global
warming. *Carbon dioxide is released from other processes such as respiration and
the *removal of carbon sinks increases the concentration too, so reducing fossil fuels
alone will not help. *Other greenhouse gases also have a contribution, such as CFCs,
water vapour and methane that come from *other sources such as ruminant animals,
paddy fields, melting ice, clearance of peat land. *Natural cycles/events/ phenomena
may also be involved (in global warming) e.g. the suns solar cycle or volcanoes.
*Evidence for this comes from the past and *this is not an indicator of future events/
limitations of climatic models. *Scientists may also be biased in their research
depending on what country/ company employs them and their own selfinterest/promotion. *We do not yet have an alternative source of energy that has no
great problems associated with it (i.e. biofuels).
Explain how temperature has been maintained by the presence of carbon
dioxide and methane in the upper atmosphere. (3)
*Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and/or methane *absorb/trap
heat/infrared/long wave radiation *which is reflected/ (re)radiated from the Earths
surface. *These gases prevent heat/infrared/long wave radiation from escaping. *Thus
resulting in temperatures being maintained higher than they would otherwise be.
Suggest why temperatures below 0 C or above 40 C would be unsuitable
for most organisms. (2)
*At 0C metabolism/ named example stops/ is slow as *enzymes are inactive and cells
are disrupted, this may be *because of water freezing or lower kinetic energy of
molecules in cells. *Above 40C enzymes denature/ change their 3D shape, this
means that *fewer enzyme-substrate complexes are possible/ the active site has
changed/ theres a change in bonding.
Suggest how global warming may affect the distribution of species (3)
*Global warming will increase the temperature (especially at the latitudes) *so that
the temperature may become too high for any of the current species. *This new

temperature may be above the maximum to be able to complete development/ above

the lethal temperature limit. *Species may also move north/ to cooler regions or they
may have a *change to their food source/predators/ competition.
Suggest why the lower and upper lethal temperatures limit the range of
latitudes inhabited by (different species of frog). (2)
*Temperature affects the survival/development/growth/metabolism/cell division of
animals and *the development/growth/metabolism/cell division is affected by
enzymes which are *affected by temperature. *And so as different frogs have different
enzymes the will be able to survive in different latitudes.
Explain why body temperature affects the rate of development of animals.
(3)
Because there is an *increase in the metabolic rate/enzyme activity as temperature
rises due to *molecules having an increase in kinetic energy as the temperature rises;
this means that there will be an *increase in the amount of enzyme-substrate
complexes/collisions. *At lower temperatures there is inactivation of enzymes but at
high temperatures there is denaturation of enzymes. *Thus temperature affects cell
differentiation/growth/division.
The carbon cycle
Describe the role of microorganisms in the recycling of carbon in the carbon
cycle. (3) Microorganisms would *help in the decomposition/ putrefaction/ decay of
dead organisms/ faeces *by eating the organic material through the process of
external digestion and then *respiration. *Respiration releases carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere *for photosynthesis. *They also will release methane in anaerobic
conditions *which is then available as a fuel. *The microorganisms themselves will
also, one day, be eaten or decompose.
Ecosystems:
The difference between abiotic and biotic factors is that..biotic factors
involve organisms/living things whereas abiotic are physical/chemical/non-living
factors.
A species consists of.. individuals who can interbreed to produce fertile
offspring.
Net primary productivity is..*the rate at which energy is incorporated into
biomass/ organic material in *producers/ plants, *as there may be losses due to
respiration (GPP- R).
The metabolic process that best describes the process that accounts for
most of the difference between GPP and NPP in plants is.. Respiration
Suggest two biotic factors that may influence NPP in grassland. (2)
*Grazing by consumers/herbivores/named herbivore; *trampling; *shading by other
plants/named plant; *competition from other plants; *disease.
Suggest how other animal populations of a habitat may be affected by
changes in a lizard population. (2)
Their prey may increase in number as *fewer are eaten by the lizard. *Other
carnivores may increase *because there is less competition for food (from lizards),
however the *lizards predator may decrease/eat other prey/migrate.
Suggest why an increase in temperature may cause an increase in NPP. (2)

*The rate of (bio)chemical/metabolic/photosynthetic reactions increases due to an

*increase in movement/kinetic energy of enzyme/substrate/molecules; *thus
increasing the reaction rate because of more enzyme substrate interaction/ collisions.
What is the unit J m2 year1? Joules/ energy per metre squared per year/ unit
time.
Explain what is meant by the term niche, using the sea anemone as an
example. (3)
*The role/ purpose/ interaction of *an organism/ sea anemone/ species in a
community; due to its *trophic level, i.e. if it is a *predator or *prey or provides a
*shelter/ home for some animals.
Suggest and explain why the anemones contract when exposed at low tide.
(3)
Contracting *reduces surface area (to volume) ratio, so there is *less water loss and a
smaller chance of dehydration/ drying out. This will also *reduce its visibility (to
predators) *and so provides protection from predators/carnivores. As there is no *need
for the tentacles to be exposed *energy will be conserved and not be wasted.
Suggest adaptations for bacteria living in a cows stomach. (3)
The cows stomach has a *low pH/ (hydrochloric) acid which normally *destroys
bacteria. The stomach may also have *low/no oxygen and *so they will have to use
anaerobic respiration. They will also have to be *resistant to the stomachs enzymes,
i.e. Protease, perhaps *by having a cell wall thats resistant to digestion. *They will
also need to be adapted to the cows body temperature.
Succession
Succession is.. The sequence of changes to a community/organism over a period
of time.
A climax community is..the final stage/sere/community of succession, it is selfsustaining/stable and has a dominant species or a few co-dominant species.
Reproductively-isolated populations are..where *no (inter)breeding between
(the population) can take place *because of a (geographical/ physical) barrier. Physical
barriers include the populations having *different mating behaviour, *incompatible
genitalia and *each population having a discrete gene pool, e.g. restricted gene flow,
different mutation/alleles.
Describe what might happen if deflected succession stops (i.e. forest
clearing). (3)
*Taller (growing) plants could develop/ grow in the clear areas as they are no longer
eaten, but there will be *the loss of low-growing plants/ clear zones. *Different
animals/ species will appear as *secondary succession takes place where a *climax
community of the taller plants is reached.
Suggest why/ how a community changes over time. (5)
*Lichens and mosses enter as the pioneer community; *they are able to grow in
little/no soil and *will break up (rock) fragments, with their roots, to form thin/shallow
soil *which is able to retain some water/minerals. *Then short-rooted plants enter,
they out compete the pioneer plant, *these are able to grow in shallow soil and in turn
*will change the soil structure to enable trees/ shrubs to grow, *these may also outcompete the other species by interspecific competition for (a)biotic resources. *As the
plants continue to lose leaves and die/decay they will *increase the amount of organic
matter/humus.

Why is a climax community stable? (4)

*A climax community is where (both) animals and plants are present/has many
species/has high biodiversity; *there will be interaction between these species but
they *will have reached a balanced equilibrium of species. *There may be a
(co)dominant plant or animal species present.
*This is stable as long as theres no change to the environment/human influence.
Speciation and evolution
A gene mutation is.a change in DNA due to the
change/deletion/addition/duplication/substitution bases/nucleotides.
Genetic diversity in a species is..the variety of alleles in a gene pool
A gene pool is The total of all the alleles in a population.
Allele Frequency is. The proportion of one allele within a gene pool/population
Explain why there is likely to be a greater genetic diversity in a hybrid plant
than in two separate species. (2)
Because there are *different alleles in each of the two populations as *each
population/ species is adapted to living in different environmental conditions. *This
means that there will be different mutations in each population. *In a hybrid the
alleles of the two different species will mix and hybrids will receive alleles from both
species.
Suggest why scientists may classify organisms into sub-species rather than
two separate species. (2)
*If the organisms were allowed to interbreed and could *produce fertile and viable
offspring they could be considered as sub-species. *The hybrids/offspring can flower
and produce viable seeds.
Suggest how the two sub-species develop from a single ancestral
population, use boar. (5)
First a *few ancestral boar reach the island/ habitat from their original environment,
there are now two populations that have *geographical separation perhaps by the sea
or volcanic eruptions. *These populations are unable to interbreed (reproductive
isolation) and so the *gene flow between the populations is restricted/ prevented.
*There are only a small number of boar, on the island (founder effect), for breeding
resulting in a *limited variety of alleles. *Mutations may then occur (*increasing
diversity) that are *acted on by different environmental conditions/ selection
pressures that are unique to the island (not found on mainland) ie food, habitat; the
boar will *adapt to best suit these by natural selection, *those with the mutation are
more likely to survive and reproduce. These mutations will *change the gene pool as
they arise and possibly become more common, so the two are now different,
*changing the allele frequency. *These changes will lead to phenotypic/
physiological/physical/ behavioural changes; as a result* allopatric speciation may
occur (can no longer interbreed)
Explain how the two different species of flower on an island may have
evolved from a single population of an ancestral species. (6)
*The original population was increasing in size and spreading into a wider diversity of
habitats where they were then *reproductively isolated, *i.e. diversity in flowering
times, causing a *restriction of gene flow *between extremes of the population. Each
habitat would have different environmental factors and so different selection
pressures. *Mutations may then have arisen (*causing a change in the allele
frequency) and *other plant features so that the *plants adapted to a specific region,
advantageous features/mutations would allow the plants to *survive and reproduce,
passing on new genes and creating *differences between gene pools.

Suggest how ecological isolation contributes to speciation. (2)

*There may be different conditions /environments in each region, i.e. a temperature
difference, so *there will be different selection pressures. The geographical isolation
will mean that the two populations are *reproductively isolated from one another
*causing a restricted gene flow/ separation of gene pools.
Suggest how genetic mutation may lead to speciation (2)
*This will give a rise to different alleles/ gene pool, leading to *new/different
phenotypes. This new *allele/gene may be advantageous, and so will be passed onto
offspring; it could also be *disadvantageous.
Suggest why interbreeding does not take place between different
populations of species. (3)
These different species are reproductively isolated, meaning that they may have
different *breeding times/ seasons, *courtship behaviour/rituals/displays/colour/songs.
*Any offspring produced between the species may be infertile or not viable.
Suggest how a distinct species evolves from another species. (5)
*Geographical isolation, e.g. a physical barrier between the population
occurs/allopatric speciation, this means there is *reproductive isolation between the
populations, *there is a restriction of gene flow between but not within the
populations. *This creates two habitats that will contain different selection pressures
*e.g. different food sources, or different habitats. *Mutations will have occurred, if they
were advantageous they would have *helped the species to adapt to the conditions,
*these alleles/genes would have been passed onto the offspring. This would have
caused *a change in the gene pool e.g. increasing frequency of (mutation) alleles.
Suggest how the allele frequency for a plant eating mutation could change
as a forest develops. (4)
*There will be a change in frequency of either allele e.g. mutant increases/normal
decreases *due to the reproductive success of the mutant/non-photosynthetic
individuals. *As the trees develop the pond will be more shaded this *(less light
means) means less photosynthesis possible. *The photosynthetic individuals
die/nonphotosynthetic individuals survive and *pass on the mutation/allele for using
organic compounds, *thus allowing more organic nutrients in pond.
AS related exam questions
Plants
Plant fibres that may be present in eaten material are: sclerenchyma fibres,
xylem vessels and cellulose fibre.
What plant tissue that would be the main source of the lignin in a plant?
Sclerenchyma/xylem.
What material would be synthesised to form the cell wall of seedlings?
Cellulose
What tissue would form the vessels in a root, following differentiation?
Xylem
hydrogen and glycosidic bonds are what would need to be broken to digest
cellulose.
Describe the chemical nature of cellulose. (3)
Cellulose is a *polysaccharide with an *unbranched/ straight chain. The cellulose is
made up of *B glucose joined by *1-4 glycosidic bonds between the glucose

molecules. Between each chain there are *intermolecular hydrogen bonds to hold the
structure together.
Suggest two advantages of growing crops of wheat in glasshouses with
artificial lighting rather than growing them in open fields. (2)
Because
*crops can be grown out of season/all year round; *plants photosynthesise 24 hours a
day; *the crops will receive less physical damage from weather/animals *as pest
control is easier. *You can also control other factors such as CO2, temperature,
humidity and water supply
Cell division
What is the correct sequence of stages in mitosis? Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, Telophase
Transcription takes place in the nucleus
DNA and stuff
Triplet of bases that could not be found in mRNA is.Adenine Thymine
Guanine (etc)
The sequence of triplets on a section of DNA used to form a strand of premRNA is a. cistron
Explain why a molecule of DNA can be described as a double-stranded
polynucleotide. (3)
*It is double-stranded because it is made of two strands *joined together by hydrogen
bonds between (the nucleotides) bases. *It is a polynucleotide as it is made of many
nucleotides * linked together by phosphodiester bonds.
Describe how the sequence of bases in a DNA molecule would be used to
form the primary structure of a protein. (5)
*A sequence of bases that form the genetic code determines the amino acid
sequence, *one triplet of bases codes for an amino acid. *The DNA acts as a template
when *transcription occurs (i.e. DNA unzips, mRNA synthesised); *the mRNA
synthesised then moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, where *translation occurs
(expand with ribosomes, codon-anticodon interaction). *tRNA will carry an amino acid
and *peptide bonds form between the amino acids on different tRNA molecules; this is
the *sequence/ order of amino acids is the primary structure of a protein.
How does mRNA form during transcription in the nucleus? (3)
First the *DNA strands unzip, *one side of the DNA strand is the template strand that
is used to from a mRNA strand *from free nucleotides. The nucleotides join by
*complementary base pairing, *joined together by hydrogen bonds. *RNApolymerase/ DNA Helicase are the enzymes involved in these reactions.
Describe how free nucleotides are bonded together in the correct sequence
in pre-mRNA. (3) *The sequence of bases / nucleotides on DNA determines
sequence on (pre-)mRNA as the nucleotides can only with their *complementary base
pair e.g. AU / CG / GC / TA. *The bonds between the nucleotides form in condensation
reactions and produce *phosphodiester bonds. *RNA-Polymerase is the enzyme that
catalyses this reaction.
Explain the function of the codons at each end of a strand of mRNA, during
the process of translation. (2)

*The codons are either Start/ Stop codons; *start codons are needed to begin
polypeptide synthesis and the Stop /Nonsense is needed to end polypeptide synthesis.
Suggest why the final triplet of nucleotides, on the strand of mRNA involved
in the synthesis of this sequence of amino acids, did not correspond with
any anticodon on tRNA. (2)
As it is the *stop codon that is *used to end the sequencing/ further attachment of
tRNA; *signalling the release of the polypeptide/ ribosome.
Suggest why a variety of different protein structures could be formed from
the polypeptides synthesised using the mRNA molecules from a single gene.
(3)
Different protein structures could be formed as there are *variations of exons/ mRNA;
this means that each mRNA strand will have a *different primary structure due to a
different sequence of amino acids. *The secondary and tertiary structure of proteins
will depend on the primary structure/ sequence *due to different bonds *such as
Hydrogen/ Ionic/ Disulphide bonds. Each protein will be developed into *different 3D
shapes as a result.
How does the translation of mRNA into the sequence of amino acids in a
ribosome occur? (3)
First *a specific amino acid becomes attached to tRNA *by the amino acid codon
binding to the tRNAs anticodon *e.g. tRNA with alanine has CGA anticodon which
binds to GCU on mRNA; only two tRNA molecules can be held on a ribosome at any
one time. The tRNA and the amino acid bond by the formation of *peptide bonds using
the enzyme *peptidyl transferase. *Only two tRNA and amino acids can be held in a
ribosome at any one time.
Name and describe the structures where the polypeptide chain of an
enzyme would be synthesised. (2)
*On the ribosomes/poly(ribo)some *which is made of rRNA/ribosomal RNA. OR *on the
rRNA which is *a ribosome attached to a membrane.
State two differences between fibrous proteins, such as actin and myosin,
and globular proteins, such as enzymes.
Description
DNA only
mRNA only
Both DNA and
mRNA
Polymer formed from
a single strand of
nucleotides
Pentose present in
the
nucleotides
Adenine, cytosine,
guanine and thymine
present
Nucleotides linked by
phosphodiester
bonds
*Fibrous long/linear/straight chains and *Globular compact/spherical; *Globular are
folded and fibrous are not; *Globular are soluble and fibrous are not; Fibrous are
involved in structural functions (keratine) and globular are not; *Globular are involved
in catalysis/metabolism (enzymes) and fibrous are not.

Conservation
Explain how the work of zoos could be important to the survival of
endangered species. (2)
Zoos may run *captive-breeding programmes *which conserve alleles/genes/ the gene
pool of a species and may run *reintroduction programmes/ re-introduce species into
suitable habitats in the environment.
Suggest why it is important to conserve rare and endangered plants. (2
*This will conserve genetic diversity/genetic variation/biodiversity. It may also
*prevent extinction. Conserving the plants may be good as they may be *useful as
medicines/eq or they may be *depended on by animals for food or as a habitat, there
may also be aesthetic reasons.
Suggest why many scientists consider that the use of protected reserves is
likely to be more successful for the conservation of some animals than
captive breeding programmes in zoos. (3)
Reserves will cause*less stress/trauma/discomfort/depressed for the animals as
*reserves provide a larger area for animals that require this. Animals are *more likely
to breed in their natural environment and *larger numbers available will result in a
wider gene pool. *There are problems associated with releasing animals back into the
wild and these are avoided with reserves (I.e. habituation). *Disease is less likely to
wipe out the whole population. *reserves allow natural interspecific
relationships/communities to exist and *natural family/social structure/behaviour,* i.e.
because their natural diet/food is available.
Methodology
Using a line of quadrats to investigate the distribution of organisms is a
transect
Quadrats may be divided up into smaller sections to... make it easier to
estimate/measure /count the organisms & so the results are more precise
Explain the meaning of All other abiotic factors were controlled.(2)
*Abiotic factors are non-living/non-biological/do not involve
organisms.* If all other factors are controlled they are kept constant/the same.
Explain how a quadrat would be used to obtain the mean density of the two
species in different areas. (3)
*You will need to take several/more than 2 using *random quadrat positions, *these
can be generated by a random number generator on your calculator (or other suitable
method).
*You would then count the number of individuals in each quadrat and then *calculate
the mean density of the species using the total number of each species divided by the
total area sampled (*you need to know the area of the quadrat to do this).
Suggest how results could be displayed in order to compare the effect of
temperature on the growth of seedlings of two species. (3)
You could use a *graph such as a *line graph with the *X&Y axes correctly drawn (i.e.
temp at bottom/Y and growth rate/time at X). *You would use the same scale for the
axes of both plants and would *plot each temperature/ species of plant separately.
Suggest why seeds may be germinated at 18 C before being placed in the
experimental conditions. (2)

*This was done to control variables. *18C may be the optimum/ suitable temperature
for germination. * This technique makes sure that all the seeds are viable OR can
germinate *and so increasing the validity of the investigation.
Suggest why taking photographs is a suitable method to count
invertebrates. (2)
*As they move about a lot *they are difficult to count *some might be counted more
than once/missed out.
Why would it be difficult to determine which abiotic factor is influencing the
behaviour and distribution of a species? (3)
*Because for results to be (scientifically) valid *only one factor can be varied, *other
factors need to be kept constant. *There will be many biotic factors in a habitat and
these are difficult to control. *It will be difficult to set test factor values as a result.
Suggest how the scientists can have their results accepted by other
scientists. (2)
*Work needs to appear in a (Scientific) journal or being presented at a
conference.*Peer review of work by other scientists to *consider the studys validity or
reliability.
The temperatures used in this investigation were 0C, 10C, 20C, 30C,
40C and 50C.
Suggest what the results of the investigation show about the minimum
temperature required for photosynthesis in Elodea. Give a reason for your
answer. (2)
*The minimum temperature is between 0oC and 10oC /above 0oC but less than 10oC,
*no photosynthesis occurs at 0oC as *water freezes at 0oC.
*We know that the minimum temperature is somewhere between 0 oC and 10 oC but
there are no measurements between these temperatures.
Enzymes control the rate of photosynthesis in Elodea.
Discuss how far the results of this investigation support her conclusion. (4)
Her conclusion is supported to some extent as *the shape of graph is typical of an
enzyme-temperature graph, i.e. *the rate increases (up to 30 oC) *because more
enzyme-substrate complexes/collisions between enzymes and substrates and *the
rate decreases (after 30oC) due to enzyme denaturation. However it isnt supported
as *other factors could be affecting photosynthesis (e.g. CO2 Concentration). *The
gas/oxygen/carbon dioxide solubility also changes with temperature. *The graph
shows evidence of correlation and not causation.

Describe
and suggest
explanations for the effects of these two abiotic factors on the distribution
of (A. elegantissima) on this shore. (3)
*There is no indication that temperature has an effect e.g. little variation, only 2oC so
*distribution must be influenced by height above the low water mark *as the organism
is more likely to dry out at higher levels. There would also be *a difference in food
availability e.g. less at higher levels, more at lower levels as it is *more likely to be
eaten at lower levels.
Suggest how this data could be analysed to assess the relationship
between these two abiotic factors and the distribution of (A. elegantissima
on this shore). (2)
You could *plot graph(s) of numbers of anemones against height and
temperature/abiotic factors and then look for a *correlation.
You could also *use a statistical analysis/test *such as the Spearmans Rank
Correlation Coefficient.

1. group A = 720 and group B = 662/662.4 2. units correct = {dm3 day-1 / dm3
per day};
Suggest two reasons why a suspension of cells of a unicellular alga, in a
solution, is more suitable for investigating CO2 production in
photosynthesis than using leaves. (2)
Because *samples of cells can be taken easily and there will be *no damage to
plant/leaf /other cells during sampling; *The carbon dioxide level (in water) can be
adjusted/maintained/changed easily; *As alga is single celled RuBP/GP/ products
cannot pass into other cells/rest of plant, the alga will also on have *one kind of cell
and thats the one that photosynthesises; You can *control the mass/number/surface
area of cells to ensure that isnt another influencing factor; *genetically-similar cells
will also be used which will reduce variation and so other factors.
Suggest why it would be advisable to illuminate the cells at a high light
intensity during a photosynthesis and C02 experiment. (3)
*As light is needed for the light-dependent reaction keeping
it at a high intensity means *it will not be a limiting factor. *Thus C02 concentration is
the only limiting factor. *ATP/ rNADP are produced during the light dependent
reactions, *ATP/ rNADP/ light-dependent products are required for the lightindependent reactions/ Calvin cycle/ carbon-fixation.

Both *RuBP and GP levels remain constant until the carbon dioxide is lowered; *these
are used in the Calvin cycle. *At lower carbon dioxide levels the RuBP increases and
drops and then stays constant, it *rises at 250seconds because it is being regenerated
and it falls at 310seconds as being used to fixate carbon dioxide into GP. *The RuBP
level remains constant once a (new) equilibrium is reached.
*At lower carbon dioxide levels the GP drops and then stays constant, *it drops at 250
seconds because less carbon dioxide is available to convert into GP/less carbon

fixation occurs. *It levels out at a lower level as carbon dioxide is still available but at
lower level. *credit manipulation of figures (i.e. GP drops by 1au)

Compare the changes in mean environmental temperature between the premonsoon and the post-monsoon periods from 1600 to 2000. (3)
*There is no/little change in pre-monsoon temperature but post-monsoon has risen
overall, although they *both fluctuate the *fluctuations match each other; the
fluctuations are within/less than 1oC. *The range of (mean) temperatures is greater
OR shows greater fluctuations, in post-monsoon period. *Reference to a particular
change in both e.g. both decreased between 1800 to 1850. *Credit correct
manipulation of figures to compare with units.
Calculate the overall percentage increase in the mean NPP from January to
May. (3)
*Correct readings from graph indicated e.g. (11 and 1)
*Correct subtraction e.g. (11-1 / 10)
*Correct division (by 1) x 100/1 to give 1000%

Using
information
from the graphs, describe and explain the relative effects of temperature
and hours of sunlight on NPP in this grassland. (4)
*Between January and April NPP increases as light increases, there is a *correlation
between NPP and light; thus an *increase in light increases the rate of
photosynthesis/ATP and so the energy available for Calvin Cycle, this is because
*(credit correct details of photosynthesis) e.g. light results in excitation of electrons.

*The changes in NPP occur after the changes in light/peak light is April and peak NPP
is in May.
But there is *no real correlation between temperature and NPP/reference to
temperature fluctuating despite *temperature affecting how quickly enzymes work,
for example *NPP falls from May but the temperature remains high. *Light and
temperature are limiting factors.

Use the data in

the tables to suggest
which of the two species is better adapted for growth at a wide range of
latitudes (distance from the equator). Give reasons for your choice. (4)
*Sea plantain/Plantago maritima are better adapted. Because *different latitudes have
different mean temperatures and the *sea plantain grows better in all three
Temperatures. Whereas *bog sedge/Kobresia simpliciuscula does not grow very well at
lower temperatures/10oC and 14oC. *Credit appropriate comparative manipulated
figures i.e. Sea Plantain has 73g more dry mass after 50days in 10oC.

Give reasons for your answers. (4)

*As the rate of growth is linked to the rate of photosynthesis.
*The top of the shore is shallower and where most wavelengths are available/lower
shore is deeper where only green (and blue) wavelengths are available.*The red
weeds reflect/do not absorb red light OR green weeds reflect/do not absorb green
light, thus the *green seaweed has its highest rates in red/blue light and is at its
lowest in green light but *would still grow well if all light waves were available. *The
red seaweed is at its highest rate of photosynthesis in green light only and so *can
only grow where only green light available.

*A. Because
*in Central
Europe

temperatures never reach 25oC/data for 25oC is irrelevant/14oC is within the

range/close to the average temperature and *the mean temperature is 15.25/15.3oC.
*A has the highest rates of CO2 fixation at 14oC
*therefore A will grow well in the temperature range of Central Europe.
*All others would have relatively low yield at 14oC.

Suggest why the students were not able to draw valid conclusions about the
effect of saturation of the soil by water on the distribution of the five plant
species. (3)
*Because saturation was not measured/depth of water does not give saturation data,
there are *no data on other factors/variables that *may be affecting distribution/not
controlled/confounding *i.e.Temperature. *Only one set of data is taken.

Mint
Common
Duckweed
Soft Rush

Calculate the percentage of the mean GPP that remains as NPP within plants
on Earth.
The mean GPP for plants on Earth is 24.4 106 J m2 year1.
The plants use 3.7 106 J m2 year1 of this energy in metabolic processes
*24.43.7=20.7 *10024.4=4.09

Temperature

*The rate of growth

increases as temperature increases between 13oC and 22oC/up to 22oC, it then
*decreases between 22oC and 25oC/above 22oC *e.g. increases by 0.7a.u./4.5 times
and decreases by 0.1a.u. This is because *enzymes are involved in growth;
*molecules move about more/have more kinetic energy as the temperature increases
*therefore enzyme and substrate molecules collide more/rate of enzyme-substrate
complexes formation increases as temperature increases.
But after a fixed point there will be *denaturation of some enzymes/protein molecules,
*which decreases the rate of growth/reactions as fewer enzyme molecules are
available.
Suggest why it was important that this investigation was carried out at a
high light intensity. (3)
*So that each temperature has the same light intensity which *must be above the
threshold/compensation point *below which no net photosynthesis takes place. This
ensures that *light is not limiting factor/so temperature is the only limiting factor.
*Photosynthesis produces material needed for growth.
Suggest two abiotic factors, other than light intensity, that would need to
be controlled in this (temperature) investigation.
*Wavelength/colour/frequency of light; *CO2 concentration; *pH of solution; mineral
concentration