Chapter 7

FLOW
MEASUREMENT

7.1 INTRODUCTION
The accuracy of a fluid-flow measurement is

directly related to profit.

Flow rate measurement devices require
accurate pressure and temperature
measurement in order to calculate the output
of the instrument.
Flow rate is expressed in

Volume units, e.g. cm3/s

Mass units , e.g. gram/sec

7.2 POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT
METHODS
A mechanically displacement components in the

meter in order for any fluid flow to occur

For high-accuracy under steady-flow conditions
They are in certain forms,
1) Nutating disk meter
2) Rotary-vane flowmeter
3)Lobed-impeller flowmeter

Nutating-disk meter
Work on the nutating-disk principle
Water enters the left side of the meter and strikes the disk, which

is eccentrically mounted. In order for the fluid o move through the

meter the disk must wooble or nutate about the vertical axis.
Both the top and bottom of the disk remain contact with the
mounting chamber.
A readout mechanism, count the number of rotation to indicate
the volumetric flow rate

Rotary Vane Flowmeters

As fluid enters the meter, vanes are moved causing the
rotor to turn. The vanes are spring loaded and able to slide
freely in the rotor body as it turns, When the fluid enters
the inlet port, the vanes extend against the housing wall to
enclose the measuring chamber, they retract at the outlet to
discharge the fluid into the system. Each complete
revolution of the rotor moves several fixed volumes of fluid
through the meter from inlet to outlet.

Lobed Impeller and Oval Gear

Flowmeters
Two lobed impellers (rotors) are

mounted on parallel shafts and are

geared-synchronized to keep them
correctly positioned in relation to
each other. These lobes rotate in
opposite directions, so as fluid
enters the meter and causes the
impellers to rotate, a measuring
chamber is formed.
The oval gear flowmeter is a
variation of the lobed impeller
flowmeter. The lobed impellers are
replaced by a pair of meshed oval
gears.

Example
7.1

7.3 Flow Obstruction Methods

Apply the head loss or pressure drop measurement as an

indication of the flow rate

The one-dimensional flow system, the continuity
equation is

1 A1u1 2 A2u2
m

Employ the Bernoulli equation that describes the

relationship between pressure and velocity of a flow.

u12
p2 u 2

1 2 g c 2 2 g c
where,
Sloving both equation, give the pressure drop
p1

u
A2
1
p1 p2
2 g c A1

2
2

1 2

Q A2u2

Volumetric flow rate,

Discharge coefficient ,

A2
1 A2
A1

2
2

p1 p2

Qactual
Cd
Qideal

Discharge coefficient is not constant, depend on

Reynolds number and the channel geometry

Finally, volume flow rate for incompressible flow
Qactual Cd A2u2 Cd

A2
1 A2
A1

2
2

p1 p2

Obstruction flow meters

Three typical obstruction

meters
1. Orifice low cost but high
permanent pressure drop
2. Flow nozzle- high permanent
pressure drop
3. Venturi - High accuracy and
small pressure drop

7.6 Flow Measurement by Drag Effects

The flow enters the bottom of

the tapered vertical tube and

causes the bob or float to
move upward. The bob will
rise to a point in the tube
such that the drag forces are
just balanced by the weight
and buoyancy forces.

Turbine Meter
The turbine wheel rotates as fluid passes a

permanent magnet attached to the wheel which also

rotates with the wheel
A reluctance pick up/motion sensor is attached to
the top meter to detect pulse for each revolution.
Total pulse is an indication of flow.
The flow coefficient K for turbine meter is Q= f/K
where f is pulse frequency. Flow coefficient is
dependent of flow rate and kinematic viscosity n of
fluid

Turbine flow meter

The turbine flow meter (better described as

an axial turbine) translates the mechanical

action of the turbine rotating in the liquid
flow around an axis into a user-readable rate
of flow (gpm, lpm, etc.). In the turbine-wheel
body a permanent magnet is enclosed so that
it rotates with the wheel. A reluctance pickup
attached to the top of the meter detects a
pulse for each revolution of the turbine
wheel.

Turbine flow meter

The volumetric flow is proportional to the

number of wheel revolutions, the total pulse

output may be taken as an indication of total
flow
Q= f / K
K: flow coefficient (dependent on flow rate
and kinematic viscosity of the fluid)
f : pulse frequency

Turbine flow meter

Turbine flow meters are used for the

measurement of natural gas and liquid

flow.The flow accurately within 0.5 % over
a rather wide range of flow rates.

VORTEX-SHEDDING FLOWMETER
When a bluff body is placed in a flow stream, vortices

are shed alternately from the back side. The frequency

of vortex shedding is directly proportional to the liquid
velocity.
The piezoelectric sensor mounted inside the vortex
shedder detects the vortices.
The fluid parameter which governs the operation of the
vortex-shedding meter is the Strouhal number S,
S=fs d /u
fs : shedding frequency
u: velocity
d: diameter of characteristic
dimension of the bluff body

Ultrasonic Flowmeter.
The Doppler effect is used to measure flow in a
pipe, one transducer transmits an ultrasonic
beam of ~0.5 MHz into the flow stream.
Liquid flowing through the pipe must contain
sonically reflective materials such as solid
particles or entrained air bubbles.

Ultrasonic Flowmeter.
The movement of these materials alters the frequency of the

beam reflected onto a second, receiving transducer.

The frequency shift is linearly proportional to the rate of
flow of materials in the pipe and therefore can be used to
develop an analog or digital signal proportional to flow rate

LAMINAR FLOWMETER
Channel or tube where Reynolds number is less than

about 2000
Volumetric flow rate,

d (p1 - p 2 )
Q=
128L
4

When Red =(um d)/<2000

If laminar flow can be assured, the flow rate becomes

a direct function of pressure difference.

Pressure difference,

LAMINAR FLOWMETER

7.7 Hot-Wire and Hot Film Anemometer

To study rapidly varying flow conditions.

Also known as thermal anemometer

Measures a fluid velocity by noting the heat convected

away by the fluid. The core of the anemometer is an

exposed hot wire either heated up by a constant current or
maintained at a constant temperature (refer to the
schematic below). In either case, the heat lost to fluid
convection is a function of the fluid velocity.

Hot-Wire and Hot Film Anemometer

Thermal Mass Flowmeters

A precision tube is constructed with upstream and

downstream externally wound resistance temperature

detectors.
Between the sensors is an electric heater.
The temperature difference T1 T2 is directly proportional
to the mass flow of the gas
May be detected with
an appropriate bridge
circuit

Thermal Mass Flowmeters

The rate of heat absorbed by a flow stream is directly

proportional to its mass flow. As molecules of a

moving gas come into contact with a heat source,
they absorb heat and thereby cool the source. At
increased flow rates, more molecules come into
contact with the heat source, absorbing even more
heat. The amount of heat dissipated from the heat
source in this manner is proportional to the number
of molecules of a particular gas (its mass), the
thermal characteristics of the gas, and its flow
characteristics

Thermal Mass Flowmeters

7.8 Magnetic flowmeters

The fluid represents a conductor moving in the field
Also known as electromagnetic flow meter or induction

flow meter, obtain the flow velocity by measuring the

changes of induced voltage of the conductive fluid
passing across a controlled magnetic field.
8

E BLu 10 Volt
E: magnetic flux density
U: velocity of the conductor,cm/s
L:length of the conductor,cm

 A typical magnetic flow meter places electric coils

around (inline model) / near (insertion model)

the pipe of the flow to be measured and sets up a
pair of electrodes across the pipe wall (inline
model) or at the tip of the flowmeter (insertion
model). If the targeted fluid is electrically
conductive,
i.e., a conductor, its passing
through the pipe is equivalent
to a conductor cutting across
the magnetic field. This induces
changes in voltage reading
between the electrodes. The
higher the flow speed, the
higher the voltage.

Magnetic flowmeters

7.9 Flow-Visualization Methods

Basic optical effect - angular deflection of the light
ray is proportional to the density in the flow. The
deflection of the ray is a measure of the average
density gradient integrated over the x coordinate.
Useful for indicating density variations in two
dimensions.
Liquid-flow visualization
technique
add a dye to the liquid
hydrogen-bubble method
- electrolyze the water to
produce very small
hydrogen bubbles.

Flow-Visualization Methods

7.10 The Shadowgraph

Direct viewing the flow phenomena. Useful for

viewing turbulent flow region but no to evaluate local

densities.

7.11 The Schlieren

A resultant variation in illumination on the screen, is
known as schlieren effect.
Schlieren flow visualization is based on the deflection
of light by a refractive index gradient. The index
gradient is directly related to flow density gradient.
The deflected light is compared to undeflected light at
a viewing screen
Schlieren photography is similar to the shadowgraph
technique and relies on the the fact that light rays are
bent whenever they encounter changes in density of a
fluid. Schlieren systems are used to visualize the flow
away from the surface of an object

The refractive index or index of refraction of a substance is a measure of the speed

of light in that substance. It is expressed as a ratio of the speed of light in vacuum relative
to that in the considered medium

Schematic of schlieren flow visualization

The contrast on the screen is directly
proportional to the density gradient in the flow

7.12 The Interferometer

To obtain a direct measurement of density variation

in test section. The appearance of fringes on the

screen may be directly related to changes in the
density in the flow field within the test section.

7.13 The Laser Doppler

Anemometer (LDA)
To measure precisely mean fluid flow velocity in

steady laminar flow and high frequency turbulence

intensity in turbulent flow. It use a Doppler shift in
frequency that is directly proportional to the flow
velocity.

7.15 Pressure Probes

To measure the local static and stagnation

pressures.
Pressure different

1 2
p0 p u
2

Therefore,

2( p0 p )
u

Example 7.9

1 inH2O is approximately equal to 249 Pa at 0 C