Chapter 3, 11,12, 13, 14

Understanding user,
Design, prototyping,
construction, and evaluation

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Overview

Understanding User
Prototyping and construction
Conceptual design
Physical design
Generating prototypes
Evaluation

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Chapter 3:
Understanding users

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Overview
What is cognition?
What are users good and bad at?
Describe how cognition has been applied
to interaction design
Theories of cognition
Mental models, theory of action
Information processing
External cognition, distributed cognition

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Why do we need to understand

users?
Interacting with technology is cognitive
We need to take into account cognitive processes involved
and cognitive limitations of users
We can provide knowledge about what users can and
cannot be expected to do
Identify and explain the nature and causes of problems
users encounter
Supply theories, modelling tools, guidance and methods
that can lead to the design of better interactive products

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What goes on in the mind?

2011

Core cognitive aspects

Attention
Perception and recognition
Memory
Reading, speaking and listening
Problem-solving, planning, reasoning and
decision-making, learning
Most relevant to interaction design are attention,
perception and recognition, and memory

2011

Attention
Selecting things to concentrate on at a point in time
from the mass of stimuli around us
Allows us to to focus on information that is relevant to
what we are doing
Involves audio and/or visual senses
Focussed and divided attention enables us to be
selective in terms of the mass of competing stimuli but
limits our ability to keep track of all events
Information at the interface should be structured to
capture users attention, e.g. use perceptual boundaries
(windows), colour, reverse video, sound and flashing
lights

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Activity: Find the price of a double room at the

Holiday Inn in Bradley

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Activity: Find the price for a double room at the

Quality Inn in Columbia

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Activity
Tullis (1987) found that the two screens
produced quite different results
1st screen - took an average of 5.5 seconds to search
2nd screen - took 3.2 seconds to search

Why, since both displays have the same

density of information (31%)?
Spacing
In the 1st screen the information is bunched up
together, making it hard to search
In the 2nd screen the characters are grouped into
vertical categories of information making it easier

2011

Design implications for

attention
Make information salient when it needs attending to
Use techniques that make things stand out like colour,
ordering, spacing, underlining, sequencing and animation
Avoid cluttering the interface - follow the google.com
example of crisp, simple design
Avoid using too much because the software allows it

2011

An example of over-use of
graphics
Our Situation

State

the bad news

Be clear, dont try to obscure the
situation

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Perception and recognition

How information is acquired from the world
and transformed into experiences
Obvious implication is to design
representations that are readily perceivable,
e.g.
Text should be legible
Icons should be easy to distinguish and read

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Is color contrast good? Find

italian

2011

Are borders and white space

better? Find french

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Activity
Weller (2004) found people took less time
to locate items for information that was
grouped
using a border (2nd screen) compared with
using color contrast (1st screen)

Some argue that too much white space on

web pages is detrimental to search
Makes it hard to find information

Do you agree?
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Which is easiest to read and

why?
What is the time?

What is the time?

What is the time?

What is the time?

What is the time?

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Design implications
Representations of information need to be
designed to be perceptible and recognizable
Icons and other graphical representations should
enable users to readily distinguish their meaning
Bordering and spacing are effective visual ways
of grouping information
Sounds should be audible and distinguishable
Speech output should enable users to distinguish
between the set of spoken words
Text should be legible and distinguishable from
the background

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Memory
Involves first encoding and then retrieving
knowledge
We dont remember everything - involves
filtering and processing what is attended to
Context is important in affecting our
memory (i.e., where, when)
Well known fact that we recognize things
much better than being able to recall things
Better at remembering images than words
Why interfaces are largely visual

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Processing in memory
Encoding is first stage of memory
determines which information is attended to in the
environment and how it is interpreted

The more attention paid to something,

And the more it is processed in terms of thinking
about it and comparing it with other knowledge,
The more likely it is to be remembered
e.g., when learning about HCI, it is much better to
reflect upon it, carry out exercises, have discussions
with others about it, and write notes than just passively
read a book, listen to a lecture or watch a video about it

2011

Context is important
Context affects the extent to which
information can be subsequently retrieved
Sometimes it can be difficult for people to
recall information that was encoded in a
different context
e.g., You are on a train and someone comes up to you
and says hello. You dont recognize him for a few
moments but then realize it is one of your neighbors.
You are only used to seeing your neighbor in the hallway
of your apartment block and seeing him out of context
makes him difficult to recognize initially

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Activity
Try to remember the dates of your
grandparents birthday
Try to remember the cover of the last
two DVDs you bought or rented
Which was easiest? Why?
People are very good at remembering
visual cues about things
e.g., the color of items, the location of objects and
marks on an object

They find it more difficult to learn and

remember arbitrary material
e.g., birthdays and phone numbers

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Recognition versus recall

Command-based interfaces require users
to recall from memory a name from a
possible set of 100s
GUIs provide visually-based options that
users need only browse through until they
recognize one
Web browsers, MP3 players, etc., provide
lists of visited URLs, song titles etc., that
support recognition memory

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The problem with the classic

72
George Millers theory of how much
information people can remember
Peoples immediate memory capacity is
very limited
Many designers have been led to
believe that this is useful finding for
interaction design

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What some designers get up to

Present only 7 options on a menu

Display only 7 icons on a tool bar
Have no more than 7 bullets in a list
Place only 7 items on a pull down menu
Place only 7 tabs on the top of a website
page
But this is wrong? Why?

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Why?
Inappropriate application of the theory
People can scan lists of bullets, tabs, menu
items till they see the one they want
They dont have to recall them from memory
having only briefly heard or seen them
Sometimes a small number of items is good
design
But it depends on task and available screen
estate

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Design implications
Dont overload users memories with
complicated procedures for carrying out
tasks
Design interfaces that promote recognition
rather than recall
Provide users with a variety of ways of
encoding digital information to help them
remember where they have stored them
e.g., categories, color, flagging, time stamping

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Externalizing to reduce
memory load
Diaries, reminders, calendars, notes, shopping
lists, to-do lists - written to remind us of what to
do
Post-its, piles, marked emails - where placed
indicates priority of what to do
External representations:
Remind us that we need to do something (e.g. to buy
something for mothers day)
Remind us of what to do (e.g. buy a card)
Remind us when to do something (e.g. send a card by a
certain date)
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Computational offloading
When a tool is used in conjunction with an
external representation to carry out a
computation (e.g. pen and paper)
Try doing the two sums below (a) in your
head, (b) on a piece of paper and c) with a
calculator.
234 x 456 =??
CCXXXIIII x CCCCXXXXXVI = ???

Which is easiest and why? Both are identical

sums
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Design implication
Provide external representations at the
interface that reduce memory load and
facilitate computational offloading
e.g. Information
visualizations have
been designed to
allow people to make
sense and rapid
decisions about
masses of data
2011

Chapter 3:
Design, Prototyping,
Construction

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Prototyping and construction

What is a prototype?
Why prototype?
Different kinds of prototyping
low fidelity
high fidelity
Compromises in prototyping
vertical
horizontal
Construction
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What is a prototype?
In other design fields a prototype is a
small-scale model:
a miniature car
a miniature building or town
the example here comes
from a 3D printer

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2011

What is a prototype?
In interaction design it can be (among other things):
a series of screen sketches
a storyboard, i.e. a cartoon-like series of scenes
a Powerpoint slide show
a video simulating the use of a system
a cardboard mock-up
a piece of software with limited functionality
written in the target language or in another
language

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2011

Why prototype?
Evaluation and feedback are central to interaction
design
Stakeholders can see, hold, interact with a
prototype more easily than a document or a
drawing
Team members can communicate effectively
You can test out ideas for yourself
It encourages reflection: very important aspect of
design
Prototypes answer questions, and support
designers in choosing between alternatives
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Filtering dimensions of
prototyping

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Manifestation dimensions of
prototyping

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What to prototype?
Technical issues
Work flow, task design
Screen layouts and information display
Difficult, controversial, critical areas

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Low-fidelity Prototyping
Uses a medium which is unlike the final
medium, e.g. paper, cardboard
Is quick, cheap and easily changed
Examples:
sketches of screens, task sequences,
etc
Post-it notes
storyboards
Wizard-of-Oz 40
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Storyboards
Often used with scenarios, bringing
more detail, and a chance to role play
It is a series of sketches showing how a
user might progress through a task
using the device
Used early in design

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Sketching
Sketching is important to low-fidelity
prototyping
Dont be inhibited about drawing ability.
Practice simple symbols

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Card-based prototypes
Index cards (3 X 5 inches)
Each card represents
one screen or part of screen
Often used in website
development

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Wizard-of-Oz prototyping
The user thinks they are interacting with a
computer, but a developer is responding to
output rather than the system.
Usually done early in design to understand
users expectations
What is wrong with this approach?
User
>Blurb blurb
>Do this
>Why?

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High-fidelity prototyping
Uses materials that you would expect to be in the
final product.
Prototype looks more like the final system than a
low-fidelity version.
For a high-fidelity software prototype common
environments include Macromedia Director, Visual
Basic, and Smalltalk.
Danger that users think they have a full
system.see compromises
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Compromises in prototyping
All prototypes involve compromises
For software-based prototyping maybe there is a
slow response? sketchy icons? limited
functionality?
Two common types of compromise
horizontal: provide a wide range of
functions, but with little detail
vertical: provide a lot of detail for only a
few functions
Compromises in prototypes mustnt be ignored.
Product needs engineering
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Construction
Taking the prototypes (or learning from
them) and creating a whole
Quality must be attended to: usability (of
course), reliability, robustness,
maintainability, integrity, portability,
efficiency, etc
Product must be engineered
Evolutionary prototyping
Throw-away prototyping
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Conceptual design: from

requirements to design
Transform user requirements/needs into a
conceptual model
a description of the proposed system in terms
of a set of integrated ideas and concepts about
what it should do, behave and look like, that
will be understandable by the users in the
manner intended
Dont move to a solution too quickly. Iterate,
iterate, iterate
Consider alternatives: prototyping helps
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Is there a suitable metaphor?

Interface metaphors combine familiar
knowledge with new knowledge in a way that
will help the user understand the product.
Three steps: understand functionality, identify
potential problem areas, generate metaphors
Evaluate metaphors:
How much structure does it provide?
How much is relevant to the problem?
Is it easy to represent?
Will the audience understand it?
How extensible is it?
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2011

Considering interaction types

Which interaction type?
How the user invokes actions
Instructing, conversing, manipulating or
exploring
Do different interface types provide insight?
WIMP, shareable, augmented reality, etc

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Expanding the conceptual model

What functions will the product perform?
What will the product do and what will the
human do (task allocation)?
How are the functions related to each other?
Sequential or parallel?
Categorisations, e.g. all actions related to
telephone memory storage
What information needs to be available?
What data is required to perform the task?
How is this data to be transformed by the
system?
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Using scenarios in conceptual

design
Express proposed or imagined situations
Used throughout design in various ways
scripts for user evaluation of
prototypes
concrete examples of tasks
as a means of co-operation across
professional boundaries
Plus and minus scenarios to explore
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extreme cases

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Generate storyboard from

scenario

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Generate card-based
prototype from use case

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Support for design

Patterns for interaction design
individual patterns
pattern languages
pattern libraries
Open source systems and components

Tools and environments

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Summary
Different kinds of prototyping are used for different
purposes and at different stages
Prototypes answer questions, so prototype
appropriately
Construction: the final product must be engineered
appropriately
Conceptual design (the first step of design)
Consider interaction types and interface types to
prompt creativity
Storyboards can be generated from scenarios
Card-based prototypes can be generated from use
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2011
cases

Chapter 11, 12, 13:

Evaluation

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Chapter 12

Introducing Evaluation

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The aims
Explain the key concepts used in evaluation.
Introduce different evaluation methods.
Show how different methods are used for
different purposes at different stages of the
design process and in different contexts.
Show how evaluators mix and modify
methods.
Discuss the practical challenges
Illustrate how methods discussed in
Chapters 7 and 8 are used in evaluation and
describe some methods that are specific to
evaluation.
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Why, what, where and when to

evaluate

Iterative design & evaluation is a continuous

process that examines:
Why: to check users requirements and that
users can use the product and they like it.
What: a conceptual model, early prototypes
of a new system and later, more complete
prototypes.
Where: in natural and laboratory settings.
When: throughout design; finished products
can be evaluated to collect information to
inform new products.

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Bruce Tognazzini tells you why

you need to evaluate
Iterative design, with its repeating cycle
of design and testing, is the only validated
methodology in existence that will
consistently produce successful results. If
you dont have user-testing as an integral
part of your design process you are going
to throw buckets of money down the
drain.
See AskTog.com for topical discussions
about design and evaluation.
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Types of evaluation
Controlled settings involving users,
eg usability testing & experiments
in laboratories and living labs.
Natural settings involving users, eg
field studies to see how the product
is used in the real world.
Any settings not involving users, eg
consultants critique; to predict,
analyze & model aspects of the
interface analytics.
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Usability lab

http://iat.ubalt.edu/usability_lab/
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Living labs
Peoples use of technology in their
everyday lives can be evaluated in
living labs.
Such evaluations are too difficult to
do in a usability lab.
Eg the Aware Home was embedded
with a complex network of sensors
and audio/video recording devices
(Abowd et al., 2000).
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Usability testing & field studies

can compliment

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Evaluation case studies

Experiment to investigate a computer
game
In the wild field study of skiers
Crowdsourcing

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Challenge & engagement in a

collaborative immersive game
Physiological measures
were used.
Players were more
engaged when playing
against another person
than when playing
against a computer.
What precautionary
measures did the
evaluators take?
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What does this data tell you?

high values indicate more variation
Playing against
computer

Playing against
friend

Mean

St. Dev.

Mean

St. Dev.

Boring

2.3

0.949

1.7

0.949

Challenging
Easy
Engaging
Exciting
Frustrating
Fun

3.6
2.7
3.8
3.5
2.8
3.9

1.08
0.823
0.422
0.527
1.14
0.738

3.9
2.5
4.3
4.1
2.5
4.6

0.994
0.850
0.675
0.568
0.850
0.699

Source: Mandryk and Inkpen (2004).

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Why study skiers in the wild ?

Jambon et al. (2009) User experience in the wild. In: Proceedings of CHI 09, ACM Press, New York,
p. 4070-4071.
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e-skiing system components

Jambon et al. (2009) User experience in the wild. In: Proceedings of CHI 09, ACM Press, New York,
p. 4072.
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Crowdsourcing-when might
you use it?

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Evaluating an ambient system

The Hello Wall is a
new kind of system
that is designed to
explore how people
react to its
presence.
What are the
challenges of
evaluating systems
like this?
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Evaluation methods
Method

Controlled Natural
settings
settings

Observing

Asking
users

Asking
experts
Testing

Modeling
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Without
users

x
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The language of evaluation

Analytics
In the wild
evaluation
Analytical
evaluation
Living laboratory
Controlled
Predictive evaluation
experiment
Summative
Expert review or crit
evaluation
Field study
Usability laboratory
Formative
User studies
evaluation
Usability testing
Heuristic evaluation Users or participants
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Key points
Evaluation & design are closely integrated in user-centered
design.
Some of the same techniques are used in evaluation as for
establishing requirements but they are used differently
(e.g. observation interviews & questionnaires).
Three types of evaluation: laboratory based with users, in
the field with users, studies that do not involve users
The main methods are: observing, asking users, asking
experts, user testing, inspection, and modeling users task
performance, analytics.
Dealing with constraints is an important skill for evaluators
to develop.

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A project for you

The Butterfly Ballot: Anatomy of
disaster was written by Bruce
Tognazzini, and you can find it by
going to AskTog.com and looking
through the 2001 column.
Alternatively go directly to:
http://www.asktog.com/columns/04
2ButterflyBallot.html
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A project for you

continued

Read Togs account and look at the

picture of the ballot card.
Make a similar ballot card for a class
election and ask 10 of your friends to
vote using the card. After each person
has voted ask who they intended to
vote for and whether the card was
confusing. Note down their comments.
Redesign the card and perform the
same test with 10 different people.
Report your findings.

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Chapter 13:
An evaluation framework

2011

The aims are:

To discuss the conceptual, practical
and ethical issues involved in
evaluation.
To introduce and explain the DECIDE
framework.

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DECIDE: a framework to guide

evaluation
Determine the goals.
Explore the questions.
Choose the evaluation approach and
methods.
Identify the practical issues.
Decide how to deal with the ethical
issues.
Evaluate, analyze, interpret and present
the data.
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Determine the goals

What are the high-level goals of the
evaluation?
Who wants it and why?
The goals influence the approach used for
the study.
Some examples of goals:
Identify the best metaphor on which to base the
design.
Check to ensure that the final interface is
consistent.
Investigate how technology affects working
practices.
Improve the usability of an existing product .
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Explore the questions

All evaluations need goals & questions to
guide them.
E.g., the goal of finding out why many
customers prefer to purchase paper airline
tickets rather than e-tickets can be broken
down into sub-questions:
What are customers attitudes to these new tickets?
Are they concerned about security?
Is the interface for obtaining them poor?

What questions might you ask about the

design of a cell phone?
2011

Choose the evaluation approach &

methods
The evaluation approach influences the
methods used, and in turn, how data is
collected,analyzed and presented.
E.g. field studies typically:
Involve observation and interviews.
Do not involve controlled tests in a
laboratory.
Produce qualitative data.
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Identify practical issues

For example, how to:
Select users
Stay on budget
Stay on schedule
Find evaluators
Select equipment
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Decide about ethical issues

Develop an informed consent form
Participants have a right to:
- Know the goals of the study;
- Know what will happen to the findings;
- Privacy of personal information;
- Leave when they wish;
- Be treated politely.

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Evaluate, interpret & present

data
The approach and methods used influence
how data is evaluated, interpreted and
presented.
The following need to be considered:
- Reliability: can the study be replicated?
- Validity: is it measuring what you expected?
- Biases: is the process creating biases?
- Scope: can the findings be generalized?
- Ecological validity: is the environment
influencing the findings? - i.e. Hawthorn effect.
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Key points
There are many issues to consider before
conducting an evaluation study.
These include the goals of the study, the
approaches and methods to use, practical
issues, ethical issues, and how the data will
be collected, analyzed and presented.
The DECIDE framework provides a useful
checklist for planning an evaluation study.

2011

A project for you

Find an evaluation study from the list of
URLs on this site or one of your own choice.
Use the DECIDE framework to analyze it.
Which paradigms are involved?
Does the study report address each aspect
of DECIDE?
Is triangulation used? If so, how?
On a scale of 1-5, where 1 = poor and 5 =
excellent, how would you rate this study?

2011

Chapter 14

Evaluation studies: From

controlled to natural settings

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The aims:
Explain how to do usability testing
Outline the basics of experimental
design
Describe how to do field studies

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Usability testing
Involves recording performance of typical
users doing typical tasks.
Controlled settings.
Users are observed and timed.
Data is recorded on video & key presses are
logged.
The data is used to calculate performance
times, and to identify & explain errors.
User satisfaction is evaluated using
questionnaires & interviews.
Field observations may be used to provide
contextual understanding.
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Experiments & usability

testing
Experiments test hypotheses to discover
new knowledge by investigating the
relationship between two or more things
i.e., variables.
Usability testing is applied experimentation.
Developers check that the system is usable
by the intended user population for their
tasks.
Experiments may also be done in usability
testing.
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Usability testing & research

Usability testing

Improve products
Few participants
Results inform design
Usually not
completely replicable
Conditions controlled
as much as possible
Procedure planned
Results reported to
developers
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Experiments for
research
Discover knowledge
Many participants
Results validated
statistically
Must be replicable
Strongly controlled
conditions
Experimental design
Scientific report to
scientific community
2011

Usability testing
Goals & questions focus on how well
users perform tasks with the product.
Comparison of products or prototypes
common.
Focus is on time to complete task &
number & type of errors.
Data collected by video & interaction
logging.
Testing is central.
User satisfaction questionnaires &
interviews provide data about users
opinions.
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Usability lab with observers

watching a user & assistant

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Portable equipment for use in

the field

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Mobile head-mounted eye

tracker

Picture courtesy of SensoMotoric Instruments (SMI), copyright 2010

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Testing conditions
Usability lab or other controlled space.
Emphasis on:
selecting representative users;
developing representative tasks.

5-10 users typically selected.

Tasks usually last no more than 30
minutes.
The test conditions should be the same for
every participant.
Informed consent form explains
procedures and deals with ethical issues.
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Some type of data

Time to complete a task.
Time to complete a task after a specified.
time away from the product.
Number and type of errors per task.
Number of errors per unit of time.
Number of navigations to online help or
manuals.
Number of users making a particular
error.
Number of users completing task
successfully.
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Usability engineering
orientation
Aim is improvement with each
version.
Current level of performance.
Minimum acceptable level of
performance.
Target level of performance.

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How many participants is

enough for user testing?
The number is a practical issue.
Depends on:
schedule for testing;
availability of participants;
cost of running tests.

Typically 5-10 participants.

Some experts argue that testing
should continue until no new insights
are gained.
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Name 3 features for each that

can be tested by usability testing

iPad

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Experiments
Predict the relationship between two
or more variables.
Independent variable is manipulated
by the researcher.
Dependent variable depends on the
independent variable.
Typical experimental designs have
one or two independent variable.
Validated statistically & replicable.
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Experimental designs
Different participants - single group
of participants is allocated randomly
to the experimental conditions.
Same participants - all participants
appear in both conditions.
Matched participants - participants
are matched in pairs, e.g., based on
expertise, gender, etc.
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Different, same, matched

participant design
Design

Advantages

Disadvantages

Different

No order effects

Many subjects &

individual differences a
problem

Same

Few individuals, no
individual differences

Counter-balancing
needed because of
ordering effects

Matched

Same as different
participants but
individual differences
reduced

Cannot be sure of
perfect matching on all
differences

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Field studies
Field studies are done in natural settings.
in the wild is a term for prototypes being
used freely in natural settings.
Aim to understand what users do naturally
and how technology impacts them.
Field studies are used in product design to:
- identify opportunities for new technology;
- determine design requirements;
- decide how best to introduce new
technology;
- evaluate technology in use.
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Data collection & analysis

Observation & interviews
Notes, pictures, recordings
Video
Logging

Analyzes
Categorized
Categories can be provided by theory
Grounded theory
Activity theory
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Data presentation
The aim is to show how the products
are being appropriated and
integrated into their surroundings.
Typical presentation forms include:
vignettes, excerpts, critical incidents,
patterns, and narratives.

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UbiFit Garden: An in the wild

study

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Key points
Usability testing is done in controlled conditions.
Usability testing is an adapted form of experimentation.
Experiments aim to test hypotheses by manipulating certain
variables while keeping others constant.
The experimenter controls the independent variable(s) but not
the dependent variable(s).
There are three types of experimental design: differentparticipants, same- participants, & matched participants.
Field studies are done in natural environments.
In the wild is a recent term for studies in which a prototype
is freely used in a natural setting.
Typically observation and interviews are used to collect field
studies data.
Data is usually presented as anecdotes, excerpts, critical
incidents, patterns and narratives.
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