Sulphuric Acid

1.

Sulphuric acid is a highly corrosive strong mineral acid with the molecular formula H 2SO4.

2.

Sulphuric acid is a diprotic acid.

3.

Sulphuric acid has a wide range of applications. It is also a central substance in the chemical
industry.

Uses of Sulphuric Acid

1.

Applications of sulphuric acid include

a.

manufacturing fertiliser

b.

manufacturing detergent

c.

manufacturing pesticide

d.

manufacturing synthetic fibre

e.

as electrolyte in lead-acid accumulator

f.

removing metal oxide

g.

manufacturing paint

Manufacturing Sulphuric Acid: The Contact Process

Sulphuric Acid is Manufactured in Industry
1.

Sulphuric acid, H2SO4 is manufactured in industry through Contact Process.

2.

The raw materials used are sulphur, air and water

3.

The Contact process consists of four stages.

Stage 1
1.

Molten sulphur is burnt in dry air to produce sulphur dioxide

2.

The gas produced is then purified and cooled.

S+O2SO2
3.

Sulphur dioxide can also be produced by burning metal sulphide such as lead(II) sulphide or
zinc sulphide in dry air.

2PbS+3O22PbO+2SO2

Stage 2
1.

In a converter, sulphur dioxide and excess oxygen are passed through vanadium(V) oxide.

2.

vanadium(V) oxide act as catalyst to expedite the process.

3.

The optimum condition for maximum amount of product are as follow:

a.

Temperature: 450 500 C

b.

Pressure: 2 3 atm

2. About 99.5% of the sulphur dioxide, SO2 is converted into sulphur trioxide, SO3 through this
reversible reaction.

Stage 3
Sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to form oleum H2S2O7.

SO3+H2SO4H2S2O7

Stage 4
The oleum, H2S2O7 is then diluted with water to produce concentrated sulphuric acid, H 2SO4 in large
quantities.

H2S2O7+H2O2H2SO4

Note:
1.

The two reactions in the third and fourth stages are equivalent to adding sulphur trioxide,
SO3directly to water.

SO3+H2OH2SO4
2.

However, this is not done in industry because sulphur trioxide, SO 3 reacts too violently with
water.

3.

This produces a lot of heat and a large cloud of sulphuric acid, H 2SO4 mist.

4.

The mist is corrosive, pollutes the air and is difficult to condense.

Summary

Environmental And Health Issues Of Sulphur Dioxide

Sulphur dioxide, SO2 is one of the by-products of the Contact Process. It is one of the source of
environmental pollution.

Acid Rain
1.

Sulphur dioxide (SO2) is the pollutant primarily associated with acid rain.

2.

Acid rain occurs when pH of the rain is between 2.4 and 5.0. This is due to the reaction of
sulphur dioxide, SO2 with rainwater.

SO2+H2OH2SO3
3.

The negative effect of acid rains include

a.

corrosion of concrete building and metal structure.

b.

corrosion of monuments and statues made from marble

c.

causes erosion of top soil.

d.

killing aquatic life.

Health Effects
1.

SO2 is an irritant when it is inhaled and at high concentrations may cause severe problems in
asthmatics such as narrowing of the airways, known as bronchoconstriction.

2.

Asthmatics are considerably more sensitive to the effects of SO 2 than other individuals.

Sources of SO2
1.

The principal source of SO2 is from the combustion of fossil fuels in domestic premises and ,
more importantly, non-nuclear power stations.

2.

Other industrial processes such as manufacturing of sulphuric acid also contribute to the
presence of SO2 in the air.

Ammonia
1.

Ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula NH 3.

2.

It is a colourless gas with a characteristic pungent smell.

3.

Ammonia is a very important compound in industry.

4.

Although in wide use, ammonia is both corrosive and hazardous.

Uses of Ammonia
1.

The uses of ammonia include

a.

manufacturing nitrogenous fertilisers

b.

as cooling agent in refrigerator

c.

to prevent coagulation of latex

d.

as raw material to manufacture nitric acid (Ostwald process)

e.

to make explosive

f.

as cleaning agent to remove grease

Manufacturing Ammonia Haber Process

1.

Ammonia is manufactured in industries through Haber Process.

2.

In Haber process, nitrogen gas, N2 from the air is mixed with hydrogen gas, H2 derived mainly
from natural gas.

3.

The mixture is compressed to a high pressure of 200 atmosphere at a temperature of about

450C.

4.

Iron is used as catalyst to speed up the rate of reaction.

5.

Chemical equation below shows the reaction.

N2 (g) + 3H2 (g) 2NH3 (g)

6.

About 98% of mixture are converted into ammonia, NH 3.

7.

The unreacted nitrogen gas, N2 and hydrogen gas, H2 are recycled and passed back into
the reactor together with the new source of nitrogen gas, N, and hydrogen gas, H2.

Summary

Characteristics Of Ammonia
Characteristics of Ammonia
1.

Ammonia gas can turn a moist red litmus paper to blue.

2.

As an alkali, ammonia can react with acid to form salt and water.
Example
H2SO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
HNO3(aq) + NH3(aq) NH4NO3(aq)
H3PO4(aq) + 3NH3(aq) (NH4)3PO4(aq)

3.

Ammonia dissolve into water to form ammonium and hydroxide ion.

NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-

4.

The hydroxide ion can react with many kinds of positive ion to form precipitate.
Example
Mg2+ + 2OH- Mg(OH)2
Fe2+ + 2OH- Fe(OH)2
Al3+ + 3OH- Al(OH)2

Testing for Ammonia

1.

Ammonia is the only common alkaline gas, so it can be identified with moist red litmus paper
turning blue.

2.

Concentrated ammonia when reacts with concentrated hydrochloric acid produces white
fume.
Ammonia gas + Hydrogen chloride gas ammonium chloride
NH3 (g) + HC1 (g) NH4C1

Manufacturing Nitric Acid Ostwald Process

Introduction
1.

Industrially, nitric acid is made by the catalytic oxidation of ammonia over heated platinum.

2.

Oxidising ammonia produces oxides of nitrogen which can then be dissolved in water to
produce nitric acid.

Reaction
1.

Initially, nitrogen(II) oxide will be formed from the catalytic oxidation of ammonia using the
transition metal platinum.
Ammonia + Oxygen Nitrogen(II) Oxide + Steam
4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

2.

The nitrogen(II) oxide is rapidly cooled before combining with oxygen (from excess air) to
form nitrogen(IV) oxide.
2NO (g) + O2 (g) 2NO2 (g)

3.

The nitrogen(IV) oxide, mixed with excess air, is then allowed to react with water to form nitric
acid.
Nitrogen(IV) Oxide + Oxygen (air) + Water Nitric acid
4NO2 (g) + O2 (g) + 2H2O (1) HNO3 (aq)

Uses of Nitric Acid

1.

Most of the nitric acid made is used to make the all-important fertilisers, such as ammonium
nitrate.

2.

Other uses of nitric acid include making explosive, like nitroglycerine, or TNT (trinitrotoluene),
and making dyes. Modern dyes are azo dyes, which can be formed by the reduction of various
nitro-compounds.

Alloy
1.

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals mixed in a certain percentage.

2.

Most pure metals are weak and soft. The properties of pure metals can be improved by
making them into alloys.

3.

Alloys are made to

a.

increase the hardness of metals.

Example:
Magnalium is made from aluminium and magnesium to improve the hardness of the pure
metals but at the same time, maintaining their lightness.

b.

prevent the corrosion of metals.

Stainless steel which can resist rusting is made by adding carbon, chromium and nickel to
iron.

c.

improve the beauty and lustre of metals.

Copper and antimony added to tin produces pewter, used to make decorative items.

Copper Based Alloy

1.

Examples of copper base alloy are

a.

Cupro-nickel

b.

Bronze

c.

Brass

2. Most copper base alloy has shiny surface

Cupro-nickel
Component: Cu 75%, Ni 25%

Applications: Coins

Bronze
Component: Cu 90%, Sn 10%

Applications: Decorative items, medals, artwork, pots and pans

Brass
Component: Cu 70%, Zn 30%

Applications: Decorative items, electrical appliances, musical instruments, bell, nails, screw, pots

Iron Based Alloy

1.

Examples of iron base alloy are

a.

steel

b.

stainless steel

c.

manganese steel

2. The iron base alloys are usually very hard

Steel
Component: Fe 99%, C 1%

Applications: Vehicles, ships, bridges, buildings

Stainless steel
Component: Fe73%, Cr 18%, Ni 8%, C 1%

Applications: Kitchen appliances, watches, machine parts, knives, forks, spoons

Manganese steel
Component: Fe 85%, Mn 13.8%, C 1.2%

Applications: Helmet, spring

Aluminium Bases Alloy

1.

Examples of aluminium base alloy are

a.

Duralumin

b.

Magnalium

2. Aluminium has low density, hence the density of aluminium base alloy is also low.

Duralumin
Component: Al 95%, Cu 4%, Mg 1%

Applications: Aeroplane parts, electric cables, racing bicycles

Magnalium
Component: Al 70%, Mg 30%

Applications: Tyre rim of racing cars, skeletal body of aeroplanes

Tin Based Alloy

1.

Examples of tin base alloy are

a.

pewter

b.

solder

2. Most tin base alloy has shiny surface and low melting point.

Pewter
Component: Sn 91%, Sb 7%, Cu 2%

Applications: Decorative items, souvenirs

Solder
Component: Sn 50%, Pb 50%

Applications: Welding and soldering work

Welding

(Soldering)

Polymer
Polymer
1.

Polymer is a large molecule that is in the form of a long chain with a high relative molecular
mass (RMM).

2.

It is made up of many smaller units called monomers, which are joined together through a
process called polymerisation. Thus the monomer is actually the repetitive unit of a long
polymer chain.

3.

There are two types of polymers:

a.

Natural polymers

b.

Synthetic polymers

Natural Polymers
1.

These occur naturally in living things. Some examples of natural polymers are:
a.

Natural rubber

b.

Protein in meat, leather, silk, hair and fur

c.

Carbohydrates in cellulose, starch and sugar

2. Natural polymers are made up of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen.

Synthetic Polymers
1.

Synthetic polymer is a polymer that is manufactured in industry from chemical substances

through the polymerisation process.

2.

Examples of synthetic polymers are:

a.

plastics

b.

synthetic fibres

c.

elastomers

2. The two types of polymerisation are:

a.

polymerisation by addition
b.

polymerisation by condensation

Polymerisation

1.

Polymerisation is the process of joining together the large number of monomers to form a
polymer.

2.

There are 2 types of polymerisation process

a.

polylerisation by addition

b.

polylerisation by condensation

Polylerisation by Addition
Polymerisation by addition involves monomers with >C = C< bonding, where the monomers join
together to make a long chain without losing any simple molecules from it.

Polylerisation by Condensation
1.

Polymerisation by condensation involves the elimination of small molecules like water,

methanol, ammonia or hydrogen chloride during the process.

2.

Examples of products of this process are terylene and nylon-66.

Examples of Synthetic Polymers

Examples Of Synthetic Polymers - Plastics

1.

Plastics are light, strong and do not react with any chemical substances, like acids and
alkalis.

2.

They can be made into many shapes and sizes.

3.

They are also good insulators of heat and electricity.

Examples of Plastics:

Polythene (polyethylene)
Structure

Monomer: Ethene
Produced by polymerisation: Addition
Uses: Plastic bags containers and cups
Advantages: light and strong

Polyvinyl chloride or PVC (polychloroethene)

Structure

Monomer: Chloroethene
Produced by polymerisation: Addition
Uses: Raincoat, Pipes to insulate electric wires
Advantages: can be coloured; heat resistant

Polystyrene (polyphenylethene)
Structure

Monomer: Phenylethene
Produced by polymerisation: Addition
Uses: Packaging materials, children toys, ball-point pens, as heat and electric insulators
Advantages: light and strong

Perspex (polymethyl 2-methyl propenoate)

Structure

Monomer: Methyl-2-methylpropenoate
Produced by polymerisation: Addition
Uses: Aeroplane window panes, Lenses, car lamp covers
Advantages: light, strong, translucent, stable towards sunlight

Polypropene
Structure

Monomer: Propene
Produced by polymerisation: Addition

Uses: Plastics, Bottles, plastic tables and chairs

Advantages: strong and light

Teflon (polytetrafluoroethene or PTFE)

Structure

Monomer: Tetrafluoroethene
Produced by polymerisation: Addition
Uses: To make non-sticky pots and pans
Advantages: hard, can withstand high temperatures and corrosives chemicals

Examples Of Synthetic Polymers - Synthetic Rubber

1.

Synthetic rubber is an elastomer or polymer which regains its size original shape after being
pulled or pressed. [Natural rubber is an elastomer too.]

2.

Examples of synthetic rubber are neoprene and styrene-butadiene(SBR).

Neoprene
Structure

Monomer: Chloroprene
Produced by polymerisation: Addition
Uses: to make rubber gloves and to insulate electric wires.

Styrene-butadiene or SBR
Structure

Monomer: Styrene and butan-1,3-diene

Produced by polymerisation: Addition
Uses: to make tyres, soles of shoes and mechanical belts.

Examples Of Synthetic Polymers - Synthetic Fibre

1.

Nylon and terylene are synthetic fibres which undergo the condensation polymerisation
process.

2.

These fibres resemble natural fibres but more resistant to stress and chemicals, and more
long-lasting.

3.

In both cases, water is eliminated during the polymerisation process.

Nylon
Structure

Monomer:
Produced by polymerisation: Condensation
Uses: To make umbrellas, carpets, comb, curtains, nylon string and rope, socks, toothbrush and so
on.

Terylene
Structure

Monomer:
Produced by polymerisation: Condensation
Uses: To make fishing nets, clothes (quick-dry, non-iron), cassette and video tapes.

Issue In Using Synthetic Polymers

1.

Synthetic polymers have multiple uses in daily life because of the following properties:
a. Light and strong
b. Relatively cheap
c.

Withstand corrosion and chemical reaction

d. Withstand action of water

e. Non-flammable
f.

Can be colour easily

g. Easily mould to shape

2. Synthetic polymers are also used to replace natural polymers such as cotton, silk and rubber.
3. However, synthetic polymers cause environmental pollution.
a. Most polymers are not biodegradable . Disposal of polymers has resulted in
environmental.
b. The open burning of plastics gives rise to poisonous and acidic gases like carbon
monoxide, hydrogen chloride and hydrogen cyanide. These are harmful to the
environment as they cause acid rain.
c.

Burning of plastics can also produce carbon dioxide, too much of this gas in the
atmosphere leads to the `greenhouse effect'.

2. These problem can be overcome by the following ways:

a.

Recycling polymers: Plastics can be decomposed by heating them without oxygen at

700C. This process is called pyrolysis. The products of this process are then recycled into new
products.
b.

Inventing biodegradable polymers: Such polymers should be mixed with substances

that can be decomposed by bacteria (to become biodegradable) or light (to become
photodegradable).

Glass And Ceramics

1.

The most important component of glass and ceramics is silica ( silicon(IV) dioxide, SiO 2).

2.

Both glass and ceramic have the following properties:

a.

Hard and brittle

b.

Do not conduct heat electricity

c.

Inactive towards chemical reactions

d.

Weak when pressure is applied

e.

Can be cleaned easily

Glass
1.

It is a mixture of two or more types of metallic silicates but the main component is silicon(IV)
dioxide.

2.

Glass has the following properties:

a.

Transparent and not porous

b.

Inactive chemically

c.

Can be cleaned easily

d.

Good insulators of heat and electricity

e.

Hard but brittle

f.

Can withstand compression but not pressure

Soda lime,glass

Composition: SiO2 70%, Na2O 15%, CaO 10%, Others 4%

Properties:

1.

Low melting point (700C)

2.

Moldable into shapes

3.

Cheap

4.

Breakable

5.

Can withstand high heat

Uses: Glass containers, Glass panes, Mirrors, Lamps and bulbs, Plates and bowls Bottles

Lead glass (crystal)

Composition: SiO2 70%, Na2O 20%, PbO 10%

Properties:

1.

High density and refractive index

2.

Glittering surface

3.

Soft

4.

Low melting point (600C)

Uses: Containers for drinks and fruit, Decorative glass and lamps, Crystal glassware, Lenses for
spectacles

Borosilicate glass (Pyrex)

Composition: SiO2 80%, B2O3 13%, Na2O 4%, AI203 2%

Properties:

1.

Resistant to high heat and chemical reaction

2.

Does not break easily

3.

Allows infra-red rays but not ultra-violet rays

Uses: Glass apparatus in laboratories, Cooking utensils

Fused silicate glass

Composition: SiO2 99%, Other - 1%

Properties:

1.

High melting point (1700C)

2.

Expensive

3.

Allows ultraviolet light to pass through

4.

Difficult to melt or mould into shape

Ceramics
1.

Ceramic is a substance that is made from clay and hardened by heat in a furnace maintained
at a high temperature.

2.

Clay is composed of aluminosilicate with sand and iron(III) oxide as impurities.

3.

Examples of ceramics include

a.

Tiles

b.

Cement

c.

Bricks

d.

porcelain

2. The properties of ceramics include the following:

3. The differences between the properties of ceramics, metals and non-metals are given below

Property
Hardness
Density
Melting point
Resistance to heat
Heat and
Electrical conductivity
Chemical reactions

Comparing Glass And Ceramic

Common Properties of Glass and Ceramics

1.

Hard

2.

Strong but brittle

3.

Chemically inactive

4.

Poor conductor of heat and electricity

5.

High melting point heat resistant

6.

Cannot be compressed easily

Uses Of Glass And Ceramics

Photochromic Glass
1.

Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light.

2.

It darkens in the presence of bright light and lightens when the amount of sunlight lessens.

Conductive Glass
1.

Conducting glass is a type of glass which can conduct electricity. It is obtained by coating a
thin layer of a conducting material around the glass, usually indium tin(IV) oxide.

2.

It is used in the making of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Car Engine Block

1.

When clay is heated with magnesium oxide, the ceramic that is produced has a high
resistance to heat.

2.

This material is used to build the engine blocks in cars as they can withstand high
temperatures.

Superconductors
1.

Superconductors are electrical conductors which have almost zero (0) electrical resistance.
Therefore, this conductor minimises the loss of electrical energy through heat.

2.

Yttrium barium copper oxide is a type of ceramic superconductor

3.

Superconductors are used to make magnets which are light but thousands of times stronger
than the normal magnet.

Composite Materials
1.

Composite materials are substances which contain 2 or more materials that combine to
produce new substances with different physical properties from the original substances.

2.

Some composite materials and their components are:

Reinforced Concrete
Component: Concrete (cement, sand, stones), steel

1.

Ordinary concrete is strong but heavy. Concrete pillars must be big to support the weight.
They take up space and cannot withstand stress for example from earthquakes.

2.

Steel pillars are too expensive and can rust.

3.

Reinforced concrete, containing steel rods in the concrete pillars, can make them stronger
and able to support larger loads. It also does not rust.

Optical Fibre
Component: SiO2, Na2CO3, CaO

1.

This is a fine transparent glass tube that is made of molten glass.

2.

In telecommunications, light has replaced electrons as the transmitter of signals. This light
transmits signals through optical fibre.

3.

Optical fibre is also used in the medical field as

a.

laser to do operation

b.

endoscope to examine the internal organs of patients

Photochromic Glass
Component: glass, AgCl (or AgBr

1.

Photochromic glass is very sensitive to light.

2.

It darkens in the presence of bright light and lightens when the amount of sunlight lessens.

Fibreglass
Component: Fibreglass and polyster resin

1.

Fibre glass is obtained by adding a polyester resin to molten glass. It cannot be compressed
easily and is more tensile than the original materials.

2.

Fibre glass is light, withstands corrosion, can be cast into different shapes, is impervious to
water, not very flammable, not brittle and stronger than even steel.

3.

It is used to make racquets, construction panels, electrical appliances, pipes, and water tanks.

Superconductor
Component: Ytrium oxide (Y2O3), BaCO3, CuO

1.

Superconductors are electrical conductors which have almost zero (0) electrical resistance.
Therefore, this conductor minimises the loss of electrical energy through heat.

2.

Yttrium barium copper oxide is a type of ceramic superconductor

3.

Superconductors are used to make magnets which are light but thousands of times stronger
than the normal magnet.