Heat and Thermodynamics

Introduction

Definitions
!

Internal energy
!
!

Kinetic and potential energy

Joules

Enthalpy and specific enthalpy

!
!
!
!
!

H= U + p x V
Reference to the triple point
Engineering unit
H is the work done in a process
J, J/kg

More Definitions
!

Work
!
!

Standard definition W = f x d
In a gas W = p x V

Heat
!

At one time considered a unique form of

energy
Changes in heat are the same as changes
in enthalpy

Yet more definitions

!

Temperature
!
!
!

Measure of the heat in a body

Heat flows from high to low temperature
SI unit Kelvin

Entropy and Specific Entropy

!
!
!
!
!

Perhaps the strangest physics concept

Notes define it as energy loss
Symbol S
Units kJ/K, kJ/(kgk)
Entropy increases mean less work can be done by
the system

Sensible and Latent Heat

!

Heat transfers change kinetic or

potential energy or both
Temperature is a measure of kinetic
energy
Sensible heat changes kinetic (and
maybe potential energy)
Latent heat changes only the potential
energy.

Sensible Heat
Q = m c (t f ti )
!
!
!

Q is positive for transfers in

c is the specific heat capacity
c has units kJ/(kgC)

Latent Heat
Q = m lv
Q = m lm
!

Heat to cause a change of state

(melting or vaporization)
Temperature is constant

Enthalpy Changes
Q = m h
!

Enthalpy changes take into account

both latent and sensible heat changes

Thermodynamic Properties of
H2O
Temperature
C

Sensible heat

Latent heat

100C Saturation temp

Saturated
liquid

Saturated
steam
Wet steam

Subcooled
liquid
Specific enthalpy

Superheated
Steam

Pressure Effects

Laws of Thermodynamics
!

First Law
!

Energy is conserved

Second Law
!

!
!

It is impossible to convert all of the heat

supplied to a heat engine into work
Heat will not naturally flow from cold to hot
Disorder increases

Heat Transfer
Conduction

Radiation

Q A T

A
Q = k T
l

4
T1

T2
l

More Heat Transfer

Convection

Mass Flow

Q = h A T

Condensation

Latent heat transfer

from vapor

Daltons Law
If we have more than one gas in a
container the pressure is the sum of
the pressures associated with an
individual gas.

Pc = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...

Condensing Heat Exchanger

Steam
In

P=Psaturation
T=Tsaturation

Coolant
In

Coolant
Out

Water
Out

Non-Condensables in Heat
Exchanger
Steam
In

P=Psaturation+Pg
T=Tsaturation

Coolant
In

Coolant
Out

Condenser Appears
Subcooled
Water
Out

For You to do

HTS Normal Operation

Reactor Thermal Power

QHT

Steam to
turbine

Boiler

Feedwater
2nd stage Reheat
drains

Preheater

Boiler
blowdown
QP

HT pump

Bleed cooler

Piping
loses

Feed & bleed

Fuel
bundle/
HTS

QL

End shield/shield tank

QM

Moderator

QSC

Reactor Power and T

!

T is an indicator of reactor power if

boiling is not taking place

Q = m c T
!
!

At boiling T stops changing

In boiling channels total enthalpy
increase must be calculated

Fuel Safety
!
!

No overpowering
Adequate cooling

Fuel Heat Transfer

Nucleate
boiling

Partial film boiling

Saturated
(bulk) boiling

Log (heat flux)

Subcooled
boiling

Single
phase
convection

Full film boiling (dryout)

Critical heat flux

E
B

Tcoolant = Tsat

Tsheath = Tsat

Log (Tsheath Tcoolant)

Two new terms

!

Critical Heat Flux

!
!

CHF
The maximum heat flux nucleate boiling
can transfer

Dryout
!

When dry patches of vapor exist on the

fuel sheath

Uniform Heating
Tsheath surface
Tsat
Tcoolant

Coolant
Fuel element
Singlephase
convection
Inlet

Subcooled
nucleate
boiling

Saturated nucleate (bulk) boiling

Dryout
Outlet

Factors Affecting CHF

!
!
!

Coolant Sub-cooling
Vapour Quality
Coolant Velocity

Actual and Critical Heat Flux

Channel power

A
inlet

Bundles in dryout

CH
F

eat
h
l
a
ctu

x
flu

Channel distance

outlet

Critical Channel Power

!
!

!
!

CCP
The minimum channel power that gives
dryout
Varies with coolant conditions
Varies with flux shape

Boiling and Flow

Pressure MPa(a)

10.4

Boiling mode

10.2

Boiling starts

10.0
9.8

Non-boiling mode

9.6

Inlet

Channel position

Outlet

Temperature Profile
2800

Fuel melting point

2400

Temperature, C

2000

1600

1200
Fuel
sheath

Fuel
sheath

800
Coolant

Coolant

400
Fuel pellet

More Temperature Profiles

Fuel melting
point

2800
Overrating
without dryout

Possible film of
gaseous fission
products (on LOCA)

2400

Temperature, C

2000

Overrating
and dryout

1600
Nominal rating,
normal cooling

1200

Light load
and dryout

Vapour film
due to dryout

800

400
Fuel pellet

Coolant

Fuel
sheath

Fuel
sheath

Coolant

Bad things to do to fuel

Low HTS Pressure

a) Temperature profile
Inlet

Outlet
Coolant temperature at
normal pressure

Coolant temperature

Tsat at normal pressure

Tsat at reduced pressure

Coolant
temperature at
reduced
pressure

Channel position

b) Heat flux profile

Inlet

Outlet

Heat flux

CHF at normal pressure

CHF at reduced
pressure

eat
al h
Actu

flux

Channel position

Reduced Flow
a) Temperature profile

Coolant temperature

Inlet

Outlet

Saturation temperature

Reduced flow

Normal flow

Channel position

b) Heat flux profile

Inlet

Heat flux

CHF at normal flow

CHF at reduced
flow
al h
Actu

fl
eat

ux

Dryout zone

Channel position

Outlet

Inlet High Temperature

a) Temperature profile
Inlet

Outlet

Coolant temperature

Saturation temperature
High inlet
temperature
Normal inlet
temperature

Channel position

b) Heat flux profile

Inlet

Outlet

Heat flux

CHF at normal inlet temperature

CHF at high inlet

temperature
al
Actu

t
hea

flux

Channel position

Flux Tilt to Outlet

a) Temperature profile
Inlet

Outlet
Normal flux

Coolant temperature

Saturation temperature

Skewed flux

Channel position

b) Heat flux profile

Heat flux

Inlet

CHF at skewed flux

Dryout
zone

CHF at normal flux

al h
orm

eat

flux

x
at flu
d he
e
w
e
Sk

Channel position

Outlet

Flux Tilt to Inlet

a) Temperature profile
Inlet

Outlet

Coolant temperature

Saturation temperature

Normal flux

Skewed flux

Channel position

b) Heat flux profile

Inlet

Heat flux

CHF at skewed flux

h
m al
Nor

eat

flux

lu x
eat f
ed h
w
e
k
S

Channel position

Outlet
CHF at normal flux

Excessive Channel Power

a) Temperature profile
Inlet

Outlet

Coolant temperature

Saturation temperature
Excessive
channel power
Normal channel
power

Channel position

b) Heat flux profile

Inlet

Outlet

CHF at normal channel power

Heat flux

Dryout zone
CHF at excessive
channel power
l he
rma
No

lux
at f

Excessive
heat flux
Channel position

For You to do

HTS Components

HTS Feed & Bleed

Bleed
Condenser
!

Non-condensable
gases
!
!
!

Reduce heat transfer

Steam pressure rises
Increased reflux
cooling
Vessel appears sub
cooled

Degassing Orifice

Pressurizer Control

Boiler Shrink and Swell

!

Boilers are probably more correctly

called steam generators

Steady State Shrink and Swell

Rise in
Level
Rise in
Level

Zero Load

Low Load

Full Load

Transient Shrink and Swell

!
!

Shrink and swell from short term effects

Reactor power boiler level
!

Boiling increases

Boiler Pressure boiler level

!
!

Water flashes to steam

Steam expands

Effects on the Downcomer

!

Water flow into the

annulus increases
Water flow out of
the annulus
decreases
Instrumentation
sees a level increase

Cyclone
Separators

Downcomer
Annulus
Expansion
Forces

Boiler Level Control

Swell
Margin
Full Power Level

Constant Level

Swell
Margin
Shrink
Margin

Fixed Level Control

Shrink
Margin

Zero Power Level

Ramped Level Control

Improper Level
!

Low
!

If tubes are uncovered

!
!
!

Reduce heat transfer

Time in loss of feedwater events is reduced
Reactor power automatically reduced
!

Setback or stepback and finally a trip

High
!
!
!

High vapor content in steam

Slugs of water to turbine
Turbine trip

Boiler Pressure
!

!
!

Boiler pressure is the key parameter in

matching heat source to sink
Reactor Leading
Reactor Lagging

Warm-up and Cool-down

!

Heat transfer in the boiler

Q = U A Tm
!

A low power levels the HTS is about the

same temperature as the boiler

Rx for Warm-up
!

!
!

Put some energy into HTS from pumps

and reactor power
Increase boiler pressure
Boiler temperature follows (saturated
vessel)
HTS temperature follows that

Rx for Cool-down
!
!
!

!
!

Heat sources are pumps and decay heat

Boiler pressure is ramped down
Steam energy released is greater that
energy input
Down go temperatures
Limit around 130-150C due to huge
volume of steam required

Ideal Temperature Ramps

!
!

2.8C a minute
This rate minimizes
!
!
!

Thermal stress
Probability of delayed hydride cracking
Feedwater loss

For You to do