PESTICIDES

Pesticides are substances meant for attracting, seducing, and then destroying, or
mitigating any pest. They are a class of biocide. The most common use of pesticides is
as plant protection products (also known as crop protection products), which in general
protect plants from damaging influences such as weeds, plant diseases or insects. In
general, a pesticide is a chemical or biological agent (such as a virus, bacterium,
antimicrobial, or disinfectant) that deters, incapacitates, kills, or otherwise discourages
pests.
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has defined pesticide as: any substance
or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest,
including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals,
causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage,
transport, or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, wood and wood products or
animal feedstuffs, or substances that may be administered to animals for the control of
insects, arachnids, or other pests in or on their bodies. The term includes substances
intended for use as a plant growth regulator, defoliant, desiccant, or agent for thinning
fruit or preventing the premature fall of fruit. Also used as substances applied to crops
either before or after harvest to protect the commodity from deterioration during storage
and transport.

Uses
Pesticides are used to control organisms that are considered to be harmful. For
example,
(i)they are used to kill mosquitoes that can transmit potentially deadly diseases
like West Nile virus, yellow fever, and malaria.
(ii) They also kill bees, wasps or ants that can cause allergic reactions.
Insecticides can protect animals from illnesses that can be caused by
parasites such as fleas
(iii) Pesticides can prevent sickness in humans that could be caused
by moldy food or diseased produce.
(iv) Pesticides are used in grocery stores and food storage facilities to
manage rodents and insects that infest food such as grain
(v) Pesticides can save farmers' money by preventing crop losses to insects and
other pests

Health effects
Pesticides may cause acute and delayed health effects in people who are
exposed. Pesticide exposure can cause a variety of adverse health effects,
ranging from simple irritation of the skin and eyes to more severe effects such as
affecting the nervous system, mimicking hormones causing reproductive
problems, and also causing cancer.

Pesticides can cause

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Cancer
Brain Damage
Birth Defects
Respiratory Disorders
Organ Failure
Skin Irritation
Endocrine Complications
Infertility and Sterility

Organophosphate
pesticides
Organophosphates affect the nervous system by disrupting the enzyme that
regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Most organophosphates are
insecticides. They were developed during the early 19th century, but their effects
on insects, which are similar to their effects on humans. Some are very
poisonous

Carbamate pesticides
Carbamate pesticides affect the nervous system by disrupting an enzyme that
regulates acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. The enzyme effects are usually
reversible. There are several subgroups within the carbamates.

Pyrethroid pesticides
They were developed as a synthetic version of the naturally occurring pesticide
pyrethrin, which is found in chrysanthemums. They have been modified to
increase their stability in the environment. Some synthetic pyrethroids are toxic to
the nervous system.

Environmental effect
Pesticide use raises a number of environmental concerns. Over
98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a
destination other than their target species, including non-target
species, air, water and soil. Pesticide drift occurs when pesticides
suspended in the air as particles are carried by wind to other
areas, potentially contaminating them. Pesticides are one of the

causes of water pollution, and some pesticides are persistent

organic pollutants and contribute to soil contamination.

The pesticide cycle

Benefits
1. Controlling pests and plant disease vectors

 Improved crop/livestock yields

Improved crop/livestock quality
Invasive species controlled
2. Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms
Human lives saved and suffering reduced
Animal lives saved and suffering reduced
Diseases contained geographically
3. Controlling organisms that harm other human activities and structures
Drivers view unobstructed
Tree/brush/leaf hazards prevented
Wooden structures protected

DDT
(dichlorodiphenyltrichloro
ethane)
DDT is a colorless, crystalline, tasteless and almost odorless organochloride
known for its insecticidal properties. DDT has been formulated in almost every
conceivable form, including solutions in xylene or petroleum distillates,
emulsifiable concentrates, water-wettable powders, granules, aerosols, smoke
candles and charges for vaporizers and lotions.
DDT does not occur naturally, but is produced by the reaction of chloral

(CCl3CHO) with chlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) in the presence of sulfuric acid as a

catalyst. DDT was first synthesized in 1874 by Othmar Zeidler under the
supervision of Adolf von Baeyer

Mechanism of insecticide
action
In insects it opens sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire
spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death. Insects with certain
mutations in their sodium channel gene are resistant to DDT and other similar
insecticides. DDT resistance is also conferred by up-regulation of genes
expressing cytochrome P450 in some insect species,[19] as greater quantities of
some enzymes of this group accelerate metabolism of the toxin into inactive
metabolites.

Uses
DDT is the best-known of several chlorine containing pesticides. DDT was used
extensively during World War II by the Allies to control the insect vectors of
typhus nearly eliminating the disease in many parts of Europe. In the South
Pacific, it was sprayed aerially for malaria and dengue fever control with

spectacular effects. In 1945, it was made available to farmers as an agricultural

insecticide and it played a role in the final elimination of malaria in Europe
and North America.

Environmental impact
DDT is a persistent organic pollutant that is readily adsorbed to soils and
sediments, which can act both as sinks and as long-term sources of exposure
contributing to terrestrial organisms. Due to hydrophobic properties, in aquatic
ecosystems DDT and its metabolites are absorbed by aquatic organisms and
adsorbed on suspended particles, leaving little DDT dissolved in the water itself.
Its breakdown products and metabolites, DDE and DDD, are also highly
persistent and have similar chemical and physical properties.

Degradation of DDT to form DDE (by elimination of HCl, left) and DDD (by reductive dechlorination, right)

Effects on wildlife and

eggshell thinning
DDT is toxic to a wide range of living organisms, including marine animals such
as crayfish, Daphnis, sea shrimp and many species of fish. DDT, through its
metabolite DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene), caused eggshell thinning
and resulted in severe population declines in multiple North American and

European bird of prey species. Eggshell thinning lowers the reproductive rate of
certain bird species by causing egg breakage and embryo deaths. DDE related
eggshell thinning is considered a major reason for the decline of the bald eagle.
However, different groups of birds vary greatly in their sensitivity to these
chemicals. Birds of prey, waterfowl, and song birds are more susceptible to
eggshell thinning than chickens and related species.

Effects on human health

DDT is an endocrine disruptor.DDT cause abnormalities of liver function, skin
(chloracne), and the nervous system. Pregnant women exposed to the
insecticide DDT are much more likely to give birth prematurely. DDT can
increase a woman's chance of breast cancer. Concentration of 6-10 mg/kg leads
to such symptons as headache, nausea, vomiting,confusion, and tremors.

Herbicides
Herbicides, also commonly known as weed killers, are pesticides used to kill
unwanted plants.[1] Selective herbicides kill specific targets, while leaving the
desired crop relatively unharmed. Some of these act by interfering with the
growth of the weed and are often synthetic mimics of natural plant hormones.
Herbicides used to clear waste ground, industrial sites, railways and railway
embankments are not selective and kill all plant material with which they come
into contact. Smaller quantities are used in forestry, pasture systems, and
management of areas set aside as wildlife habitat.

First herbicides

2,4-D, the first chemical herbicide, was discovered during the Second World War.

Examples of herbicides
Sodium chlorate

i)Sodium chlorate(NaClO3) is used as a non-selective herbicide. It is

consideredphytotoxic to all green plant parts. It can also kill through root absorption.
Sodium chlorate may be used to control a variety of plants.

Sodium chlorate is also used as a defoliant and desiccant for:

Cotton

Safflower

Corn

Flax

Peppers

Soybeans

Grain sorghum

Southern peas

Dry beans

Rice

Sunflowers

Sodium chlorate(NaClO3) is used in combination with atrazine, it increases the

persistence of the effect. If used in combination with 2,4-D, performance is
improved. Sodium chlorate has a soil sterilant effect. Mixing with other herbicides
in aqueous solution is possible to some extent, so long as they are not
susceptible to oxidation.

Toxicity in humans
Due to its oxidative nature, sodium chlorate can be very toxic if ingested. The
oxidative effect on hemoglobin leads to methaemoglobin formation, which is
followed by denaturation of the globin protein and a cross-

linking oferythrocyte membrane proteins with resultant damage to the membrane

enzymes.

Sodium arsenite
ii) Sodium arsenite(Na3AsO3) usually refers to the inorganic compound. Also
called sodium meta-arsenite, it is the sodium salt of arsenous acid. Sodium
arsenite also ) Na3AsO3, called sodium ortho-arsenite.[1] The compounds are
colourless solids. It is used as an herbicide.
It is primarily used as a pesticide.

Health Effects
Sodium arsenite can be inhaled or absorbed through the skin.
Along with its known carcinogenic and teratogenic effects, contact
with the substance can yield symptoms such as skin irritation,
burns, itching, thickened skin, rash, loss of pigment, poor
appetite, a metallic or garlic taste, stomach pain, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, decreased blood pressure, and
headache. Severe acute poisoning may lead to nervous system
damage resulting in weakness, poor coordination, or pins and
needles sensations, eventual paralysis, and death.

Health and
environmental effects of
herbicides
Herbicides have widely variable toxicity. In addition to acute toxicity from
occupational exposure levels. Some herbicides cause a range of health effects
ranging from skin rashes to death. Herbicides can cause
1. Endocrine Disruptors
2. Cancer
3.liver disease

Ecological effects
Commercial herbicide use generally has negative impacts on bird populations,
although the impacts are highly variable and often require field studies to predict

accurately

Organic herbicides
organic herbicide is one that can be used in a farming enterprise that has been
classified as organic. Depending on the application, they may be less effective
than synthetic herbicides and are generally used along with cultural and
mechanical weed control practices.

Sulfonylurea
herbicides
The following sulfonylureas have been commercialized for weed control:
amidosulfuron, azimsulfuron, bensulfuron-methyl, chlorimuron-ethyl,
ethoxysulfuron, flazasulfuron, flupyrsulfuron-methyl-sodium, halosulfuron-methyl,
imazosulfuron, nicosulfuron, oxasulfuron, primisulfuron-methyl, pyrazosulfuronethyl, rimsulfuron, sulfometuron-methyl Sulfosulfuron, terbacil, bispyribacsodium, cyclosulfamuron, and pyrithiobac-sodium, Nicosulfuron triflusulfuron
methyl, and chlorsulfuron are broad-spectrum herbicides that kill plants by
inhibiting the enzyme acetolactate synthase.

Fungicide
These are the chemicals used to stop the growth of fungi and check plant
diseases. As fungi are the plants which do not contain chlorophyll, therefore they
cannot use solar energy for the synthesis of their food. hence they depend upon
the plants and living organisms. As a result the growth of main plant is retarded.

Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses

of yield, quality, and profit.

Natural fungicides
Plants and other organisms have chemical defenses that give them an advantage
against microorganisms such as fungi. Some of these compounds can be used as
fungicides:
Tea tree oil
Cinnamaldehyde
Cinnamon essential oil
Citronella oil
Jojoba oil
Neem oil
Oregano oil
Rosemary oil
Monocerin
Milk
Ampelomyces quisqualis AQ10, CNCM I-807

Insecticide
An insecticide is a substance used to kill insects. They include ovicides and
larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. Insecticides are
used in agriculture, medicine, industry and by consumers. Insecticides are
claimed to be a major factor behind the increase in agricultural 20th century's
productivity.
The most common insecticide are the chlorinated hydrocarbon like DDT, BHC.
As they are not much soluble in water they stay on the soil for long time and
show their activity.
But their disadvantage of this property is that they are absorbed by the soil and
contaminate root crop like raddish, carrot etc.

Biological insecticides
Many plants exude substances to repel insects. Premier examples are
substances activated by the enzyme myrosinase. This enzyme
converts glucosinolates to various compounds that are toxic
to herbivorous insects. One product of this enzyme is allyl isothiocyanate, the
pungent ingredient in horseradish sauces.

Biosynthesis of antifeedants by the action of myrosinase.

The myrosinase is released only upon crushing the flesh of horseradish. Since
allyl isothiocyanate is harmful to the plant as well as the insect, it is stored in the
harmless form of the glucosinolate, separate from the myrosinase enzyme.
In general, tree rosin is considered a natural insecticide. To be specific, the
production of oleoresin by conifer species is a component of the defense
response against insect attack and fungal pathogen infection.

Environmental Effects
Some insecticides kill or harm other creatures in addition to those they are
intended to kill. For example, birds may be poisoned when they eat food that was
recently sprayed with insecticides or when they mistake an insecticide granule on
the ground for food and eat it. Insecticides can kill bees and may be a cause
of pollinator decline, the loss of bees that pollinate plants.