Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Structural Openings and the Localization of Ore Bodies

Eric P. Nelson1, Leandro Echavarria 1, and Jonathan Saul Caine2
1
2

Dept. of Geology/Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines

U.S. Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado

Abstract
Structural openings form in rocks by brittle, dilatant deformation over numerous scales and
many types of ore deposits are localized by the flow of hydrothermal fluids through such
openings in structurally permeable rocks.

Structural permeability refers to transient

enhancement of fluid flux through strain-related openings. The distribution, geometry, density,
and orientation of ore bodies in structural openings are controlled by two primary factors: the far
and near field stresses (i.e., the far stress field is not always what produces structures in the
near field) and the mechanical properties of rock.

Other driving forces include localized

changes in stress related to fluid pressure and heat transfer within a deforming rock mass. We
discuss how stress and internal mechanical properties control the formation of structural
openings, and present a classification of geological structures that host ore bodies as a result of
the interactions between stress, strain, fluid flow, heat transfer, and chemical reaction.
When stress controls the orientation and kinematics of faults and fractures in the absence of
pre-existing weaknesses, permeability anisotropy can develop with k max parallel to the
intermediate principal stress direction (2). In this case ore shoot orientation is perpendicular to
the fault slip vector and can be predicted by kinematic analysis. Such ore shoots form due to
non-planar fault geometry where the orientation of the fault zone approaches parallelism with
the plane containing 1-2.

However, when structural openings form along pre-existing

weaknesses, ore shoot orientation cannot always be predicted by kinematic analysis.

Variations in mechanical properties of rock undergoing deformation cause variations in
rheological response due to lithological changes, temperature gradients, and pre-existing
weaknesses such as faults, joints, and bedding.

For example, brittle layers preferentially

develop vein arrays and boudin necks, and can cause developing structures that transect them
to be refracted from their initial path. Fluid pressure variations also can affect rheological
behavior and promote brittle failure, but are not easily identified or mapped.
The principal geologic structures that host ore bodies include fault and shear zones, joints and
joint arrays, structural intersections, folds, strain shadows, igneous-related structures, and

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

collapse structures. Further, the geometry of these principal structures can range from linear to
planar to irregular, and can include en echelon, conjugate, intersecting, and stockwork
geometries. Because we can classify ore bodies based on the types of geological structures
discussed above and the variations that naturally occur from material property heterogeneity,
exploration for hydrothermal ore deposits should include analysis of geologic structure and
evolution, rheological variations, pre-existing weakness, and fault kinematics to evaluate
structural controls on localization of ore bodies.
Introduction

The knowledge that geological structures host metal deposits is very old, and dates back to the
time of the ancient Greeks (Agricola, 1556). This knowledge has aided mineral exploration for
many years in a general sense and, as Guilbert & Park (1986) noted, Detailed studies of
structure are essential in exploration, and they unquestionably have led to more discoveries of
ore than any other approach.

Structural openings formed from crustal deformation control

hydrothermal fluid flow during and after deformation coupled with mineralization, and thus can
control the location, geometry and orientation of many ore deposits.
Structural openings form in rocks by brittle, dilatant deformation over numerous scales and
many types of ore deposits are localized by the flow of hydrothermal fluids through such
openings in structurally permeable rocks. The distribution, geometry, density, and orientation of
ore bodies in structural openings are controlled by two primary factors: the far and near field
stresses and the mechanical properties of rock. Other driving forces include localized changes
in stress related to fluid pressure and heat transfer within a deforming rock mass.
Examples of structurally controlled upper crustal ore deposits are epithermal precious metal and
polymetallic vein systems and porphyry systems (Cu Au, Mo) (McKinstry, 1955; Richards &
Tosdal, 2001). Examples of structurally controlled deposits formed at deeper crustal levels
include the mesothermal (or orogenic) shear-hosted deposits typical of the Archean cratons,
such as those in the Abitibi belt, Canada (Robert & Poulsen, 1997) and in the Kalgoorlie district,
Western Australia (Solomon & Groves, 2000), and the Bendigo saddle reef deposit in Victoria,
Australia (Cox et al., 1991). Common expressions of ore in structural openings are veins and
breccias. Veins are mineral-filled fractures, and breccias are fractured rock in which fracturebounded blocks have rotated.

The geometry of veins can range from linear to planar to

irregular, and can include en echelon, conjugate, intersecting, and stockwork geometries.

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Breccias also can have a wide range of geometries, but linear and tabular geometries are most
common.
Because structural openings are important in the formation of many ore deposits, especially in
Cordilleran-type deposits formed in the upper crust, we review and focus this paper on how
stress and the mechanical properties of rock control the formation of structural openings, and
how structural openings localize hydrothermal ore deposits. Because past classifications of
veins and other structural openings contain many old terms and ambiguous mixtures of
categories, we propose a new working classification of structural openings that is based on
specific geologic structures that can be linked to stress and rock properties. We hope our
proposal will lead to a more comprehensive and useful classification system. Lastly, we briefly
discuss structural methods that can aid the explorationist in predicting the location and
orientation of ore shoots formed in structural openings.
Structural Permeability
Structural permeability refers to transient enhancement of fluid flux through strain-related
openings (Sibson, 1996). Such permeability is paramount in the development of many ore
deposits that are produced by focused flow of relatively large volumes of hydrothermal fluids.
Structural permeability typically forms in the upper, brittle crust where macroscopic fault and
fracture systems are common, but also can form in the more ductile deeper crust in hydraulic
fracture arrays, if fluid pressures are high enough. Fluid flow in faults and shear zones is
localized in areas of highest fracture aperture and fracture density, including breccia zones, and
commonly form in core and damage zones associated with fault jogs, bends, and splays (see
fig. 1; Cox et al., 2001). Fluid flow in folded sequences may be concentrated in hinge zones, as
illustrated by the saddle reef veins in the Bendigo gold fields, Victoria, Australia (fig. 2).
Figure
1.
Geometry
of
contractional and
dilatant jogs (a)
and contractional
and
dilational
splays at fault tips
(b). Modified from
Cox et al. (2001).

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Mineralization related to hydrothermal

fluid flow occurs by mineral precipitation in
structural openings and/or by replacement
in wall rocks adjacent to structural
openings. Veins, or mineral filled cracks,
and most breccias represent the physical
evidence of past hydrothermal fluid flow
in rocks.

Because mineral filling of

fractures can be rapid relative to the life

span of hydrothermal systems, sustained
Figure 2. Schematic cross section representing goldquartz vein systems associated with upright fold
structures in the Victoria gold fields, Australia (modified
from Cox et al., 1991).

fluid flow occurs only in active structures

where permeability is repeatedly renewed
or held open by the local stress field

(Sibson et al., 1975; Cox et al., 2001). Repeated fracturing may occur with fluctuations in fluid
pressure related to seismic cycles along faults and shear zones (Sibson, 2001) or from
fluctuations in fluid pressure related to crystallization and venting of magma chambers. Sibson
(2001) has shown that cyclic accumulation and release of shear stress on seismogenic
structures leads to significant fluid redistribution during both coseismic and aftershock phases.
Magmatic fluid pressure fluctuations have been interpreted from unidirectional solidification
textures (Shannon et al., 1982), from fluid inclusion studies (e.g., Graney & Kessler, 1986), and
are inferred from banded vein textures (fig. 3) in volcanic-hosted vein deposits which typically
form above buried, episodically-venting plutons.
Stress controls on structural openings
The localization, geometry, and orientation of structural openings are strongly influenced by the
orientations and relative magnitudes of mechanical stresses in hydrothermal systems. These
stresses may be far-field stresses (regional scale) or near-field stresses (district, mine, or
mesoscopic scale). The far-field stress is not always what produces structures in the near field.
For example, regional stress fields may be locally rotated by the effects of non-planar faults,
proximity to intrusive bodies, bedding rotation on fold limbs, etc.
The types of fractures that form in hydrothermal systems can be controlled by the magnitude of
the differential stress (1-3) and by the effect of fluid pressure (fig. 4). Fluid pressure reduces
the normal stress on planes and thus acts to promote sliding and opening of fractures. This is

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Figure 3. Examples of banded veins in epithermal deposits. A. Martha Hill gold deposit, New Zealand;
B. Martha Hill deposit, lens cap for scale lower center; C. Ares deposit, Per; D. Caylloma deposit, Per.

illustrated by a negative shift of the state-of-stress circle on a Mohr diagram towards tangency
with the Mohr-Coulomb failure envelop. In isotropic homogeneous rock, stress controls the
orientation and type of fractures formed during brittle deformation, and three classes of
macroscopic fractures may form (fig. 4; Sibson, 2001, Cox et al., 2001). A high differential
stress leads to formation of shear fractures, an intermediate differential stress leads to formation
of hybrid extension-shear fractures, and a low differential stress leads to formation of extension
fractures. However, as shown by Sibson (2001), two or three of these fracture types typically
form together in some form of fault-fracture mesh (fig. 5). In fact, many faults contain veins, and
thus have a component of opening strain locally. Such veins can be considered fault veins
and can be recognized either by their presence in faults, or by slickenlines on the vein margin.
Typically, fault veins form along faults where the orientation (strike and dip) of the fault locally
approaches the 1- 2 plane, such as along dilational fault jogs and horsetail splays, or wing
cracks (fig. 1).

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Figure 4. Mohr diagram

showing three possible
states of stress leading to
extensional
fractures
(ext.), hybrid extensionalshear fractures (e-s.), and
shear
fractures
(sh.).
Orientation
relative
to
principal stress axes of
conjugate sets of shear
and hybrid fractures, and
of extensional fractures is
shown
to
the
right
(modified from Cox et al.,
2001 & Sibson, 2001).

Pure extension fractures may be recognized if crystal fibers filling veins are perpendicular to the
vein wall. Not all veins have fibrous crystals however. Pure extension fractures may also be
inferred if they bear an angular relationship (generally between 30-45) to a mechanically
related fault as predicted by the Riedel model (fig. 6, 7a; Wilcox et al., 1973; Davis & Reynolds,
1996, p.367). Hybrid fractures may be recognized if crystal fibers filling veins are oblique to the
vein wall (fig. 7b). En echelon vein arrays are also a form of hybrid fractures as individual veins
in the array are extension fractures, but these usually form in a zone of shear (figs. 7d, 8).

Figure 5. A. Vein mesh consisting of conjugate en echelon quartz veins and faults (lower right), near
Banff, Canada. 1 approximately horizontal. B. Types of stress-controlled vein meshes in relation to
triaxial stress field. Faults have shear couple arrows, extension and hybrid extension-shear fractures
have hatched, stylolites are horizontal wiggly lines. From Sibson (2001).

Shear fractures are essentially faults or small-displacement faults (Marshak et al., 1982) and
can be recognized by displacement across the fault or by slickenlines on the fault surface, or
because they are oriented in a manner that is mechanically compatible with the master fault

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

zone (Sibson, 1994; Caine & Forster, 1999). Note, however, that slickenlines on fault veins may
form during a post-mineralization stress field unrelated to the stress field active during
mineralization.
Stress,

and

therefore

structural

openings, can also control the

emplacement of igneous plutons,
dikes,

and

sills,

associated veins.

as

well

as

On a relatively

large scale, stress may control the

location and orientation of plutons
along

fault

jogs,

bends,

and

intersections (Tosdal & Richards,

2001).

Such plutons ultimately

become the hosts for porphyry-style

mineralization, and also are the
Figure 6. Riedel model of subsidiary fractures associated
with sinistral shear zone. T = extension fracture, R, R, and P
are shear fractures. Modified from Davis & Reynolds (1996).

vein systems.

source

of

hydrothermal

fluids

required for formation of associated

Examples include the structurally-controlled porphyry systems, such as

Chuquimata in Chile (Ossandon et al., 2001) and some of the Arizona copper porphyries
(Rehrig & Hendrick, 1972; Hayes & Titley, 1980; Hendrick & Titley, 1982). On a smaller scale
(deposit scale), stress may control the orientation of stockwork vein systems that comprise
porphyry mineralized deposits (fig. 7c).

In some cases veins have a preferred orientation

related to the regional or far field stress. Examples include many of the Arizona porphyries such
as Morenci, Silver Bell, Ajo, and those in the Superior-Globe-Miami district (Hendrick & Titley,
1982).

In other cases, radial and concentric veins form in an intrusion-centered, centro-

symmetric pattern.

Examples include San Juan copper porphyry deposit (Safford district),

Arizona (fig. 9; Hendrick & Titley, 1982), and the Henderson Mo-porphyry deposit, Colorado
(Coe, 1995; Coe & Nelson, 1997).
Another example of structural control on magma emplacement comes from the Voiseys Bay
magmatic Ni-Cu-Co sulfide deposit in Labrador in which mineralization occurred along
structures that focused magmatic flow (Evans-Lamswood, 2000). In this deposit ore sulfides
are preferentially concentrated in traps where physical irregularities and changes in magma
conduit morphology favored the precipitation, capture, and preservation of sulfides as a result of
changes in the velocity and viscosity of the magma.

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Figure 7. Vein types and features. A. en echelon extension veins formed along margin of normal
fault, New Zealand; B. quartz crystal fibers oblique to vein wall in en echelon hybrid shear-extension
vein array, Ireland; C. calcite-iron oxide veins in stockwork, Silver Bell mine, Arizona; D. en echelon
quartz vein array cutting older quartz vein, Tierra del Fuego, Chile; E. extension veins formed in
dilational fault jog along sinistral fault-vein, New Zealand.

When stress controls the orientation and kinematics of faults and fractures in the absence of
pre-existing weaknesses, permeability anisotropy can develop with the direction of maximum
permeability (k max ) parallel to the intermediate principal stress direction (2) (fig. 10, 11; Sibson,
2001). In this case ore shoot orientation is perpendicular to the fault slip vector and can be
predicted by kinematic analysis. Such ore shoots form due to non-planar fault geometry where
the orientation of the fault plane approaches parallelism with the plane containing 1-2. An
example comes from the Arcata volcanic-hosted epithermal Ag-Au vein system in Per. This
vein system formed in normal faults, and slickenline data were used by Echavarria & Nelson
(2002) to model the principal stress directions and to show that the slip line is essentially
perpendicular to the ore shoot (fig. 10, 12).

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Figure 8. Geometry and features of en echelon vein arrays. Note slickenlines may form on individual
vein walls through book-shelf sliding, and offset of individual veins is opposite that of the overall array.

When structural openings form along pre-existing weaknesses or due to fault undulations
unrelated to the stress field (fig. 13), ore shoot orientation cannot always be predicted by
kinematic analysis. In this case, the orientation of the ore shoot is controlled by the orientation
of pre-existing undulations on the fault surface, and not by the orientation of the slip line.

Figure 9. San Juan mine

area,
Safford
district,
Arizona illustrating a centrosymmetric
pattern
of
mineralized
veins
surrounding the San Juan
pluton
(modified
from
Hendrick & Titley, 1982).

Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Figure 10. Geometry of stress-controlled plumbing

conduits relative to fault slip line (shown by shear
couple arrows) and principal stress axes. Curved
arrows illustrate path of hydrothermal fluids.

Figure 11.
En echelon vein array
illustrating kinematic control on ore shoot
rake. Slip line indicated by shear couple
arrows. Note that the long axis of the ore
shoot (parallel to 2) is perpendicular to
the slip line.

Rheological controls on structural openings

Rock rheology is a critical control on where some structural openings develop. Rock rheology is
affected by the bulk composition of rocks, by the inherent structural weaknesses in rocks
(bedding, cleavage and foliation, and pre-existing fractures and faults), and is also affected by
temperature and confining pressure conditions at the time of mineralization. Fluid pressure
variations also can affect rheological behavior and promote brittle failure, but are not easily
identified or mapped.

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Figure 12. A. Lower hemisphere equal area nets showing vein and slickenline data from Arcata system,
modeled and contoured tension (T) and compression (P) axes, and summary of modeled stress axes
(1= 1, 2=2, and 3=3 ). B. Longitudinal profile of Baja vein in the Arcata vein system, Per, showing
orientation of slip line and long axis of ore shoot. From Echavarria & Nelson (2002), Echavarria et al.
(2003).
Figure 13. Formation of ore shoots
along pre-existing undulations on
fault plane. A. Undulations on fault
plane before displacement; B. Ore
shoot formation along undulations
after fault displacement. Fault slip
line
(slickenlines)
is
not
perpendicular to ore shoot, and ore
shoot
orientation
cannot
be
predicted by kinematic analysis of
fault. Modified from Guilbert & Park
(1986).

Variations

in

mechanical

properties of rock undergoing

deformation cause variations
in rheological response due to
lithological

changes,

temperature gradients, and

pre-existing weaknesses. As
pointed

out

by

McKinstry

(1955) the relative competency of the rock sequences is important in localizing open space.
Brittle layers preferentially develop vein arrays and boudin necks, and can cause developing
structures that transect them to be refracted from their initial path (Ferrill & Morris, 2003). One

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

example comes from the Mary Kathleen fold belt in the central Mt. Isa block, Australia, where
altered and mineralized rock formed in veins and boudin necks in strain shadows adjacent to
competent, low permeability metadolerite and metagranite bodies surrounded by weak calcsilicate rocks during syn-metamorphic fluid flow at amphibolite grade P-T conditions (fig. 14;
Marshall & Oliver, 2001, Oliver et al., 2001). Mineralization (Cu, Au, U-REE) in the district is
spatially related to the alteration. A second example comes from gold deposits in the Kalgoorlie
district, Western Australia. Veins and breccias in the shear-zone hosted Golden Mile deposit are
best developed within the Golden Mile dolerite, a differentiated tholeiitic sill, and quartz vein
arrays in the Mt. Charlotte mine are even more restricted to the granophyric Unit 8 of the Golden
Mile dolerite (Clout, et al., 1990; Solomon & Groves, 2000). A third example comes from the
Morning Star mine in Victoria, Australia, where quartz-gold veins formed during reverse faulting
are restricted to the Woods Point dike, and carried the highest gold grades in Victoria (Solomon
& Groves, 2000, p.691).

Figure 14. Schematic 3D geology of the Mary Kathleen fold belt, Australia, showing how distribution
of altered and mineralized rock (black) was controlled by deformation (E-W shortening) of competent
metadolerite bodies in calc-silicate host rocks (modified from Oliver et al., 2001).

Pre-existing weaknesses may be utilized as openings. One example comes from the Idaho
Springs district in Colorado, where foliation in Precambrian basement rocks was reactivated in
shear and extensional mode during Tertiary precious and base metal vein mineralization (fig.
15; Beach, 2000; Nelson et al., 2003). In this case, productive veins are concentrated within the
Precambrian Idaho Springs-Ralston shear zone, which contains foliations and folds that trend

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

parallel to the shear zone boundary (fig. 15). Southeast of the shear zone foliation and folds
trend nearly perpendicular to the shear zone boundary, and no economic veins are present.

Figure 15. Lower hemisphere equal area nets and map of structural elements in the Idaho Springs
mining district, Colorado. A. Density contour of poles to foliation within and northwest of Idaho SpringsRalston (IRS) shear zone; B. density contour of poles to veins in the Idaho Springs district (outlined on
the map); C. rose diagram of trend of Precambrian folds within and northwest of IRS; D. rose diagram of
trend of Precambrian folds southeast of IRS; E. map of productive veins within and northwest of IRS;
lines with arrows are fold axial plane traces, solid = antiform, dashed = synform (data from Beach, 2000;
basemap from Moench & Drake, 1966).

Proposed working classification of structural openings related to localization of ore

deposits

Early descriptions of some structural controls on mineralization were summarized in works by

Newhouse (1942), McKinstry (1948, 1955), and Lovering & Goddard (1950) and many others.
Numerous attempts have been made to classify veins and structurally-controlled ore deposits
(e.g., Lindgren, 1933; Bateman, 1981; Guilbert & Park, 1986).

As with Batemans 1981

classification of open space deposits (table 1; his type 4.A.1), most classifications of structural
openings contain an ambiguous mixture of terms and categories. For example, Batemans
classification of open space deposits (table 1) includes categories for fissure vein, tension-crack

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

fillings, breccia fillings, and shear-zone deposits. However, fissure veins and tension cracks are
likely the same in origin, and breccias may fill any of the other ore types (Taylor & Pollard,
1993). Also, much ore in shear-zone hosted deposits is present in what Bateman refers to as
fissure or tension veins. Therefore, numerous categories could describe the same ore deposit,
and the classification is thus confusing and its usefulness diminished.

Figure 16. Stereographic construction of ore shoot orientation from intersection of fault plane with
various Riedel fractures (R, R, P, and T), or 90 from the slip line in the fault plane. Left column:
examples for north-striking reverse and normal faults with 45 dip to east, and for north-striking vertical
wrench fault with dextral shear sense. Cross sections on right illustrate the angular relationships of
reverse and normal fault models. Lower right stereonet illustrates a more general case in which the fault
is an oblique slip fault and the ore shoot rakes 26 in the fault plane.

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

A. fissure veins
B. shear-zone deposits
C. stockworks
D. ladder veins
E. saddle-reefs
F. tension-crack fillings
G. breccia fillings (volcanic, tectonic, collapse)
H. solution-cavity fillings
I. pore-space fillings
J. vesicular fillings
Table 1. Batemans (1981) classification of open space
deposits formed by hydrothermal processes.

In another example, Guilbert & Park

(1986)

classify

veins

as

simple,

complex, irregular, and anastomosing.

Although

this

seems

simple

classification, each category is based on

a different, unrelated set of criteria. For
example, a simple vein is defined as
mineralization of a single, simple fault

fissure, and a complex vein contains multiple laminae. However, many single fault veins are
laminated. Also, irregular veins are defined as having variable thickness, and anastomosing
veins as having a braided pattern. However, individual veins in an anastomosing array could
have variable thickness.
Because past classifications of veins
and other structural openings contain
many

old

terms

and

ambiguous

mixtures of categories, we propose a

new working classification of structural
openings

(table 2).

The primary

classes of principal geologic structures

that host ore bodies include fault and
shear zones, structural intersections,
folds, strain shadows, igneous-related
structures, and collapse structures.
Because structural intersections mostly
Figure 17.
Axis of ore shoot formed in fault jog
perpendicular to slip line (slickenlines) for three primary
types of faults (reverse, normal, and strike slip). Note that
ore shoot forms in flat sections of reverse faults and steep
sections of normal faults. Modified from Cox et al. (2001).

involve intersection of a fault or shear

zone with some other contact (another
fault, stratigraphic or pluton contact,

dikes, etc.), this structural type is included under the fault/shear zone category. The subclasses in the proposed classification represent the types of open-space strain features that
develop in association with the principal structures, and are generally easy to recognize in the
field during exploration projects.
The proposed classification is designed to assist explorationists in formulating structuralmineralization models for exploration projects, and to guide the explorationist in recognizing

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

associations of structural features in the field. It is hoped that this proposed working
classification will generate discussion within the exploration community, such that practical
improvements can be made and the classification can become more robust and useful in
exploration.
Classes
A. Fault and
shear zone

Process

Example

Type of deposit

Reference

Ohio Creek (New

Zealand)

Porphyry Copper (Cu-Au)

Corbett & Leach

(1996)

Porgera (Papua New

Guinea)
Arcata (Peru)

Epithermal (Ag-Au-Pb-Zn)

Clyde Tungsten mine

(Colorado)

Epithermal (W)

Corbett & Leach

(1995)
Echavarria & Nelson
(2002)
Echavarria et al.
(2003)
Lovering & Goddard
(1950)

Bell Mine (Colorado)

Epithermal (Ag-Pb-Zn)

Wau (Papua New

Guinea)

Epithermal (porphyry
related) (Ag-Au-Pb-Zn)

Pillara (Australia)

MVT (Zn-Pb)

Shearing

Dilatant jogs

Dilatant bends

Fault splays
(including wing
veins)

Epithermal intermediate
sulfidation (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au)

Lovering & Goddard

(1950)
Corbett & Leach
(1996)

Caylloma (Peru)
Fault-Fault

Miller & Nelson

(2002)
High sulfidation Epithermal Corbett & Leach
(Au-Cu)
(1996)
Epithermal Intermediate
Echavarria (2002)
sulfidation (Ag-Pb-Zn-Au)

Rabbit Lake (Canada)

Fault-Unconformity

Unconformity-type uranium Hoeve & Sibbald

deposits (U)
(1978)

Jefferson Canyon
(Nevada)
Fault-Caldera margin

Epithermal (Au-Ag)

Rytuba (1994)

Bendigo (Australia)

Orogenic gold (Au)

Phillips & Hughes

(1996)
Cox et al. (1991)

Boudin necks

Mount Isa (Australia)

FeOx-Cu-Au-U

Vein arrays in
brittle layers

Golden Mile, Kalgoorlie Orogenic gold (Au-Ag)

(Australia)

Perkins (1984)
Findlay (1982)
Oliver et al. (2001)
Clout et al. (1990)

En echelon
fractures
Intersections
(other faults,
dikes,
unconformities)

B. Fold

Mount Kasi (Fiji)

Folding (shortening
and extension)

Saddle reefs

Limb Faults

C. Strain
shadow

Local extension
normal to layering

Table 2. Proposed working classification of structural openings related to localization of ore bodies.

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Classes
D. Igneousrelated
structures

Process

Diatremes and
breccia pipes

Flow related
breccia (flows
and domes)

Dissolution

Type of deposit

Reference

Balatoc, Baguio
(Phillipines)

Epithermal (Au-Ag)

Pueblo Viejo (Rep.

Dominicana)

Epithermal
(Au-Ag)

Sillitoe & Bonham

(1984)
Cooke et al. (1996)
Russell & Kesler
(1991)

Cripple Creek
Epithermal (Au-Ag)
Chuquicamata, La
Porphyry deposits (Cu-Au)
Escondida, El Salvador
(Chile)
Morenci, Silver Bell,
Ajo (Arizona)
Todos Santos,
Epithermal (Ag)
Carangas (Bolivia)

Porphyry
stockwork

E. Collapse
related
structures

Example

Fracturing and
brecciation due to
intrusion, thermal
expansion, fluid
overpressure, or flow
brecciation

Thompson et al.
(1985)
Ossandon et al.
(2001)
Padilla Garza et al.
(2001)
Titley (1982)
Cunningham et al.
(1991)

Fracturing due to
collapse
Jefferson City Mine
(Tennessee), Buick
Mine (Missouri)

MVT (Zn-Pb)

Ohle (1985)

Table 2. cont.

As with past classifications, our proposed classification is not without problems. Although four
of the main categories are labeled with structural types (fault, fold, strain shadow, collapse
structure), the fifth category label is modified with a rock-type association (igneous-related
structures). In addition, although structures in each of the four categories generally form by a
single strain-related process, igneous-related structures may form by a number of possible
processes. Another practical problem with this classification is that a number of mesoscopic
structural features may be associated with large-scale structures in more than one category.
For example, veins and vein arrays (such as en echelon arrays), can be associated with any of
the primary categories. Faults can form in association with folds, igneous related structures,
and collapse structures. Breccias can form in dilational fault jogs and bends, in fold-related
openings, in diatremes and igneous breccia pipes, and in collapse-related ore deposits.
Therefore, during exploration the structures in the principal categories must be viewed in a
larger context, with consideration of all the mesoscopic-scale structures that might be
associated with the principal structure.

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

Structural methods in exploration for structural openings

A number of structural methods are useful in the exploration for ore deposits in structural
openings. As many hydrothermal deposits are associated directly or indirectly with faults or
shear zones, knowledge of orientation of the fault slip vector is extremely important for modeling
the orientation of ore shoots. When stress controls the orientation and kinematics of faults and
fractures in the absence of pre-existing weaknesses, ore shoots form where the orientation of
the fault zone changes and approaches parallelism with the plane containing 1-2 (for example
in fault bends and jogs; figs. 1, 10). In this case ore shoot orientation is perpendicular to the fault
slip line (Fig. 17). The orientation of the slip line can be determined using a number of structural
features and techniques. Structural features include slickenlines and fault corrugations,
subsidiary fractures related to fault slip (such as those predicted by the Riedel model, fig. 6,16),
shear fabrics in fault rocks such as S-C fabric (e.g., Ramsay & Huber, 1987, p. 632), and shearrelated folds. S-C type fabrics consist of two sets of anastomosing foliations (Berthe et al.,
1979) and can form in ductile shear zones formed by plastic deformation mechanisms, as well
as in fault zones formed by brittle cataclastic flow. C-planes represent spaced shear planes,
and S-planes represent generally penetrative planes of flattening.

Figure 18. S-C shear fabric in granitic rock from Altar district, Sonora, Mexico. S-plane and Cplane orientations shown in upper right. Stereonet shows method of determining the ore shoot
orientation from the intersection of S- and C-planes.

Orthographic and combined orthographic/stereographic methods can be used to determine the

orientation of the slip line using piercing point analysis if the fault offsets two differently oriented
structural planes, such as bedding and a dike (Marshak & Mitra, 1988, p.81; Leyshon & Lisle,
1996, p. 56). Stereographic methods also can be used to construct the slip vector. Slickenlines,

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

or fault striations, are common on the walls of many fault veins. If the striations formed by
crystal fiber growth (termed slickenfibers; Ramsay & Huber, 1987), then they formed parallel to

Figure 19. Gocad 3D computer model of Pillara Mississippi Valley-type Zn-Pb deposit in
Western Australia (Miller & Nelson, 2002). A. North-looking perspective of 3D model showing
simple graben-bounding faults offsetting colored stratigraphic contacts.
Yellow is surface
representing contour of 3% Zn grade. B. Cross section of Eastern fault showing near-vertical
splays off of fault where fault steepens. C. Longitudinal cross section of Eastern fault showing near
horizontal intersection between main fault plane and more vertical second-order fractures (veins).

the slip line at the time of fault vein formation. However, if the striations formed by mechanical
wear during shearing (fault movement), then they must have formed after the time of fault vein
formation, and may not be parallel to the slip line during fault vein formation. Nonetheless, as
many fault veins form by repeated movements and fluid flow events during one tectonic cycle, it
can often be assumed that fault vein striations of this type are parallel to the slip line. If ore is
related to a fault or shear zone with subsidiary fractures ore shoot orientation is predicted to be
parallel to the intersection of the fault with any of the subsidiary fractures predicted by the Riedel

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Nelson, Echavarria, and Caine, ProExplo 2003, Lima Per

model (fig. 16). If ore is related to a fault or shear zone with S-C type shear fabric (Berth et al.,
1979), ore shoot orientation is predicted to be parallel to the intersection of the S-planes and the
C-planes (Fig. 18). If ore is related to shear folds, the slip line can be constructed by
stereographically analyzing fold hinge orientation and fold asymmetry by the Hansen method
(Hansen, 1967).
Modern 3-D computer modeling techniques also can be very useful in predicting ore shoot
orientation. For example, Miller & Nelson (2002), using a Gocad 3D model (fig. 19), showed
that Zn ore in the Pillara mine in Western Australia is concentrated along graben-bounding
faults and within splay veins (extension, or T fractures). The line of intersection between the
faults and the T-fractures is nearly horizontal as demanded by kinematics of graben formation,
rather than being controlled by stratigraphy.
Conclusions
Structural openings in rocks constitute the primary permeability network for the formation of
most hydrothermal ore deposits. The distribution, geometry, density, and orientation of ore
bodies in structural openings are controlled by two primary factors: the far and near field
stresses and the mechanical properties of rock. When stress controls the orientation and
kinematics of faults and fractures in the absence of pre-existing weaknesses, ore shoot
orientation is perpendicular to the fault slip vector and can be predicted by kinematic analysis.
However, when structural openings form along pre-existing weaknesses, ore shoot orientation
cannot always be predicted by kinematic analysis.
Because we can classify ore bodies based on the types of geological structures discussed
above and the variations that naturally occur from material property heterogeneity, exploration
for hydrothermal ore deposits should include analysis of geologic structure and evolution,
rheological variations, pre-existing weakness, and fault kinematics to evaluate structural
controls on localization of ore bodies. Further, use of modern structural geologic analyses
allows for the prediction of the orientation and possibly the location of unsampled ore bodies
associated with various structural openings in rocks.
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