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Unit 4

Unit 4

CIVE1400: An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics

Real fluids

Dr P A Sleigh
P.A.Sleigh@leeds.ac.uk

Flowing real fluids exhibit


viscous effects, they:

Dr CJ Noakes
C.J.Noakes@leeds.ac.uk

x stick to solid surfaces


x have stresses within their body.

January 2008
Module web site:
www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1

From earlier we saw this relationship between


shear stress and velocity gradient:

Unit 1: Fluid Mechanics Basics


Flow
Pressure
Properties of Fluids
Fluids vs. Solids
Viscosity

3 lectures

Unit 2: Statics
Hydrostatic pressure
Manometry/Pressure measurement
Hydrostatic forces on submerged surfaces

3 lectures

Unit 3: Dynamics
The continuity equation.
The Bernoulli Equation.
Application of Bernoulli equation.
The momentum equation.
Application of momentum equation.

7 lectures

Unit 4: Effect of the boundary on flow


Laminar and turbulent flow
Boundary layer theory
An Intro to Dimensional analysis
Similarity

4 lectures

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1

W v

du
dy

The shear stress, W, in a fluid


is proportional to the velocity gradient
- the rate of change of velocity across the flow.
For a Newtonian fluid we can write:

Lectures 16-19

du
dy

where P is coefficient of viscosity


(or simply viscosity).
Here we look at the influence of forces due to
momentum changes and viscosity
in a moving fluid.
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179

Lectures 16-19

Unit 4

Unit 4

Laminar and turbulent flow

All three would happen but for different flow rates.

Injecting a dye into the middle of flow in a pipe,


what would we expect to happen?
This

Top: Slow flow


Middle: Medium flow
Bottom: Fast flow
Top:
Middle:
Bottom:

Laminar flow
Transitional flow
Turbulent flow

Laminar flow:
Motion of the fluid particles is very orderly
all particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.

this

Turbulent flow:
Motion is, locally, completely random but the
overall direction of flow is one way.

or this

But what is fast or slow?


At what speed does the flow pattern change?
And why might we want to know this?

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Lectures 16-19

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Unit 4

The was first investigated in the 1880s


by Osbourne Reynolds
in a classic experiment in fluid mechanics.

Unit 4

After many experiments he found this


expression

Uud
P

A tank arranged as below:

U = density,
d = diameter

u = mean velocity,
P = viscosity

This could be used to predict the change in


flow type for any fluid.
This value is known as the
Reynolds number, Re:

Re

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182

Lectures 16-19

Uud
P

Laminar flow:
Transitional flow:
Turbulent flow:

Re < 2000
2000 < Re < 4000
Re > 4000

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1

Lectures 16-19

Unit 4

183

Unit 4

What are the units of Reynolds number?

At what speed does the flow pattern change?

We can fill in the equation with SI units:

We use the Reynolds number in an example:

U kg / m3 , u m / s,
P Ns / m2 kg / m s
Re

Uud
P

A pipe and the fluid flowing


have the following properties:
water density
pipe diameter
(dynamic) viscosity,

kg m m m s
1
m3 s 1 kg

U = 1000 kg/m3
d = 0.5m
P = 0.55x103 Ns/m2

It has no units!
A quantity with no units is known as a
non-dimensional (or dimensionless) quantity.
(We will see more of these in the section on
dimensional analysis.)

What is the MAXIMUM velocity when flow is


laminar i.e. Re = 2000

Re

The Reynolds number, Re,


is a non-dimensional number.

u
u

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Lectures 16-19

184

Uud
P

2000

2000P 2000 u 0.55 u 10 3


1000 u 0.5
Ud
0.0022 m / s

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Lectures 16-19

185

Unit 4

What is the MINIMUM velocity when flow is


turbulent i.e. Re = 4000

Unit 4

What does this abstract number mean?


We can give the Re number a physical meaning.

Re
u

Uud
P

4000

This may help to understand some of the


reasons for the changes from laminar to
turbulent flow.

0.0044 m / s

In a house central heating system,


typical pipe diameter = 0.015m,

Re

inertial forces
viscous forces

limiting velocities would be,


0.0733 and 0.147m/s.
Both of these are very slow.

When inertial forces dominate


(when the fluid is flowing faster and Re is larger)
the flow is turbulent.

In practice laminar flow rarely occurs


in a piped water system.

When the viscous forces are dominant


(slow flow, low Re)
they keep the fluid particles in line,
the flow is laminar.

Laminar flow does occur in


fluids of greater viscosity
e.g. in bearing with oil as the lubricant.

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Uud
P

Lectures 16-19

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Unit 4

Laminar flow

187

Lectures 16-19

Unit 4

Pressure loss due to friction in a pipeline

x Re < 2000

Up to now we have considered ideal fluids:


no energy losses due to friction

x low velocity
x Dye does not mix with water
x Fluid particles move in straight lines
x Simple mathematical analysis possible

Because fluids are viscous,


energy is lost by flowing fluids due to friction.

x Rare in practice in water systems.


Transitional flow

This must be taken into account.

x 2000 > Re < 4000


x medium velocity

The effect of the friction shows itself as a


pressure (or head) loss.

x Dye stream wavers - mixes slightly.


Turbulent flow
x Re > 4000

In a real flowing fluid shear stress


slows the flow.

x high velocity
x Dye mixes rapidly and completely
x Particle paths completely irregular

To give a velocity profile:

x Average motion is in flow direction


x Cannot be seen by the naked eye
x Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to
detect. Must use laser.
x Mathematical analysis very difficult - so
experimental measures are used

x Most common type of flow.


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Lectures 16-19

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Lectures 16-19

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Unit 4

Attaching a manometer gives


pressure (head) loss due to the energy lost by
the fluid overcoming the shear stress.

Unit 4

Consider a cylindrical element of


incompressible fluid flowing in the pipe,

area A

Ww is the mean shear stress on the boundary


Upstream pressure is p,
Downstream pressure falls by 'p to (p-'p)

The driving force due to pressure


driving force = Pressure force at 1 - pressure force at 2

The pressure at 1 (upstream)


is higher than the pressure at 2.

pA  p  'p A

How can we quantify this pressure loss


in terms of the forces acting on the fluid?

'p A

'p

Sd 2
4

The retarding force is due to the shear stress

shear stress u area over which it acts


= W w u area of pipe wall
= W wSdL

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Lectures 16-19

190

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Lectures 16-19

Unit 4

As the flow is in equilibrium,

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Unit 4

What is the variation of shear stress in the flow?

driving force = retarding force


R

'p

Sd 2
4
'p

W wSdL
Ww 4 L

At the wall

R 'p
2 L

Ww

Giving pressure loss in a pipe in terms of:


x pipe diameter
x shear stress at the wall

At a radius r

W
W

r 'p
2 L
r
Ww
R

A linear variation in shear stress.


This is valid for:
x steady flow
x laminar flow
x turbulent flow
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Lectures 16-19

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Unit 4

Shear stress and hence pressure loss varies


with velocity of flow and hence with Re.

Unit 4

Pressure loss during laminar flow in a pipe

Many experiments have been done


with various fluids measuring
the pressure loss at various Reynolds numbers.
A graph of pressure loss and Re look like:

In general the shear stress Ww. is almost


impossible to measure.
For laminar flow we can calculate
a theoretical value for
a given velocity, fluid and pipe dimension.
In laminar flow the paths of individual particles
of fluid do not cross.
Flow is like a series of concentric cylinders
sliding over each other.
And the stress on the fluid in laminar flow is
entirely due to viscose forces.
As before, consider a cylinder of fluid, length L,
radius r, flowing steadily in the centre of a pipe.

This graph shows that the relationship between


pressure loss and Re can be expressed as

laminar

'p v u

turbulent 'p v u1.7 ( or

2 .0 )

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Unit 4

'p A 'pSr 2
'p r
L 2

Newtons law of viscosity saysW

ur

'p 1
r dr
L 2P

'p r 2
C
L 4P

At r = 0, (the centre of the pipe), u = umax, at


r = R (the pipe wall) u = 0;

du
P ,
dy

'p R 2
L 4P

At a point r from the pipe centre when the flow is


laminar:

We are measuring from the pipe centre, so

The value of velocity at a


point distance r from the centre

The fluid is in equilibrium,


shearing forces equal the pressure forces.

W 2Sr L

Unit 4

In an integral form this gives an


expression for velocity,

r
r

195

Lectures 16-19

ur

du
P
dr

'p 1
R2  r 2
L 4P

This is a parabolic profile


(of the form y = ax2 + b )
so the velocity profile in the pipe looks similar to

Giving:

'p r
du
P
L 2
dr
du
'p r

dr
L 2P

v
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Unit 4

Unit 4

To get pressure loss (head loss)


in terms of the velocity of the flow, write
pressure in terms of head loss hf, i.e. p = Ughf

What is the discharge in the pipe?


The flow in an annulus of thickness Gr

GQ ur Aannulus

Mean velocity:

S (r  Gr )2  Sr 2 | 2SrGr

Q/ A

GQ

'p 1
R 2  r 2 2SrGr
L 4P

Ugh f d 2
32 PL

'p S R 2
R r  r 3 dr
L 2P 0

Aannulus

'p SR 4
L 8P

Head loss in a pipe with laminar flow by the


Hagen-Poiseuille equation:

'p Sd 4
L128P

hf

32 PLu

Ugd 2

So the discharge can be written

Pressure loss is directly proportional to the


velocity when flow is laminar.

'p Sd 4
L 128P

It has been validated many time by experiment.


It justifies two assumptions:
1.fluid does not slip past a solid boundary
2.Newtons hypothesis.

This is the Hagen-Poiseuille Equation


for laminar flow in a pipe
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Unit 4

Unit 4

Considering a flat plate in a fluid.

Boundary Layers
Recommended reading: Fluid Mechanics
by Douglas J F, Gasiorek J M, and Swaffield J A.
Longman publishers. Pages 327-332.

Upstream the velocity profile is uniform,


This is known as free stream flow.

Fluid flowing over a stationary surface,


e.g. the bed of a river, or the wall of a pipe,
is brought to rest by the shear stress to
This gives a, now familiar, velocity profile:

Downstream a velocity profile exists.


This is known as fully developed flow.

umax
Free stream flow

zero velocity

Fully developed flow


Wall

Zero at the wall


A maximum at the centre of the flow.
The profile doesnt just exit.
It is build up gradually.
Some question we might ask:
Starting when it first flows past the surface
e.g. when it enters a pipe.

CIVE 1400: Fluid Mechanics. www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/FluidsLevel1

Lectures 16-19

How do we get to the fully developed state?


Are there any changes in flow as we get there?
Are the changes significant / important?
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