Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Author(s): W. M. Davis
Source: The Geographical Journal, Vol. 34, No. 3 (Sep., 1909), pp. 300-318
Published by: The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers)
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1777147 .
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300
OF LANDFORMS.
t
DESCRIPTION
THE SYSTEMATIC
By Prof. W. M. DAVIS, Harvard University.
301
of such a method for some time,* and believe that it is, in various ways, more
useful and more effective than the older-fashionedempirical method, or than the
half-hearted,accidentally explanatory method. As at present developed,it may
be called the methodof structure,process,and stage.
Every feature of the land may be treated as the surface form of a certain
structural mass, accumulatedunder certain past geological conditions,and placed
by crustal movements,with more or less deformation,in a certain attitude with
respect to baselevel, so that it comes to Ie acted upon by various external
destructive processes,which have now carried forward their changes to a certain
stage of development. This is only the simplest outline of the method,which may
now be illustratedby certainactual examplesbeforeproceedingto its complications.
Along the Adriatic coast of Italy, near Ancona (but not including the rocky
hills immediately south of this city), the marginal ridges of the Apennines are
borderedby a series of imperfectly consolidatedsandy and clayey marine strata
dipping gently seaward,and originally possessing a smoothly sloping surface,as
shown in the backgroundof Fig. 1, which would have deserved the name of
?~~~~~~~~~~~~?
<:X~~~~~~~~l
FIG. 1.-BLOCK
coastal plain. To-day this simple mass has been elaboratelycarved by the rivers
that were, at the time of the uplift, extended acrossit from the older land, and by
the many smaller streamsthat had their sourceon the plain and followed courses
consequenton its slope to the sea, as well as by numerousbranchstreamsof more
irregularor insequent course; it is therefore no longer a smoothly sloping plain,
but a successionof hills and valleys, as in the foregroundof Fig. 1. The main
valleys of the extended consequent rivers have broad floors,on which the rivers
have very gentle fall, and are free to swing from side to side in somewhatirregular
meanderingfashion; the side valleys are narrower,but everywhere have streamlines of smooth and gentle descent. In the absenceof resistantrocklayers, which
might maintain outcroppingledges, the hillsides are worn back to a gentle slope,
and are everywherecloakedwith a slowly creepingsheet of soil. The development
of the valleys has been carried so far that hardly a trace now remains of the
smoothly sloping initial coastal plain; the sky-line, as seen from any of the higher
hills, is gently undulating. During the erosion of the well-openedvalleys under
the leadershipof the consequent and insequent streams,the waves have been at
work on the seaward marginof the plain, and have now worn it back so that all
the seashore hills are cut off along the shore-line in well-defined sea-cliffs,which
* ' The GeographicalCycle,'Geogr.Journ.,14 (1899),481-504; also' Verhandlungen,
VIIe"Geogr.KLongress,
Berlin(1899),'1901,2, 221-231.
302
stand in a nearly straight line for many miles, although interruptedby numerous
valleys. No deltas are to be expected at the mouths of such valleys, because the
whole shore-linemust be regardedas having retreated.
All of these featuresalreconciselyexpressedby sayingthat the Adriaticborderof
Italy, near Ancona,consistsof a coastalplain of imperfectlyconsolidatedsands and
dissectionunderthe actionof normal
clays, which has reacheda stage of late mInature
and marine erosionalprocesses. The term " coastal plain" implies that the strata
of which the district consists were laid down as marinedeposits,slopinggently away
from the land mass from which they were derived; also that they were revealedby
a broad uplift which did not significantly disturb their simple structure. The
phrase,"imperfectly consolidatedsands and clays," gives us to understandthat
no resistantlayers are presentwhich might outcropin ledges, and thus form falls in
the streams or break the even slope of the valley-sides. The brief mention of
" normaland marineprocesses"informsus sufficientlyas to the destructiveagencies
that have been at work on the plain since its uplift. Under "(normalprocesses"we
understandthe ordinaryaction of weatheringand washing; the streamserodetheir
valleys, and the valley-sides waste under the attack of the weather; the main
streams must necessarilybe extendedforwardfrom their formermouths, and take
coursesconsequenton the slope of the plain to the new shore-line; minor streams
must rise on the plain itself, and run down the slope of the plain to the sea; on the
sides of the valleys eroded by these consequent members of the drainagesystem,
small branchstreamsmust be establishedin irregularcourses,and these may therefore be called insequent. Under "marine processes,"we understandthe action
of sea-waves and currents, which actively attack the shore, cutting it back in
a cliff; at the same time they slowly wear the bottom, gradually giving it an
increasingdepth. The significantwords," late maturedissection,"indicate at once
that both of the erosionalprocesses,normal and marine,are well advancedin the
series of changes which have, as a goal, the complete destruction of the coastal
plain. The main streams must in late maturity have openedwide-flooredvalleys;
the side streams must branch elaborately,thus dissecting the original plain into
a multitude of hills and spurs; the axes of the hills and spurs must trend in a
general way toward the coast, because the streamswhich have carved the valleys
between the hills must for the most part have had their coursesdetermined,directly
or indirectly,by the initial slope of the plain; the hills must have been weathered
into smoothly archingcrests and smoothly sloping sides; the shore-linemust havc
been cut back so as to truncate the hills in cliffs, all standing in line. T'husa
generalmental image of the district may be formed,in which all the features are
systematicallycorrelated,becausethey are all describedas having originatedby the
action of definiteprocesseson a comprehensibleinitial form,and becausethe action
of the processeshas gone on to an assignedstage of development.
'l'wo features,shown on a largerscale in Fig. 2, remain to be described. The
main valley-floorsare not flat, but are found to be moderately
broad,late mnature,
terracedas one advancesinland; and the shore-linedoes not now lie along the base
of the mature cliffs, but along the outer side of a sandy strand-plain,100 or 200
metreswide. T'he terracesare evidently the result of a recent and gentle slanllting
uplift, after the valleys had beenmaturely widened; and judgingby the height of the
terraces,the uplift seems to have increasedfrom zero near the coast-lineto 10 or 15
metresat the inner borderof the plain. Perhapshalf or mloreof the formervalleyfloorshas been consumedin the excavationof the newerand lowervalley-floors,so
that the present flood-plainsin the main valleys are of somewhat greaterareathan
the terraceremnantsof the formerflood-plain. The strand-plainis evidently the
result of a recent change in the action of the shore-waves. From having acted
303
as erosive agents for a time long enough to cut the mature cliffs, they have for
a briefer time acted as constructive agents, and have built forward a low and
narrowbelt of sand; in other words,after having maturelyretrogradedthe cliffs,the
waves have progradedthe strand-plain. The strand-plainbroadensa little opposite
each valley, for now that the shore-lineis prograding,the rivershave opportunityof
building their deposits forward; but no sharp deltas are seen, becausethe 'longshoreaction of the waves and currentsdistributes the river-broughtwaste all along
thlefront of the strand-plain.
There is good reason for regardingthe action of the streams in terracingor
degradingthe formervalley-floorlsas the cause of the progradationof the strandplain. The slantinguplift revived the maturestreams, and caused them to degrade
the valleys through which they were previouslyflowing contentedly; the degradation of the valley-floorsincreasedthe quantity of waste washedout from the rivermouths, and thus compelledthe waves to abandontheir formertask of cliff cutting
FIG. 2.-BLOCK
304
-~~~
-
FIG. 3.-BLOCK
"B
HALFSUBMERGED.
districtconcerned may be constructedfrom this briefexplanatorydescription. The
structureof the district will be understood from the term coastal plain, which
means,as already stated, that the area is made up of stratifieddeposits sloping
very gently toward the ocean from an older land of other structurein the background. The chief features of surface form may be inferred from the phrase,
maturelydissected; for this implies, as before,the presenceof main andsubordinate
consequentstreams, with many insequent branches, and of well-openedvalleys,
with sides that slope gently down from rounde: hill-tops. When this stage in
the cycle was reached,its further normal progresswas interruptedby a movement
of depression,thus placing the mass in a new attitude with respect to baselevel,
and introducinga new cycle of erosion. The maturely dissected coastal plain
having been somewhat lowered, its main valleys and many branch valleys are
necessarilypartly submerged, and converted into long irregularbranchingbays
of very sinuous shore-line; and the new shore-line thus producedis as yet but
little modifiedby wave cutting anddelta filling, the modificationbeing more along
the outercoast and at the chief bay-heads,where the ocean waves and the larger
rivers are at work, and less in the bays where only the weaker waves and the
305
receive
smallerstreamsare in action. The effectivepicture thus sketchedmay now
height,
as many additionaltouches as are desired in the way of length, breadth,
conand individualfeatures. Various complications in the history of the district,
to.
cerningwhich discussionis still going on, are not here referred
under
It must be manifest from the two foregoingexamples that the method
The
of
investigation.
a
plan
not
and
a
description
of
scheme
involves
consideration
form,
its
on
as
theybear
far
a
so
in
chief events in the geologicalhistory of district,
applied.
must be found out before the method of explanatorydescriptioncan be
kind of
the
indicating
by
first
Nevertheless,the method is helpful in investigation,
that are
results
of
k
ind
the
indicating
by
second
and
for,
searched
be
results that must
in a
included
than
omitted
irrelevantin the geographicalsense, and thereforebetter
on
the
geomorphoarticles
recent
with
familiar
is
who
One
geographicaldescription.
the
logical aspects of physical geographymust have noticed that the attention of
of
introduction
the
by
form
present
of
features
from
reader is often distracted
unessential matters of past history, with the result of making thedescription
geological rather than geographical. If the intention of the writer is to give an
accountof past changesin their chronologicalsequence,it is properenoughto focus
is to give anexplanatime; but if the intention
the attention on thepassage of past
to exclude all matter that
descriptionof existing forms,it is important notonly
tory
of existrelationto existing forms,but topresent the explanation
a
not helpful
has
of
product
present
them
the
attention
as
direct
to
as to
a
forms in such way
ing
systematic
the
this
respect
in
processes, notto theprocessesthemselves; and
past
assistance.
much
of
practical
be
may
here presented
method
it
Itisalso clearthat thesystematic methodis not completelyself explanatory; the
before
be
must
gained
understanding
a
involvesspecial
terminology ofwhich an
be
" maturelydissected," can
methodcanbeserviceable. Forexample, the phrase,
become
erosion
of
has
the
cycle
scheme
general
of
appreciatedonly after the
properly
been before the geobut asthe scheme of the cycle of erosion hasnow
familiar;
regard
it as anovelty
public for at least tenyears, it is notnecessary to
graphical
into bays
valleys
transforming
in
of
submergence
anylonger. Again, the effect
gain its
can
"recently somewhatdepressed,"
mustbe recognizedbefore the phrase,
that
geography
wonder
that
is
so
is
simple
the
fullvalue; but theidea here involved
century for its introduction.
hadto wait until the latter half of thenineteenth
central massif
of
Athird example may be taken from the westernslope the
ofwhich a
district,
This
the
valley
Lot.
of
ofFrance,in theneighbourhoodof the
of
dissected
plateau
maturely
a
diagramis given in Fig. 4, maybe describedas of
and
consequent
smaller
valleys
which
the
the
horizontal strata, in
indurated
one cycle, while themain valley of the Lot
insequentstreamsshow theworkof only
the late-maturemeanderingriver had
which
of
first
showsthe work of two,in the
introduced bya moderate
in
nearlyconsumed itsvalley-side spurs; and the second,
of
previous
flood-plainin reaching
about
half
the
uplift,the river hasnow consumed
constructedfrom this descripdistrict,
of
mental
picture
The
the
maturityagain.
roundedhills of equable height, divided
tion,must embody a great number of
strata,most
for
valleys;
branching
in a plateau of horizontal
bymany irregularly
hence
following
control,
and
of the drainagemust be insequent,without systematic
waste,
with
creeping
covered
smoothly
slopes,
hillside
no definite direction. The
wellof
the
narrow
to
valley-floors
mustdescendwith gracefully curvedprofiles the
conceivedas
must
of
be
main
valley
the
But
Lot
the
gradedsmaller streams.
terrace (horizontal
broadlyoper.ed and as showing a well-defined, gravel-covered
narrower
valley, with welleroded
curving
a
river has
lines, Fig.4), belowwhich the
4). Rock outscrolls
Fig.
(dotted,
developedand systematically placed flood-plain
where the
curves,
river
of
side
outer
the
crops are to be expected only along the
No. III -SEPTEMBER,
1909.]
306
FIG. 4.-BLOCK
FIG. 5.-BLOCK
SPURS,
307
308
surfacewill assume a " bad-land" quality, with innumerablelittle hills and spurs
between innumerablelittle valleys, as ill Fig. 10. Thus the scheme of description
reallycontainsfive elements: struciture, process, stage, relief, and
_-?^]3__, /1^^^^^Lj^~
~texture; all require consideration,
_^^P^^^
but the first three suffice when
^^^^-^^^n~~
\\\'S'^
giving the schemea name.
---~~/6
^\= .
L = %<,\ //
\"""^"^_^^'fn
^n~~the
descriptionsthus far presented
a certain purposein provid~
serve
--J
^
3
an
//
=
easy means of establishing
ing
^ ^ ^
;j^
^
==^^^^
_^
types of ideal forms. They are
^W<
^^^---^
'
""
\
rough, and et they carry about as
411^^
l?^
many details as verbal description
^-^^^^Y.^----^
,^r''^^ Q < \ g ^^~~ ~can profitablyundertaketo repeat.
') "
The few diagramshere offeredmay
'i\
\:~~~~~~,
supplementedby many others,
^\MT^^^^^^^^yY^ 109be
^
=
-^
V\^-^ R<-^s'r*,^-)^
>
to a fourth example.
Snowdonand its neighboursin
Nr
al summarizedin Fi.
309
tlll
i"
i a1tl
\ ilIl
11t
\i
FIG. 12.-DIAGRAM
The mountain group thus fashioned then suffered submature glaciation, and
this necessarily introduces many changes. All the normal valley heads will be
enlargedand convertedinto cwms; the cwm-head cliffs will, in a submaturestage
of glaciation,be retrogressivelyeroded so far into opposite sides of the subdued
mountaindomesas to consumepartsof the interveningroundedmass,and to convert
them into sharply serratedar8tes; the cwm-floorsmay be so well deepenedas to
hold smallrock-basinlakes; the broadenedfloorof the cwms, as well as of the smaller
lateral valleys, will descend by a strong slope into the larger valleys, which have
been deepenedand broadenedas glacier troughs; thus the cwms as well as the side
valleys will come to stand over, or to " hang," with respect to the deepenedmain
valleys (or glacial troughs); and the deepened main valley-floors,being only in a
submaturestage, may exhibit various inequalities,here scoured out a little deeper
so as to'hold a lake; there unevenly worn down so that a rock-step interruptsthe
valley slope; and again showing immature lateral scouring,so that knot s, ledges,
and cliffs are locally abundant along the valley-sides. Finally, as the submature
glaciation is describedas recent, the changes since a normal climate has been reestablishedmust be small; the cwm-head cliffs will have weathered somewhat,so
that slopes of waste (screes) accumulateat their base; the cwm-floorbasins may
be partly converted into bogs; the front steps of the cwms and of the hanging
lateral valleys may be somewhat cleft by normal stream action; deltas will be
growingin the valley-floorlakes, gorges will be partly erodedin the rock-steps,and
slopes of waste will be forming under the valley-side cliffs. But as the glaciation
310
FIG. 13.-NEREVI
FIG.
14.-THE
ISLAND:
WEST.
LOOKING
Snowdon, the highest domneof the group,.has been so greatly reducedby the
excavation of four large and two smaller cwms in its flanks as to presentonly a
skeletonof its formerself; that its north-eastern,south-eastern,and south-western
roundedridges have been narrowedinto sharp aretes; that its easterncwm holds
lakes at two levels, separatedby a rock-step; that MynyddMawr,a finedome but
of less altitude than Snowdon,has two cwms of so moderatea size as to leave a
FIG,
FIG.
16.--THE
311
IN CLIFFED
312
great part of its dome intact; but that its southern and north-easternsides have
teen cliffed by the strong over-deepeningand widening of the neighbouring
valleys; that several goo.l-sized, unconsumedrock-knobs obstruct an otherwise
well-excavatedtrough on the south-east (valley ofAfon Glaslyn), between the
valley-floorrock-basinsof two lakes (Gwynant and Dinas); that an uneven,low
(valley ofAfon Gwarfai)
rock-step occurs in the chief trough on the south-west
other basins,shows some
the
like
which,
not far below arock-basin lake(0Cwellyun),
delta-filling at its upper end; that the fine hanging lateral valley, whichheads in
the great cwm(Clogwyn) in the west face of Snowdon,has a small gorge cut in
the slope where it opens in the side of the deepermaintrough(Afon Gwarfaivalley);
and so on.
It is true that geographersand geologistsare not yet agreed on the problemof
glacial erosion,and it would thereforebe prudentto precedethe whole of the foregoing explanatorydescriptionwith the statement that the writer finds the evidence
in favour of glacial erosion irresistible; and, further, that he findsit possible to
work out a series of ideal formsdue to glacial erosion much in the same way that
the series of ideal forms due to ordinaryerosionhas been workedout-that is, by a
legitimate and logical combination of induction and deduction. It is then just as
serviceableto desctibethe actual formsof a glaciateddistrict in terms of the ideal
the actual forms of a normally
forms of a cycle of glacial erosion,as to describe
district in terms of theideal forms of a normal cycle; or asto describethe
eroded
actualformsof acoastaldistrict in termsof the ideal formsof amarine cycle. The
of
verityof glacial erosion is now so well established by the study of the forms
conserundue
the
of
of
world
that it savours
glaciatedmountainsin many parts
vatism toomit such formsfrom thesystematicmethod ofdescriptionthat has proved
sohelpful forother forms.
Theforegoingdescriptionof the Snowdongroupinvolves adeparturefrom the
normal cycleunlike theinterruptionscaused bycrustalmovement,which occurred
in the caseof the two coastal plailsalreadyconsidered. Thedeparturefromnormal
conditionsin thecase of Snowdondoes notappearto have involved any significant
whereby
changein thealtitude of the land, butonly a tempvrary
change in climate,
or
thesnowfall wasincreased and glacierswere formedwhere noneexisted before
regular
accidents
be
which disturbthe
progress
sioce. Such changes may treatedas
ofnormalprocesses. It is important to point out that thedurationof the glacial
have been a
periodin Wales, as measured by the work then accomplished,must
The glacialaccident
erosion.
normal
of
of
a
cycle
of
the
fraction
du,'ation
small
very
wastherefore abrief one; thenormalcycle is now againin progress.
of
It was stated in an early paragraphthat land forms,treated as the surface
of
rock masses, may be describedin terms structure,process,and stage. It must
now Ie added that the descriptionof landforms,thus considered,must always be
associatedwith two other elements: one of these is the active process,which works
on the landform and causes its change; the other is the land waste producedby
In a cycle of
the actionof the destructive process on the passive structuralmass.
active
of
process;
elements
streams
weather
and
the
have
as
and
normalerosion,we
deltas, and
locally weatheredsoil, sheets of creepingsoil, alluvial fans, flood-plains,
so on, as elements of the formsassumed by the waste of the land on the way to
the sea. In a cycle of glacial erosionwe have weather,snow-fields,and glaciers as
elements of the active process; and locally weathered superglacialrock waste,
assumed
morainesof variouskinds, drumlins,eskers, kames, and so on, as the forms
marine
of
a
cycle
erosion.
with
glacial
association
In
by the waste of the land in
and beaches,
erosionwe have weather, waves, and currents acting on the coast;
of
a
sand-reefs,tidal marshes,and so on, as the associatedwaste form:. In cycle
313
Eo
0
?
o~
E?i
0o
i
fcO
B
U2
n
E~
0
o5
W
0
o
0
3h
.1
H
pE
O
^i
O
1
p O
O
E-
Tl
U
314
THE SYSTEMLATIC
DESCRIPTIONOF LAND FORMS.
:iii:i
:.:-f
FIG. 19.-THE
.:;:
315
FIG. 20.-THE
316
plains. Naturally enough, the largest river of the region,about ten miles southeast of the axis of tilting, had eroded the widest valley before the tilting took
place; the slight submergenceof this wide valley made the largest bay; but the
large river has now aggradedthe bay, formingthe largest plain, along the front of
which the waves breakevenly on the longest beach of the district: and here stands
Chiavari,the largest town between Genoa and Spezia. The delta-plainis indeed
built forwardsomewhatoutsideof the bay-mouth,so that it now stretchesright and
left, a mile or so, in front of the steepened cliffs. The island a few miles further
south-eastis now cliffedon its outer side, and tied to the mainlandby a beach -from
its inner side, so as to form a peninsula. Farthersouth-east, there are only small
delta-plainsbetween great steepened cliffs, to the point that encloses the Gulf of
Spezia. The railroadalong this stretch of the coast runs through tunnels back of
the cliffs for a large part of the way, coming out to breatheas it crossesthe small
delta-plains.
In the other direction, towards Genoa, the extended rivers have cut mature
valleys acrossthe marineplatformand its gravelbeds, and have thereforesomewhat
deepenedtheir formervalleys among the mountains,with the result of frequently
making the mountain-sidessteepestnearthe streamline; at the sametime the former
sea-cliffhas becomeless steepby the creepof waste fromits upperpartto accumulate
at its base; and the sea has cut away the outer part of the platform, so that its
presentborderis a ragged,immature,beachless,harbourlesscliff of moderateheight.
Near the axis of tilling, where the plain was necessarilylow and narrow,it has
been entirely consumed,and here the sea is now renewing its attack on the former
cliff, undercutting it somewhat below the former base. Farther from the axis,
where the coastal plain was broaderand higher, a larger and larger share of it
remains,so that villages are built on it; still farther north-west, the remnant
of the plain is a mile or more wide, and its ragged cliffs are 300 or 400 feet
high; nearly all of this height is cut in rock, b3neaththe level of the gravels of
the former sea-bottom; here Genoa lies, partly on the plain, partly in the mature
valleys that have been cut acrossit.
At the axis of tilting stands the peninsula of Portofino. It is protected by a
heavyconglomeratealong its exposedfront, and was thereforenot worn back by the
sea to the generalcliff line in the first cycle. The delta-plainson the south-eastern
side of the peninsulagive open spacefor the townsof Rapalloand Santa Margherita.
No deltas are found on its north-western side; and there the town of Recco is
crowdedto the shore-lineat a valley mouth close to the new cut cliffs. The superb
viewfromthe summitof the peninsulaincludesnearly all the featuresherementioned,
but to appreciatethe details of this malvellous coast,one must stop at successive
stationsand walk fromvillage to village. The railwayride is tantalizing,becauseone
hardly has time to enjoy a charmingview before the trainenters a cut or a tunnel.
A few miles out from Genoaone may turn fromthe main road, up the narrowpaths
through terracedflower gardensto the olive groves, whence the openings disclose
extensivevistas over the marine platform where Nervi is built upon it (Fig. 13),
b3tweenthe long sloping ascent of the former sea cliff and the sharply undercut
marginof the present coast. Here the railroad runs on the platform in shallow
cuts, crossing the new valleys on high viaducts,as at Bogliasco(Fig. 17); but as
the platformis narrowedby sea encroachment,some of the shore coves threaten to
underminethe track, as between Bogliasco and Sort (Fig. 15). A little farther
towardthe axis of tilting, as between Sort and Recco,the platformis all consumed,
and the newcliff undercutsthe old one(Fig. 21); here the highway mounts the
slope and the railway tunnels. In strong contrast to Nervi and Bogliasco,which
find room for gardens about their villas, is Camogli,on the north-westernside of
NEW SEA-CLIFF
FIG. 21.-THE
RECCO; THE UNCONSUMED
LOOKING NORTH-WEST,
FIG. 22.-THE
317