Runninghead:COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

ReligiousBeliefandPoliticalBehavior:ComparingTheoreticalPerspectives
JoshuaC.K.Ridenour
AndersonUniversity

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

ReligiousBeliefandPoliticalBehavior:ComparingTheoreticalPerspectives
AccordingtotherecentreligiouslandscapesurveyconductedbyPewResearch,78%of
AmericansidentifyasChristian(Pew,2008).Withamajoritythissizeable,itmaybesurprising
tosomethattalkofaculturewardominatesdiscussionsamongmembersofChristianfaith.
ConventionalwisdomsuggeststhatreligioninAmericaservestouniteanddivideindividuals
withacerbicefficiency,bothwithinandbetweenfaithtraditions(seePutnam&Campbell,
2010).Forexample,questionsofPresidentBarackObamasfaithcontinuetocirculate,evenas
manyconservativeswereeagertojustifyMormonismscontroversialinclusionunderthe
umbrellaofChristianity(Kilgore,2012).FoxNewsannualWaronChristmascoveragebrings
totheattentionofitsviewerswhattheybelieveisanattackonAmericasreligioushistory.
Thisdivision,however,shouldnotbeviewedasarecentphenomenon.Asearlyasthe
1980s,RobertWuthnowdescribedthereligiousdivisionasresultingfromgrowingconflict
betweenreligiousliberalsandreligiousconservativesontheroleofgovernmentaction,andthe
emergenceofspecialinterestgroupstorepresentthetwoincreasinglypolarizedcamps(1988).
Hunter(1991)lookedpastthepoliticallandscapeandarguedthatcompetingmoralvisionsare
attheheartoftodaysculturewar,(p.43)representingorientingandpolarizingimpulses
towardsreligiousorthodoxyorreligiousprogressivism.AccordingtoHunter,theseworldviews
provideanswerstofundamentalquestionsoftruth,purpose,andmoralauthority.Morerecently,
Shields(2011)haspointedtothetensionsbetweenprogressiveeraandpostwarliberalsonthe
onehand,andthereligiouslyorthodoxinCatholicandevangelicalchurchesontheother.
However,thoughShields(2011)notesthatcrossdenominationalalliancesareresultingfrom
intradenominationalconflicts(reminiscentofWuthnows[1988]argument),asimilarevolution

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

inliberalcritiquesisnotpresent.ProgressiveeracritiquesofgroupssuchastheReligiousRight
werehandeddownuncritically(p.650)andfailtoaccuratelycapturemuchoforthodoxyin
contemporaryAmericanreligions.Inconsistenciesintheresultsfromsurveydata,andageneral
lackofseriousinvestigationsofAmericanreligionsandthereligiousrightontheirtermsreflect
thisfailure(Bauder,2011;Olson,2011;Steenslandetal.,2000;Ursic,2014;Wald,Silverman,
&Fridy,2005;Woodberry,Park,Kellstedt,Regnerus,&Steensland,2012;Woodberry&Smith,
1998).Pretestingwithseveralmeasuresusedtoassessreligiousbeliefsrevealedfeelingsof
distrustanddiscomfortwiththeresults,particularlyamongconservativeevangelicalpopulations.
IfsocialscientistswishtounderstandAmericanreligiousgroupsontheirownterms,an
importantgoalgiventhepopulationssize,adjustingtheirmeasuresforthismissionwillbe
important.Twoprominenttheoriesinthefieldsofsociologyandpoliticalscience,moral
cosmologytheoryandculturaltheory,mayservetobetterilluminatetheintersectionofreligious
beliefsandpoliticalbehaviors.Thispapercallsforsuchanintegrationandinvestigationoftheir
respectiveusefulnesstothestudyofreligionandpolitics.
Moralcosmologytheory
BornfromthetraditionofHunter(1991),moralcosmologytheorypositsthatunderlying
orientationsofmoralorthodoxyandmoralmodernismdriveindividualsreligiousandpolitical
beliefs.However,contrarytoHunterstoneofculturalwar,contemporarymoralcosmology
arguesthatonesorientationmoresubtlyinfluencesonesbehavior.Inaseriesofarticlestesting
Hunters(1991)claims,DavisandRobinson(1996a,1996b,1996c)foundgeneralagreement
withthetheoriesoforientation,butthatmostAmericansweresituatedbetweenratherthan
withinthetwoextremes.Ratherthanawar,DavisandRobinson(1996a)foundthatrigid

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

oppositionbetweentheorthodoxandprogressiveperspectiveswasrelatedprimarilytofamily
andgenderissues.Littledifferencesexistedonmattersofracialandeconomicequality;infact,
theorthodoxappearedtobemoreliberalthanthemodernistswhenitcametoeconomicissues
(Davis&Robinson,1996a).Focusingonwhattheycallreligiouselites,OlsonandCarroll
(1992)examinedthereligiousandpoliticalbeliefsofseminaryfacultyinordertodeterminethe
probabilityofconflictbetweenliberalsandconservativesonreligiousgrounds.Thoughthe
agendasdifferedbetweenliberalsandconservativesandwerelinkedtoreligiousbeliefs,they
onlypartlyopposedeachother.Similarly,whenappliedtothegeneralpublic,liberaland
conservativeagendaswerelargelyunrelated,andonlytheconservativesocialmoralagendawas
tiedtoreligion(Olson&Carroll,1992).Further,thereligiouslyorthodoxwerenotagroup
dominatedbyindividualssharingsimilaraffinitiesandmissions.Incontrast,orthodox
individualsshowednotendencytogroupthemselvestoideologicalpositions,norwere
individualslikelytoadoptconsistentstancesonavarietyofissues(Davis&Robinson,1996b).
TheresultsfromJelen(1990)furtherunderminetheargumentforconsistencyandpolarization
amongCatholics,evangelicals,andmainlineProtestants.
Whilesomemayattributethisinconsistencyasevidenceoflowerpoliticalsophistication
andengagement(Kiecolt&Nelsen,1988),itmaybemoreappropriatetoviewthisas
ambivalenceinChristiantheologytowardpoliticalinvolvement.Marsden(1991)pointedto
fundamentalistdispensationalpremillenialism,arecenttheologicalviewthattrueChristianswill
berescuedinarapturebeforethedestructionoftheworld,asremovinganyChristiandutyto
transformtheworld.Incontrast,henotestheprogressiveerasocialgospelandtheriseofthe
ReligiousRightinthe1980s.Oneeschewedpoliticalengagementwithsecularstructures,while

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

theotherclearlybelievedgovernmentaleffortswereneededtoadvancecomponentsoftheir
faith.Insteadofforsakingpoliticaleffortsforuniquelyreligiousissues,differencesinthese
individualsunderstandingsrelatedbacktotheirfundamentalworldviews.EmersonandSmith
(2000)reportedthatforwhiteevangelicals,absentfromtheiraccountsistheideathatpoor
relationshipsmightbeshapedbysocialstructures,suchaslaws,thewaysinstitutionsoperate,or
formsofsegregationtheyoftenfindstructuralexplanationsirrelevantorevenwrongheaded
(p.78).Incontrast,thoughblackevangelicalsinterviewedsharedsimilarviewsaboutsinand
humandepravity,theywerequicktopointtothesestructuralcausesandseekopportunitiesfor
theirreform(Emerson&Smith,2000).AfocusgroupstudybyFriesenandWagner(2012)that
includedmembersofsevenChristiandenominationsechoedthissentiment:liberal
denominationsandchurchesemphasizedjusticeandChristianloveinregardstosocialjustice
efforts,whilemembersoftheconservativedenominationsprioritizedindividualsalvationand
oneononerelationshipbuilding.
ThemoralcosmologyframeworkcapturesthisambivalenceinChristiantheology.Under
thistheoreticalperspective,thereligiouslyorthodoxybelieveindividualsaremembersofa
communitythatisultimatelysubjecttotheauthorityofGod(Starks&Robinson,2007).Moral
standardshavebeenhandeddownthroughtradition,andeveryoneisobligatedtoobeythem.
Thisworldview,thus,inclinesthecommunitytoseektoenforcetraditionalmoralityuponits
members.Indeed,themoralcosmologyframeworkhasdemonstratedthislinkbetweenfeelings
ofcommunitarianismandreligiousorthodoxy(Ryle&Robinson,2006),helpingtoexplainthe
conservativetheologyandliberaleconomicpolicyofthisgroup(Starks&Robinson,2007).
Thosewithamodernistviewpossessanindividualistictheologyandmoralitythatleadsthemto

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

adoptmoreliberalvalues,whilepreferringconservativeeconomicpolicies(Davis&Robinson,
1996b;Starks&Robinson,2007).
ThoughformalizedbyDavisandRobinsons(1996a,1996b,1996c)seriesinresponseto
Hunter(1991),theprinciplesofmoralcosmologyareevidentinseveralstudiespredatingthe
term.Greeley(1993)andEllisonandSherkat(1993)foundthatbeliefsreflectiveofan
orthodoxyorientationwerepredictiveofbothpoliticalattitudesandchildrearingvaluesina
mannerconsistentwithlaterstudies.Inparticular,StarksandRobinsons(2007)studylargely
replicatedEllisonandSherkat(1993)usingthemoralcosmologyframeworkandprovideddirect
supportfortheroleoforthodoxyinparentingstyles.BaderandFroese(2005)andFarrell(2011)
indicatedthatorthodoxviewsofGodasauthoritarianandthesourceofmoralauthorityare
predictiveofconservativesocialvalues.BrintandAbrutyns(2010)measureofmoral
traditionalismpredictedconservativepoliticalbeliefsfortheAmericanpublic,overandabove
theinfluenceofreligiouscommitment,parentchildideologies,andclassandgeographical
cultures.However,theorientationstowardthesevaluesdonotnecessarilytranslateinto
sustainedpoliticaleffort.DriskellandLyon(2011)investigatedtheinfluencethatparticular
beliefshaveonbothcivicandpoliticalengagement,anddeterminedthatbeliefsreflectinga
moralorthodoxywerepredictiveoflessengagementinbothcategories.Qualitativeevidence
fromFriesenandWagner(2012)indicatethatthosewithasociallyconservativeworldviewmay
consulttheirbeliefsinmakingpoliticaldecisions,butGodsstillincontrol,andtheoutcome
matterslittleintheentiretyofGodsplan(p.241).Thesebeliefsmayfuelthedepressionin
theirengagementlevels.

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

Moralcosmologytheory,then,isanattractiveoptionfordeterminingtheinfluenceof
beliefsuponattitudesandbehavior.Indeed,somehavealreadycalledforconceptualizing
religionasaworldview(e.g.,Johnson,Hill,&Cohen,2011;Peterson,2001).Evenwithin
Christiancircles,thecharacterizationofChristianityasaholisticworldviewisnotnew.
Schaeffers(1976)Howshallwethenlive?articulatedacomprehensiveChristianvaluesystem.
HelaterpublishedanadditionalcallforChristianactioninAChristianmanifesto.Themanifesto
(sotermedtodrawuponmemoriesoftheCommunistandHumanistmanifestos)outlinedhiscall
foramassivemovementtocombatwhatheseesastheabolitionoftruthandmoralitybythe
materialisticfinalrealityworldview(1981,p.20)thatstandsinstarkcontrasttotheChristian
worldview.ChuckColsonandNancyPearceys(1999)adaptationHownowshallwelive?was
anupdatedcallforaholisticvisionoffaith.GenuineChristianityisawayofseeingand
comprehendingallreality.Itisaworldview(p.15,emphasisinoriginal),theywrite.Inthese
books,SchaefferandColsonseektorevitalizeChristianityanditspowertotransformtheworld.
UsingDavis&Robinsons(1996a,1996b,1996c)moralcosmologytheoryallowsresearchersto
accountfortheseeminginconsistenciesbetweenorthodoxyandmodernism,aswellasframing
thediscussionattheappropriatelevelofworldview.
Culturaltheory
Wheremoralcosmologytheoryplacesitsemphasisontheindividualsbeliefsonmoral
authorityandindividual/communitariantheology,culturaltheoryderivesfromindividuals
preferencesasorientedbytheirsurroundingculture.Beliefsmayplayrole,then,butthelarger
culturalsurroundingshapesoneschoicesforpreferencestoagreaterdegree.Culturaltheory
emergedfromtheintersectionofanthropologicalstudiesandstudiesonbeliefformationandrisk

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

perception(Douglas&Wildavsky,1982)undertheguidanceofAaronWildavsky(1987).
Wildavskyemphasizestheendogenousformationofpreferences,drivenbysocialinteractions
andthevaluessystemofwhichoneshareandisapartof.Culturaltheoryrestsupontwo
dimensions:group,assessingthestrengthofgroupbonds;andgrid,describingthenumberand
varietyofsocietalprescriptions.Thesetwodimensionscreateamodeloffourculturetypes:
hierarchicalcollectivism,aculturewithstrongsocialbondsandextensivesocietalrestrictions;
competitiveindividualism,aculturewithweaksocialbondsandfewlimitations;egalitarianism,
characterizedbystronggroupbondsandfewsocietalmandates;andapatheticfatalism,aculture
withweaksocialbondsandmanyrestrictions(JenkinsSmith,Silva,Gupta,&Ripberger,2014).
ThoughWildavskys(1987)theoryemployedavarietyofindirectevidencefromhis
previousworkwithDouglas(1982)andKarlDake(1990),aswellasresearchonheuristicsand
decisionmaking(Sniderman,Brody,&Tetlock,1991),Gastil,Braman,Kahan,andSlovic
(2005)notethatlittleotherevidenceexistedtoverifythetheory.Toremedytheinadequacy,they
constructedtheWildavskyheuristicofculturalorientationandmeasureditspredictiveability
foravarietyofpoliticalattitudes.Theyfoundconsiderablesupportforculturaltheory,asit
predictedattitudesinthepatternhypothesized,andtoagreaterdegreethanevendemographic,
ideological,andpartisanindicatorscould(Gastiletal.,2005).Culturaltheoryhassincebeen
appliedtoavarietyoftheorieswithinpoliticalscience,demonstratingitsbroadefficacy
(Swedlow,2014).InaSpecialIssueofThePolicyStudiesJournal,culturaltheorysrelevance
wasappliedtoexistingtheoriessuchasAdvocacyCoalitionTheory,theNarrativePolicy
Framework,andPunctuatedEquilibriumTheory(JenkinsSmithetal.,2014;Jones,2014;
Ripberger,Gupta,Silva,&JenkinsSmith,2014;Robinson,2014),aswellasmorespecifictests

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

ofitsinfluenceonminipublics(Ney&Verweij,2014),supportforchildhoodvaccination(Song,
Silva,&JenkinsSmith,2014),expertcredibilityandtrust(Lachapelle,Montpetit,&Gauvin,
2014),andcollaborativepolicynetworkresearch(Weare,Lichterman,&Esparza,2014).
Despitethisgrowingbodyofempiricalsupportforculturaltheory,littleresearchhas
soughttoapplyittothestudyofreligionandpolitics.OneexceptionisLovelands(2003)study
ontheculturalorientationinfluenceonswitchingreligions.Thefindingsfromhisstudyindicate
thatchildhoodsocialization,anargumentfromrationalchoicetheory,doesnotcreatelasting
religiouspreferences.Instead,theuseofWildavskys(1987)culturaltheoryofpreference
formationwasastrongpredictorofoneslikelihoodofswitchingreligions.Otherstudies
examinethelinkbetweencultureandreligion,butdosoapartfromaculturaltheoryframework.
Smith,Sikkink,andBailey(1998),forexample,testedtheroleofSoutherncultureindeveloping
andsustainingreligiousandfoundthatindividualslivingintheSoutharemorelikelytoattend
churchandbelievetheirfaithisimportant,regardlessofwhethertheyhadlivedtheirentirelife
orhadmovedthemfromoutsidetheSouth.Inafurtherdemonstrationofthepowerofculture,
theyfoundthatindividualsraisedintheSouththatmigratedoutsideoftheSouthdemonstrateda
decreaseinchurchattendanceandtheirattachedimportancetotheirfaith(Smithetal.,1998).
Culture,then,mayclearlyplayaroleinindividualsbehaviorsandbeliefs,andculturaltheory
offersawelltestedframeworktostudytherelationshipsbetweenreligionandpolitics.Indeed,
Olson(2011)wasanattempttoconceptuallylinkculturaltheorytoothertheoretical
perspectives.Empiricalcomparisonsofculturaltheoryandothertheoriesofpoliticsandreligion
shouldbepursued.
Integrationofmoralcosmologyandculturaltheory

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

10

Atfirstglance,moralcosmologyandculturaltheorymayseemberelatedintheir
explanationsofbeliefformationandbehavior.However,somestudieshaveindicatedthetwo
mayexerttheirowninfluencesonreligiousbeliefs.StarksandRobinson(2009)examinedthe
rolethatmoralcosmologyandsubculturalidentity(asubcategoryofculturaltheory)playin
determiningculturalandeconomicbeliefs.Theyfoundthatbothhaveindependenteffects,
sometimesinoppositedirections,andneitherfullyaccountsfortheother(Starks&Robinson,
2009).Lichterman(2008)offeredausefuldistinctionbetweenthetwoapproaches,referringto
themoralcosmologyapproachasfocuseduponbeliefs,whilethesubculturalidentityapproach
accountsfordifferencesthatmayexistbetweenanindividualsbeliefsandthebeliefsofthe
groupwithwhichtheyidentify.OnelimitingfactorofStarkandRobinsons(2009)method,
however,istheuseofselfidentificationratherthanexaminingtheculturalorientationsthat
underlieoneschoice.Thisisimportantforseveralreasons.First,asobservedabove,religious
groupsarenotinternallyconsistentandmayreflectavarietyofbeliefsandattitudes(Davis&
Robinson,1996b;Jelen,1990).Additionally,manygroupsareeagertoavoididentifyingwith
particulargroupsforissuesrelatedtopoorlabeling,unrelatedtotheactualbeliefsofthegroup.
Ininterviewswithwhathetermsnewevangelicals,Markham(2010)foundthatthemost
commonreligiousidentificationwasFollowerofChrist.Oneparticipantsayshe/sheidentified
thiswaybecausethelabelChristianhasgottensoskewedandperverted(p.14).Determining
onescosmologicalbeliefsandunderlyingculturalpreferencesmayprovideaclearer
understandingoftheseindividuals.
Afurtheradvantageofcomparingthesetheoriescomesfromtheinterrelatednatureof
somebeliefsandtheculturalvaluesthatmayinfluencetheorganizationofthesebeliefs.Beliefin

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

11

aliteralBibleisoftenusedasameasureofonesorthodoxy,fundamentalism,orevangelicalism
(Bader&Froese,2005;Franzen,2013)orasindependentvariables(Driskell&Lyon,2011;
Greeley,1993).However,biblicalliteralismmayoperateattheindividuallevel,orbereflective
ofthesurroundingcommunitysvaluesystemsandpreferences.JohnBartkowski(1996)
demonstratedtherolethatanindividualsprejudicesbringtohisreadingofthetext,while
Ronald(2012)arguedthatevenreadingaloneisinfluencedbythevaluesofthecommunity
surroundingthereader.Thiseffectoftheinterpretivecommunity,infact,isattenuatedby
biblicalliteralism.Franzen(2013)foundthattherelationshipbetweenBiblereadingand
conservativevalueswasonlypresentfornonliteralists.Forliteralistsintheirsample,theeffectof
theinterpretivecommunitymadeanyeffectofBiblereadingontheirmoralandpolitical
attitudesnegligible.
Othereffectsofbeliefsmaybemaskedbytherolethatculturemayplay,orviceversa.
MeasuresofintrinsicreligiosityarepredictiveofMormonsocialvolunteerism,butnotpredictive
ofCatholicandnonCatholicChristianvolunteerism,arelationshiphypothesizedtobereflective
oftheMormoncommunitysparticularemphasisontheimportanceofreligion(Johnson,Cohen,
&Okun,2013).Religiousgroupswithadistinctiveculture,suchasCatholicandEpiscopal
denominations,displayahigherrateofretentioncomparedtootherdenominations(Loveland,
2003).Finally,conservativetheologicalbeliefs,includingbiblicalliteralism,maybeshared
amongwhite,black,andLatinoChristians,butthesebeliefsdonotreflectastandardized
conservativepoliticalattitude(McKenzie&Rouse,2013).Rather,thethreegroupsreflect
diverseandattimesopposedpoliticalbeliefs.Itisevidentthattheirethnicandracial
backgroundsareinfluencingtherelationshipoftheirreligiousbeliefstotheirpoliticalattitudes.

COMPARINGTHEORETICALPERSPECTIVES

12

Conclusion
Moralcosmologyandculturaltheoryhavebothdemonstratedanabilitytoassessthe
natureoftherelationshipbetweenreligiousbeliefsandpoliticalbehavior.Moreimportantly,
eachhasdemonstrateditsownabilitytoanswerfundamentalquestionsrelatedtohowthese
beliefsareformed;formoralcosmologyitliesinthequestionofhowanindividualrelatesto
Godandhissurroundings,andforculturaltheoryitliesinthequestionofhowcultureinfluences
anindividualschoiceofpreferences.Duetotheinterrelatednatureofbeliefsandculture,
however,anexaminationofeachoftheseconceptsisrequiredinordertobetterunderstandthe
relationshipbetweenreligionandpolitics.Fortunately,theliteraturedocumentsuggeststhe
practicalityofsuchanendeavor.
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