Coating Flows

ANNUAL
REVIEWS
Ann.
1985.
17: 65--89
Ann. Rev.
Rev. Fluid
FluidMech.
Mech.
1985.17:65~9
Copyright
1985
1985bybyAnnual
Annual
Reviews
Inc.AllAllrights
rights reserved
reserved
Copyright
Reviews
Inc.
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COATING
COATING FLOWS
FLOWS
Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech. 1985.17:65-89. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
by University of Wyoming on 09/07/13. For personal use only.
Kenneth
J. Ruschak
Kenneth J.
Ruschak
Research Laboratories
Laboratories, , Eastman
EastmanKodak
Kodak Company,
Research
CompanyRochester,
, Rochester,
NewYork
York14650
14650
New
Introduction
Introduction
Acoating
coating
flow
fluidflow
thatisis useful for covering
large surface
surface area
area
A
flow
is isa afluid
flow that
coveringaa large
with
one
or
more
thin
,
uniform
liquid
layers.
The
liquid
film
is
subsequently
with one or morethin, uniformliquid layers. The liquid film is subsequently
driedororcured
curedand
andoften
oftenserves
servestotoprotect
protector
ordecorate
decoratethe
thesubstrate.
substrate.The
film
dried
Thefilm
may
also
serve
a
more
active
function
,
such
as
the
recording
of
information
mayalso serve a moreactive function, such as the recording of information..
Afamiliar
familiarcoating
coatingflow
flowisis that
that associated
associatedwith
withthe
the application
applicationof
of paint
paint by
by
A
brush
or
roller.
Although
everyday
painting
experience
may
suggest
that
brush or roller. Although everyday painting experience maysuggest that
theproblem
problem
applying
a thin
liquid
layer
a surface
a trivialone,
onethis
, thisisis
the
of of
applying
a thin
liquid
layer
to atosurface
is aistrivial
notthe
thecase.
case. In
industrial applications
havetotobe
be
not
In industrial
applications,, the
the layer
layer thickness
thicknessmay
mayhave
very
Moreover,,aawide
verysmall
smalland
andatatthe
the same
sametime
timehighly
highly accurate.
accurate.Moreover
widerange
rangeofof
theologies
often
thetheproperties
rheologiesare
areencountered,
encountered,and
and
often
propertiesofofthe
theliquid
liquid are
are not
not
adjustable
purpose ofofcoating.
For productivity
adjustablefor
forthe
the purpose
coating.For
productivityreasons
reasonsaa high
high speed
speed
ofof application
mayhave
application may
maybeberequired,
required, and
andseveral
severaldiscrete
discrete layers
layers may
havetotobe
be
applied
As aa result
off such
such demands
demands,, attempts
applied simultaneously.
simultaneously. As
result o
attemptstotouse
use aa
specific coating
coating process
processfor
for aa given
givenapplication
applicationfrequently
frequentlyfail.
fail.The
liquid
specific
The liquid
layer
not
bebecontinuous,
and
if it
longitudinal or transverse
transverse wavesor
layermay
may
not
continuous
, and
if itis,
is, longitudinal
or
streaksmay
maybebeobserved.
observed.ItItisis also common
beentrained
entrainedby
bythe
the
streaks
forforairairtotobe
substratealong
alongwith
withthe
theliquid.
liquid.
substrate
Thetheoretical
theoreticalfluid-mechanics
fluid-mechanics
problem
isfirsttotoidentify
identifyaa prospective
The
problem
is first
prospective
steady, two-dimensional,
two-dimensionalfilm-forming
, film-forming
flowgiven
, given
liquidproperties,
properties, the
the
steady,
flow,
thetheliquid
coating
coatingthickness,
thickness, and
andthe
theapplication
applicationspeeds
speedsof ofinterest.
interest. This
Thisstep
stepisis
complicated
flows are
flows and
complicated bybythe
thefact
factthat
that coating
coatingflows
are free-boundary
free-boundaryflows
and
thereforeinherently
inherentlynonlinear;
nonlinear; that
thatis,is, the region
bythe
the
therefore
region in space
space occupiedby
flowingliquid
liquidisisnot
notknown
known
start
factpart
partofofthe
the solution
solutiontoto
flowing
at at
thethe
start
butbut
is isininfact
the
equations.
Once
a flow
field field
is found,
its, its
stability
thehydrodynamic
hydrodynamic
equations.
Once
aflow
is found
stabilitytoto
disturbancesmust
must
evaluatedFinally,
. Finally,it itisis necessary
to predict
disturbances
bebe
evaluated.
necessary to
predict whether
whether
the
displace air from
fromthe
Stated inin
theflow
flowwill
willeffectively
effectively displace
the surface
surface to
to be
be coated.
coated. Stated
this
is isanything
butbut
trivial,
thisway,
way, the
thetheoretical
theoretical coating
coatingproblem
problem
anything
trivial,and
andthe
thefact
fact
6565
0066- 4189/85/0115-0065$02.00
0066-4189/85/0115-0065502.00

66 RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
66
that coating
coating technology
technology has
hasdeveloped
developedlargely
largely as
as an
an art
art can
can perhaps
perhaps be
be
that
more
readily
appreciated.
more readily appreciated.
The
dozens
f coating
devices
in use
attest
practical
difficultyofofthe
the
Thedozens
of ocoating
devices
in use
attest
to to
thethe
practical
difficulty
coating
problem
.
Higgins
(1965)
and
Booth
(1970)
have
described
many
coating problem. Higgins (1965) and Booth (1970) have described many of
these.Even
cursoryreview
reviewofofthis
this material
material makes
makesit itevident
evidentthat
thatbasic
basic
these.
Even a acursory
science
has
not
had
a
great
deal
to
do
with
the
development
o
f
the
science has not had a great deal to do with the development of the
technology.
The
outline
by
Kaulakis
(1974)
o
f
the
development
o
f
coating
technology. The outline by Kaulakis (1974) of the development of coating
technologyin
in the
the paper
industry conveys
the same
samemessage.
message.
technology
paper industry
conveys much
muchthe
This
that use
useful
research on
on coating
coatingflows
flows has not
Thisisis not
not to
to say that
ful research
not been
beendone.
done.
Rather, asasinin many
manyother
otherareas
areasofoftechnology,
technology,largely
largelyempirical
empirical developdevelop
Rather,
mentshave
have
outpaced
scientificcapabilities
capabilities and
understanding.Theoretical
ments
outpaced
scientific
and understanding.
Theoretical
andexperimental
experimental
studieshave
haveled
ledtotomany
many
insightsinto
intothe
thestructure
structure and
and
and
studies
insights
stability oof
ffilmformingflows.
,flow
stability
film-forming
flows.For
For the
the most
mostpart
part,, however
however,
flow geometries
geometries
havebeen
beenhighly
highlysimplified
simplifiedand
andthe
themathematical
mathematical
analysesquite
quitelimited
limitedinin
have
analyses
their range
range of
of applicability.
applicability. Methods
simulationofof coating
coating
their
Methodsfor
for computer
computer simulation
flowsunder
undervery
verygeneral
general conditions
conditions have
have been
beenmaturing
maturingrapidly,
rapidly, however,
however,
flows
and
there
that
scientific
and
thereisisreason
reasontotoexpect
expect
that
scientificstudies
studieswill
willhave
havea agreater
greatereffect
effect
onthe
thedevelopment
development
technology
future.
on
of of
thethetechnology
in in
thethefuture.
Nearly
Rectilinear Flow
Fields
Nearly Rectilinear
FlowFields
Consider
the steady,
steady, two-dimensional
two-dimensional flow
of aa Newtonian
Newtonianliquid
liquid ofof
Consider the
flow of
viscosityp" density
densityp,
andsurface
surfacetension
tensiontr.
(J'. Frequently
theflow
flowfields
fi eldsthat
that
viscosity/~,
p, and
Frequentlythe
havebeen
beenstudied
studiedininconnection
connection
with
coating
flows
exhibitnearly
nearlyparallel
parallel
have
with
coating
flows
exhibit
streamlines.
In such
streamlines.In
such cases
cases the
the governing
governingequations
equationscan
canbebesubstantially
substantially
simplifi ed.As
, however
, there
on
simplified.
As will be
beseen
seen,
however,
therehas
hasbeen
beenno
nogeneral
generalagreement
agreementon
which
terms
are
properly
discarded
,
and
frequently
the
limitations
o
f
the
which terms are properly discarded, and frequently the limitations of the
results have
havenot
notbeen
beenclearly
clearlyset
setforth.
fore seems
results
forth. It
It there
therefore
seems worthwhile
worthwhile toto
present
the
equations
scaled
for
nearly
rectilinear
or
quasi-one-dimensional
present the equations scaled for nearly rectilinear or quasi-one-dimensional
flow.
al.(1977)
Higgins
flow. Higgins
Higgins etet al.
(1977)and
and
Higgins&&Scriven
Scriven(1979)
(1979) have
have developed
developed the
equations
and
solution
strategies
more
generally.
equations and solution strategies more generally.
Suppose
that
streamlines
nearlyparallel
paralleltotothe
theX
axis, with
withaa
Suppose
that
thethe
streamlines
areare
allallnearly
X axis,
small
characteristic
slope
b
.
The
characteristic
length
in
the
Y
direction
small characteristic slope 3. The characteristic length in the Y direction, , T
T,,
will
be
a
measure
o
f
the
fi
lm
thickness
,
and
it
follows
that
the
characteristic
will be a measureof the film thickness, and it follows that the characteristic
lengthininthe
theX
directionisisT/b
characteristicspeed
speedininthe
theX
direction,
length
X direction
T/6..The
The characteristic
X direction,
S
,
is
usually
the
speed
o
f
the
substrate.
For
a
nontrivial
result
,
the
two
terms
S, is usually the speed of the substrate. For a nontrivial result, the twoterms
inin the
bebe
ofofthethesame
size;
the continuity
continuity equation
equationmust
must
same
sizethis
; thisimplies
impliesthat
thatthe
the
characteristic
is is6S.
flow the
characteristicspeed
speedininthe
theYYdirection
direction
bS.In
Instrictly
strictlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
the
streamwisepressure
pressuregradient
gradientisisbalanced
balancedbybythe
thetransverse
transversegradient
gradientofofthe
the
streamwise
shearstress.
stress.The
scaling for
forthe
thepressure
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
shear
Thescaling
pressure ininnearly
flow,, J.lS/bT
I~S/6T,,
follows
whenthe
thesame
sametwo
two
termsarearebalanced.
balanced.With
With
as the
the dimension
follows when
terms
x,x, y as
dimension-
less coordinates,
coordinates, u,u,v vasasthe
less
thecorresponding
corresponding dimensionless
dimensionless velocity
velocity compo
compo-
nents,
the dimensionless
dimensionless pressure
pressure,
themomentum
momentum
and
nents, and
andpp as the
, the
andcontinuity
continuity
67
COATING
FLOWS 67
COATING FLOWS
equationsscaled
scaledforfornearly
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
are
equations
flow are
r8(uux+
) ==-Px+Uyy+8
2uxx+g
r5(UUx
+vUy
vur)
-- Px + u, + ~2uxx
+ cos cbs
0, e,
1)
((1)

r8
vVy) =
rf3(UVx
+ vvr)
= --_py+8
py 62vry
+ 6*Vxx +6gsin0,sine,
3(uvx+
2Vyy+84vxx+8g
ux+vy=O.
Ux+V
r = O.
the
In
these equations,
equations, r=
In these
r =pST
pST/la
is the
theReynolds
Reynoldsnumber
number,, g#==pGT
pGT2/#S
/p, is
2/p,Sis isthe
inverse
Stokes
number
,
and
the
components
of
the
g
ravitational
vector
are
inverse Stokes number, and the componentsof the gravitational vector are
cos
e,
G
sin
e.
When
82
1
,
all
but
one
of
the
viscous
terms
can
be
G
G cos 0, G sin 0. When32 << 1, all but one of the viscous terms can be
neg
lected
,
and
the
simpli
fied
equations
for
nearly
rectilinear
flow
result.
It
neglected, and the simplified equationsfor nearly rectilinear flow result. It isis
alsocommonly
commonly
assumed
r8 1so
1 that
so that
inertialterms
termsare
arenegligible.
neg lig ible.
also
assumed
that that
r6 <<
thethe
inertial
These
the lubrication
approximation
Thesesimplifications
simplifications are
are referred
referred to as the
lubrication approximation
becausethey
theyare
arefrequently
frequently made
madeininlubrication
lubrication problems.
problems.The
Theresulting
resulting
because
equations
le
a
d
to
a
parabolic
velocity
pro
file
as
in
rectilinear
flow
;
however
,
equations lead to a parabolic velocity profile as in rectilinear flow; however,
the
pro
file
is
slowly
varying
in
the
X
direction
,
unlik
e
rectilinear
flow.
the profile is slowly varying in the X direction, unlike rectilinear flow.
In
Inaddition
addition toto the
the customary
customaryno-slip
no-slip boundary
boundarycondition
conditionatatsolid
solid
boundaries,
and kinematic
boundaries, traction
traction and
k inematic boundary
boundaryconditions
conditionsmust
mustbebeapplied
applied
the dynamic
dynamiceffects
effects of
of the
the
ex). Usually
theliquid/air
liquid/air interface
interface yy==hh(x).
atat the
Usually the
ambient
arenegligible,
neg lig ible, and
andthe
thetraction
traction exerted
exertedby
bythe
theflowing
liquid on
on
ambient
airairare
flowing liquid
the
The
the curved
curvedmeniscus
meniscusis isbalanced
balancedbybythetheaction
actionofofsurface
surfacetension.
tension. The
traction boundary
condition can
can be
be resolved
and
traction
boundary condition
resolved into
into components
components normal
normal and
tangential
andthe
the tang
tangential
componentcan
tang ential to
to the
the interface,
interface, and
ential component
canbe
beused
usedtoto
simplify
normal component
componenttotoobtain
simplify the normal
obtain
+J2h;),
ux(1++c:52h;)/(I-c:52h;)+(J3/c)hxx/(1
0 = pp+2J2
+ 232u~(1
62hx~)/(1- 6~h2~)+(33/c)hxx/(162h~2),
0=
(2)
(2)
2) - 4~2hxux,
xux,
0 = (u(Uy+c:52vx)
- c~2hx
(I-J2h;)-4c:52h
0=
r + 32Vx)(1
where
number.These
These boundary
wherecc == #S/a
the capillary
capillary number.
boundaryconditions
conditionsalso
also
p,S/(J isisthe
simplify
simplify greatly
g reatly when
whenthe
theterms
termsestimated
estimatedtotobebeofoforder
order62
c:52 are
areneglected.
neg lected.
The
k inematicboundary
boundary
condition
expressesthethefact
factthat
thatthe
the
The kinematic
condition
v v= =hxu
hxuexpresses
liquid
liquiddoes
doesnot
notcross
crossthe
theinterface.
interface.
Film
at Small
Film Formation
Formation at
Small Capillary
CapillaryNumber
Number
Ingeneral,
general, filmformingflows
are strongly
dimensional, and
and simple
simple
In
film-forming
flows are
strongly two
two dimensional,
relationships
relationships between
between the
theparameters
parametersofofthetheflow
flowfield
fieldare
arenot
notreadily
readily
obtainable. However
&Levich
Levich(1942)
havederived
deriveda asimple
simple
obtainable.
However,, Landau
Landau &
(1942) have
relationship for
forfilm
small capillary
capillary number
(see also
alsoLevich
relationship
film formation
formation atat small
number(see
Levich
1962
1962).
).
Suppose
that
D isis much
Suppose
thatthethefinal
finalfilm
film thickness
thicknessD
muchless
lessthan
thanthe
theoverall
overall
length
flowfield
field when
whenthe
is issmall
leng thscale
scaleofof the
theflow
thecapillary
capillary number
number
small(Figure
(Fig ure1).
1).
Viscouseffects
effects are
are then
then important
import antover
overthe
thelength
lengthscale
scaleD
theregion
reg ion
Viscous
D ofofthe
where
thethefilm
outside this
region
where
filmisis entrained,
entrained, but
butthey
theyare
are negligible
neg lig ible outside
this reg
ion where

68 RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
68
thegross
g ross shape
shapeofof the
themeniscus
meniscusisis controlled
controlled by
bysurface
surface tension
tension and
and aa
the
hydrostatic
pressure
field.
Because
the
film
is
relatively
thin
,
this
static
hydrostatic pressure field. Becausethe film is relatively thin, this static
meniscus
to tobebetangent
to tothethemoving
IfIfthe
meniscusappears
appears
tang ent
movingsubstrate.
substrate.
theradius
radiusofof
curvatureofofthe
thestatic
static meniscus
meniscusatatits
its apparent
pointofof tangency
tang encyisisR,
then
curvature
apparent point
R, then
R,
and
the
supposition
the
overall
scale
of
the
flow
field
can
be
tak
en
as
the overall scale of the flow field can be taken R, and the supposition isis
thatD
that
D <<
R.
R. Viscous
Viscous effects
effects combine
combine with
with surface
surface tension
tension to
to determine
determine
meniscus
shape
fi lm-entrainment
reg ion
, where
flow
lik elytotobe
be
meniscusshape
in in
thethe
film-entrainment
region,
,where
thethe
flow
is islikely
nearly
(since the
the static
static meniscus
meniscusap
approaches
p roachesthe
thesubstrate
substrateatat a
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinear(since
shallow
By balancing viscous
Equation
shallowangle).
ang le).By
viscous and
andsurface-tension
surface-tension terms
terms inEquation
1/3 in
(2),
followsthat
thatJ 3"",~c1/3
i n the
t hefifilm-entrainment
gion.
(2) , it follows
lm-entrainmentrereg
ion.
A
Landau &
to toidentify
Amajor
majorcontribution
contributionofofLandau
&Levich
Levichwas
was
identify aa matching
condition
film-entrainment and
They found
conditionfor
for the
thefilm-entrainment
andstatic-meniscus
static-meniscus regions.
reg ions.They
found
that
the meniscus
meniscuscurvature
film-entrainment region
thatifif the
curvatureinin the
thefilm-entrainment
reg ionisisof
of order
order 1/R
1/R
where
wherethe
thetwo
tworegions
reg ionsoverlap,
overlap, then
thenthe
thetwo
tworegions
reg ionswill
will blend
blendtogether
tog ether
smoothly.
film-entrainment
smoothly.In
Inthe
thefi
lm-entrainmentregion,
reg ion, where
wherethe
theslope
slopeof
of the
the meniscus
relative
small,, the
the curvature
curvature is g given
by the
relative to
to the
the substrate
substrate is small
iven by
the second
second
derivative
distance along
along the
derivativeofoffifilm
lm thickness
thick ness with
with respect
respect to
to distance
the substrate
substrate and
and
thus
t52/D.Equating
Equatingthis
thisestimate
estimatetotothe
thecurvature
curvatureofofthe
thestatic
static
thusisis of
of order
orderJ2/D.
meniscus
near
region,
meniscus
nearthe
thefilm-entrainment
fi lm-entrainment
reg ionl/R,
, I/R, gives
g ivesaasecond
secondestimate
estimatefor
for
~/2. When
J,
namely(D/R)
(D/R)1/2.
two
estimatesareareequated,
equated,a arelationship
relationship
3, namely
Whenthethetwo
estimates
between
fi nalfilm
filmthickness
thick nessand
andthe
theradius
radiusofofcurvature
curvatureofofthe
thestatic
static
between
thethe
final
meniscus
at
its
apparent
point
of
tang
ency
with
the
substrate
results
:
meniscusat its apparent point of tangency with the substrate results :
D/R 2/
= a.
1.34c
(3)
(3)
The
constantofofproportionality
proportionalityisis determined
throug haadetailed
detailed treatment
treatment
The constant
determined through
ofofthe
Deryaginin&&Levi
Levi
(1964,
(1964p.
, p.37)
37)derived
derivedthis
this particular
particular form
form
the equations.
equations. Deryag
ofthe result.
result .Ruschak
) and
shown that
ofthe
Ruschak(1974
(1974,, 1976
1976)
andWilson
Wilson(1982
(1982)) have
have shown
Equation(3)
valid
asas
cc-,-+ O.
Equation
(3is
) isasymptotically
asymptotically
valid
For
(3)
flow in
ForEquation
Equation
useful, the
theflow
in the
thefifilm-entrainment
lm-entrainment region
reg ion
(3)totobebeuseful,
must
rectilinear,
mustbebenearly
nearly
rectilinear, and
andinertial
inertial and
andgravitational
g ravitationaleffects
effects must be
be
negligible
Referring toEquations
Equations (1
(1)) and
(2) and
and using
Equation (3)
neg lig ible there.
there.Referring
and(2)
using Equation
and
forfor
3 bjust
derived,
restrictions
just
derivedthese
, these
restrictionsare,
are,respectively,
respectively,
andthetheestimate
estimate
C2/3
<< 1
1,, pS2
pS2R/t~
and
Be1/3 cos
cosf}
0 <<
where
B=
pGR2/eisis the
theBond
Bond
C2/3
R/a <<1,1,and
BC1/3
1, 1,
where
B=
pGR2/a
Figure 11 Film
Filmformation
formationatatsmall
smallcapilcapil
Figure
lary numbers.
lary
numbers.
COATING
COATING FLOWS
FLOWS
69
69
number.
Althougthese
h these
restrictionsare
arequite
quitesevere,
severe, the
the equation
equationnevernever
number.
Although
restrictions
helps
to
explain
some
of
the
basic
characteristics
of
various
coating
theless
theless helps to explain someof the basic characteristics of various coating
flows, as
as will
will now
beseen.
seen.
flows,
nowbe

Premetered Coating
Flows
Premetered
Coating Flows
In
precisioncoating
coating itit isis not
ness to
In precision
not desirable
desirable for
for the
the coating
coating thick
thickness
to depend
depend
upon
thatthat
areare
difficult
uponthetheviscosity
viscosityofofthe
theliquid
liquidororother
otherparameters
parameters
difficulttoto
control
In premetered
premeteredcoating
controlprecisely.
precisely.In
coatingflows,
flows, the
thecoating
coating thickness
thick nessisis an
an
independent
thatthat
cancan
be be
varied
within
limits.
independentparameter
parameter
varied
within
limits.Slide
Slide and
andcurtain
curtain
coating
coating are
areexamples
examplesofofpremetered
premeteredcoating
coating flows.
flows.
Consider the
coater shown
shown in
Figure
Consider
the simple
simple slot
slot coater
in Fig
ure 22 under
under the
the same
same
limiting
the analysis
analysisofof
Landau
Levich(Ruschak
(Ruschak1976).
limiting conditions
conditions as
as in the
Landau
&&Levich
1976) .
More
byby
Higgins
&&Scriven
(1980).
Moregeneral
g eneralgeometries
g eometrieshave
havebeen
beenanalyzed
analyzed
Hig g ins
Scriven
(1980) .
Thetwo
two
staticmenisci
meniscithat
that must
mustbe
beconsidered
consideredare
arethe
thecoating
coating meniscus,
meniscus,
The
static
which
forms
thethefilm,
which
forms
film, and
andthe
thewetting
wetting meniscus,
meniscus, which
whichdisplaces
displacesair
airfrom
fromthe
the
substrate.It
thatthese
thesemenisci
menisci
aresososmall
small(B
(B<<
1)
1) that
thatgravity
g ravity
substrate.
It is presumed
presumedthat
are
doesnot
not
affecttheir
theirshape,
shape, which
whichisistherefore
thereforecircular.
circular.In
practice, aa pressure
does
affect
In practice,
pressure
differenceIlP
maintainedacross
acrossthe
theliquid
liquidin
in the
the ggap
ap between
betweenthe
theslot
slot and
difference
APisis maintained
and
the
whereIlP
AP isis the amount
amount by
the substrate,
substrate, where
by which
whichthe
theambient
ambientpressure
pressure
downstream
of of
thethecoating
downstream
coating meniscus
meniscusexceeds
exceedsthat
thatupstream
upstreamofofthe
thewetting
wetting
meniscus.The
Thecoating
coating meniscus
meniscusmust
must
bridg the
e thegap
g apEE between
between
theslot
slot and
and
meniscus.
bridge
the
thesubstrate
substrateand
andmust
must
tang ent
substrateatatits
its apparent
apparentpoint
pointofof
the
bebetangent
to to
thethesubstrate
contact.On
purelygeometric
g eometric
g rounds
, thenits
, itsradius
radius ofofcurvature
curvatureR,
R, asas
contact.
On purely
grounds,
then,
computed
from
Equation
) usingthethedesired
desiredcoating
coating conditions,
conditions, cannot
cannot
computed
from
Equation
(3)(3using
smallerthan
thanE/2
restrictions on
the requirement
bebesmaller
E/2.. Further
Further restrictions
onRR follow from the
requirement
thatthe
the wetting
wetting meniscus
meniscusbridge
bridg ethe
thegap
g apbetween
between
theslot
slotand
andthe
thesubstratc
substrate
that
the
andintersect
intersect the
the substrate
contactangle
ang le'((Dussan
and
substrate at
at the
theapparent
apparentdynamic
dynamiccontact
(Dussan
l
s
Figure 2
numbers.
numbers.
Slot coater
Slot
coater at
at small
small capillary
capillary

7070 RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
V.1979),
1979), as
as shown
ure2.2.The
complexsubject
subjectofof dynamic
dynamicwetting
wetting isis
V.
shownininFig
Figure
The complex
covered
. ininthe
thefinal
section of
of this
; here
, the
contactangle
ang leisis
.covered
final section
this review
review;
here,
thedynamic
dynamiccontact
presumed
presumedtotobe
be known.
known.
Thegeo,
g emetrical
metrical restrictions
restrictions on
the radius
of curvature
curvature of
of the
the coating
coating
The
on the
radius of
meniscus
are
summarized
in
Fig
ure
3
,
which
was
drawn
for
a
dynamic
meniscus are summarized in Figure 3, which was drawn for a dynamic
. The
contactangle
angleofof 120
120.
coating meniscus
meniscusis isfree
to ado
pt any
anyradius
radiusofof
contact
The coating
free to
adopt
curvature
within
a
rang
e
o
f
values
that
de
p
ends
u
pon
the
im
posed
pres
curvature within a range of values that depends Uponthe imposed pressure
differential.
When
the
flow
rate
is
im
posed
at
a
g
iven
s
p
eed
,
thus
sure differential. Whenthe flow rate is imposed at a given speed, thus
D,
the
coating
meniscus
ado
pts
the
determining
the
coating
thickness
determining the coating thickness D, the coating meniscus adopts the
radius
o
f
curvature
necessary
to
satis
f
y
Equation
(3)
,
as
long
as
this
radius
radius of curvature necessary to satisfy Equation(3), as long as this radius
satisfies the
the inequalities
inequalities depicted
depictedininFig
ure3.3. If
If any
anyofofthe
theinequalities
inequa-litiesisis
satisfies
Figure
violated
,
then
coating
a
uni
form
layer
under
the
s
p
eci
fied
conditions
not
violated, then coating a uniform layer under the specified conditions isisnot
44
APE
PE
(J
2
Z-
S
I-cos ~
I-cos
---.-o04---I
-I-cos
-I-cos~
-R
R
-I-I
~. Fioure
Figure 3
3 Possible
Possiblevalues
valuesfor
forthe
theradius
radius of
of curvature
curvature R
Rof
ofthe
the coating
coating meniscus
meniscusfor
forthe
the slot
slot
coater at
at small
coater
smallcapillary
capillarynumbers.
numbers.

COATING
COATING FLOWS
FLOWS
7171
showsthat
thata apressure
pressuredifference
differenceacross
acrossthe
thegap
gapincreases
increases
possible. Figure
Figure33 shows
possible.
theutility
util ity of
to adopt
adopt
the
ofthe
thecoating
coatingdevice
deviceby
byenabling
enabling the
the coating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusto
hig hercurvatures
curvaturesand
andthus
thusproduce
producethinner
thinnercoatings.
coating s.
higher
Accordingto toFigure
Fig ure
theradius
radiusofof curvature
curvature of
of the
the coating
coating meniscus
According
3,3, the
meniscus
canbebearbitrarily
arbitr arilylarge.
larg e. This
becausethe
theeffect
effect of
of g gravity
ravity on
the shape
can
This isis because
on the
shapeofof
coatingmeniscus
meniscushas
hasbeen
been
neglectedIf
. Ifgravity
gravityis isretained
retainedininthe
the
the coating
the
neglected.
analysis, there
there is
is an
limit to
to the
the radius
radius of
of curvature
curvatureof
of the
the coating
coating
analysis,
an upper
upper limit
meniscusat atitsits point
point of
of tangency
tangencywith
withthe
thesubstrate,
substrate, as
as suggested
suggestedby
bythe
the
meniscus
dashed
dashedline
lineininFigure
Fig ure3.
3.
Tallmadgete et
(1979)experimentally
experimentallystudied
studiedthe
theslide
slidecoater,
coater, in
in which
Tallmadge
al.al.(1979)
which
liquidflows
downananinclined
inclinedplane
planethat
thatends
endsaasmall
smalldistance
distancefrom
the
liquid
flows down
from the
substrate.They
didnot
notimpose
impose
a pressuredifference
differenceacross
acrossthe
thegap.
gap. As
the
substrate.
Theydid
a pressure
As the
speedwas
wasincreased
increasedatatconstant
constantflow
flowrate,
rate, aa point
point was reached
reachedwhere
whereit it
speed
becameimpossible
mpossible
i
preserve aa two-dimensional
two-dimensionalflow.
flow.The
film would
would
became
totopreserve
The film
either narrow
narrow and
and resist
resist being drawn
the proper
proper width
width or,
or, more
either
drawn toto the
more
commonlysplit
, splitinto
into two
twoorormore
more
parts.This
This"split
"split point"
point" marks
the
commonly,
parts.
marks the
crossingofof the
the lower
Figure3.
3. On
theother
otherhand,
hand, asas coating
coating
crossing
lower boundary
boundaryininFigure
On the
speedwas
wasdecreased,
decreased, a apoint
pointwas
wasreached
reachedwhere
where
liquid
speed
notnot
all allofofthetheliquid
suppliedwas
wastaken
takenup
upby
bythe
themoving
substrate, and
dripping was
was observed
observed
supplied
movingsubstrate,
and dripping
below
This "drip
"drip point"
belowthe
thepoint
pointofofapplication.
application.This
point" marks
marksthe
thecrossing
crossingofofthe
the
left, dashed
Fig ure3.
3.
left,
dashed boundary
boundaryininFigure
Coatin9
Flows Metered
Metered by
Coatin9 Meniscus
Meniscus
Coating Flows
by the
the Coating
aIn
self-metering
a self-meteringcoating
coatingflow,
flow,
thecoating
coating thickness
thickness is aadependent
exampleofofaa
the
dependentvariable
variable..The
Thebest-known
best-knownexample
self-metering coating
coatingflow
flowisis free
free withdrawal
ordip
dip coating,
coating, in
in whichthe
the
self-metering
withdrawal,, or
substrateisis withdrawn
withdrawn
from
a larg reservoir
e reservoir
liquid(Figure
(Fig ure4).
4). This
type
substrate
from
a large
ofofliquid
This type
coatingflow
reviewed by
byTallmadge
&Gutfinger
Gutfinger
(1967).In
ofof coating
flow has
has been reviewed
Tallmadge &
(1967).
Equation(3),
meniscusatat the
Equation
(3), R,
R, the
theradius
radius ofofcurvature
curvatureofofthe
the static
staticmeniscus
the coating
coating
point,
point, isis uniquely
uniquely determined
determined by
bythethehydrostatic
hydrostaticpressure
pressurefield
field toto be
be
[a/2pG(1
++sinsin~)]t/2.
Unlike premetered
[o/2pG(1
O()] 1/2. Unlik
premeteredcoating,
coating the
, theradius
radiusofofcurvature
curvatureof
of
the
is isnot
thecoating
coating meniscus
meniscus
notfree
freetotovary,
vary, with
withthe
theresult
resultthat
that the
the coating
coating
thicknessbecomes
becomes
thedependent
dependent
variable
Equation
(3). Thus
thecoating
coating
thickness
the
variable
ininEquation
(3).
Thus the
thicknessdepends
dependsupon
upon
fluidproperties
propertiesand
andthe
thesubstrate
substrate speed,
speed, which
thickness
thethe
fluid
usually a disadvantage.
disadvantag e. Ruschak
1974) compared
comparedthethepredictions
predictions of
isis usually
Ruschak (
(1974)
Equation
(3)
withdrawal(0((~== 0)
with the
the low-capillary-nu
low-capillary-number
Equation
(3) for
for vertical
vertical withdrawal
0) with
mber
data
Moray(1940)
numbers
dataof
ofMoray
(1940) and
andfound
foundgood
g oodagreement
ag reementonly
onlyatatcapillary
capillary nu
mbers
belowabout
about
0.01.The
The
quantitativeusefulness
usefulnessofofEquation
Equation
limited
below
0.01.
quantitative
(3)(3)is islimited
indeed.
indeed.
DIP
COATING AT
LOW CAPILLARY
In
DIP COATING
AT LOW
CAPILLARYNUMBER
NUMBER
Many
attempts have
have been
been made
Manyattempts
improveupon
upon
predictionsofof the
the equation
ofLandau
Levichfor
fordip
dip
toto improve
thethepredictions
equation of
Landau&
&Levich
DIP
DIP COATING
COATING AT
AT HIGH
HIGH CAPILLARY
CAPILLARY NUMBER
NUMBER

72 RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
72
coating
higher
than
0.01.
One
useful
is isthat
coatingatatcapillary
capillarynumbers
numbers
higher
than
0.01.
One
usefresult
ul result
thatthere
there
isis an
the film
filmthickness.
thickness.
Derjaguin
(1945)
and
VanRossum
Rossum
an upper
upperlimit
limit to the
Derjaguin
(1945
) and
Van
(1958)
flowfar
far above
abovethe
(1958) studied
studiedthe
thefully
fully rectilinear
rectilinearflow
the liquid
liquid reservoir
reservoir and
and
foundthat
thatthere
thereisis aa maximum
maximum
possible
flow
thatcan
can
liftedby
bythe
the
found
possible
flow
raterate
that
bebe
lifted
where
moving
surfaceagainst
againstgravity.
gravity.This
flow
rateisis2SD'j3,
moving
surface
This maximum
maximum
flow
rate
2SD/3, where
the
thefilm
filmthickness
thicknessD
D' isisgiven
givenby
by(ItS/pG
(IlSjpGcos
cos~)1/2.
rx) 1!2. This
Thisresult
resultisis consistent
consistent
withg cos
cos0ebeing
beingofoforder
orderunity
unityininEquation
Equation
(1) ,i.e.
i.e. consistent
viscous
with
(1),
consistent with
with viscous
andgravitational
gravitationaleffects
effects being
beingin
in balance.
concludes
that
thiswill
will
and
balance.Derjaguin
Derjaguinconcludes
that
this
bethe
thefilm
thickness approached
as the
the capillary
capillary number
becomeslarge
large
be
film thickness
approached as
number becomes
withinertial
inertialeffects
effects remaining
negligible.More
recenttheoretical
theoreticalstudies
studiesby
by
with
remainingnegligible.
Morerecent
Homsy
Geyling
(1977and
) and
Tuck
(1983
) support
contention.
Homsy&&
Geyling
(1977)
by by
Tuck
(1983)
support
thisthiscontention.
DjD'that
thatisis
Experiments
howeverhave
, have
generallyyielded
yieldeda avalue
valueofofdd == DID
Experiments, ,however,
generally
less than
For
, Van
(1958)
less
than unity at
at high
highcapillary
capillarynumber.
number.
Forexample
example,
VanRossum
Rossum(1958)
couldnot
notproduce
producefilms
filmsthicker
thicker than
thand =
0.68, while
while Groenveld
(1970)
could
= 0.68,
Groenveld (1970)
reports
byby
Spiers
et etal.al.(1974
(1974)) isis about
about
reports0.66,
0.66, and
andthe
thehighest
highestvalue
valueobtained
obtained
Spiers
decreasesslightly
slightlywith
with
0.8.Moreover
after reaching
reachingits
its maximum
valued, ddecreases
0.8.
Moreover,,after
maximum
value,
further
furtherspeed
speedincreases.
increases.
Marqueset etal.al.(197
8) have
performed numerical
numerical experiments
experiments on
onthe
the
Marques
(1978)
have performed
boundary-layer
boundary-layer equations
equations that
that may
mayaccount
accountfor
forthis
this apparent
apparent lack
lack ofof
agreementbetween
betweenexperiment
experimentand
andtheory.
theory.The
boundary-layerequations
equations
agreement
The boundary-layer
areininfact
the equations
equationsfor
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
theinertial
inertial and
and
are
fact the
for nearly
flow when
whenthe
gravitationalterms
termsare
areretained
retainedbut
butthe
thesurface-tension
surface-tensionterm
termisis discarded.
discarded.
gravitational
In
thenumerical
numericalexperiments
experiments
afilmthickness
thicknessgreater
greaterthan
thandd -- 0.67
0.67 could
could
In the
a film
=
Fioure
4 Free
a apool
Figure 4
Freewithdrawal
withdrawalfrom
from
poolofofliquid.
liquid.
eOA
TING FLOWS
FLOWS
COATING
7373
notbebeproduced,
producedand
, and
sig nificantinertial
inertial effects
effects may
explainthe
the
not
so so
significant
mayexplain
experimentaldata
dataatathigh
hig hcapillary
capillary number.
number.
experimental
To
bridg ethe
the gap
g ap
To
bridge
betweenthe
theresults
results at
at hig
h and
low capillary
capillary numbers
, two-dimensional
two-dimensional
between
high
and low
numbers,
flowequations
equations
must
facedBy
. By
estimates
g iven
earlier
thelimits
limitsof
of
flow
must
bebe
faced.
thethe
estimates
given
earlier
forforthe
applicability of
ofEquation
(3), the
theeffect
effect of
ravity in the
applicability
Equation(3),
of g gravity
the film-entrainment
film-entrainment
reg ion becomes
becomesimportant
importantatatabout
aboutthe
thesame
samecapillary
capillary number
numberthat
thatthe
the
region
assumption
nearly
rectilinearflow
break sdown.
down.
That
also
assumption
of ofnearly
rectilinear
flowbreaks
That
thisthis
is issosoisisalso
evidentfrom
fromthe
thetwo-dimensional
two-dimensionalfinite-element
finite- element calculations
calculations of Ruschak
evident
Ruschak
(1982), which
which show
showEquation
Equation
failing atat aa capillary number
about0.01,
0.01,
(1982),
(3)(3)
failing
numberofofabout
even
is isnot
eventhough
thoug gravity
h g ravity
notincluded
includedininthe
thecalculations.
calculations.
Nonetheless, the
theassumption
assumption
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
has often
often been
been
Nonetheless,
ofofnearly
flow has
retained
retained inin analyses
analysesofofdip
dipcoating.
coating .The
Theeffect
effectofofgravity
g ravityininthe
thefilmfilm
of
entrainment
reg ion
has
been
successfullyincorporated
incorporated
intothe
theanalysis
analysisof
entrainment
region
has
been
successfully
into
theequations
equationsof
of nearly
nearly rectilinear
rectilinearflow
Lee
&&Tallmadg
e(
1975), who
the
flowbyby
Lee
Tallmadge
(1975),
who
solvedthe
the equations
equations numerically,
numerically, and also
also byWilson
, who
obtained
solved
Wilson(1982)
(1982),
whoobtained
an
result by
by the
the method
methodof
anexplicit
explicit result
of matched
matchedasymptotic
asymptoticexpansions.
expansions.
Unfortunately,,the
expandthe
Unfortunately
theinclusion
inclusionof
of gravity
g ravity alone does not
not greatly
g reatly expand
the
range
Equation(3).
In analyseswhere
flow
rang eofofvalidity
validityof
ofEquation
(3). In
wherenearly
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
hasnot
notbeen
beenassumed,
assumedsome,
, somebut
, but
the terms
termsestimated
estimatedtotobe
beof
of
has
notnot
all,all, ofofthe
order62
02 have
havebeen
beenkept.
k ept. The
papersbybySpiers
Spiersetetal.
al.n974)
&
order
Thepapers
(1974)and
andby
byEsmail
Esmail
Hummel
(1975)
Hummel
(1975)are
areexamples.
examples.
Another
difficulty
extendingthe analysis
analysisofof
Landau
&Levich
Levichtotohigher
&
hig her
Another
difficulty in
in extending
Landau
capillarynumbers
numbers
liesininmatching
matchingthe
thesolution
solutiontotothe
thedifferential
differential equation
capillary
lies
g iving the
the meniscus
meniscusshape
shapeofofthe
thefilm-entrainment
film-entrainmentregion
reg ionwith
withthe
thestatic
static
giving
meniscus
associated
with
the
reservoir
.
Whenever
g
ravity
or
other
hig
her
meniscusassociated with the reservoir. Whenever
gravity or other higherorder
terms
are
retained
,
the
procedure
of
Landau
&
Levich
for
matching
order terms are retained, the procedureof Landau& Levich for matching
curvaturesbreaks
break sdown.
down.That
That
thisproblem
problemcan
canbeberationally
rationally approachedisis
curvatures
this
evidenced
by
the
analyses
of
Lee
&
Tallmadg
e
and
just mentioned.
mentioned.
evidencedby the analyses Lee & Tallmadgeand Wilson
Wilsonjust
Unfortunately,
pervade
thethe
literature.
In some
Unfortunately, ad
adhoc
hocmeasures
measures
pervade
literature.In
somecases
casesthe
the
differential
equation
for
the
film
shape
has
been
illog
ically
altered
differential equation for the film shape has beenillogically altered toto
produce
differential
new
equation that
that does
does permit
permitthe
thecurvature
curvature
producea anew
matching
Landau&
byWhite
White&&
matching ofofLandau
&Levich;
Levich; examples
examplesinclude
includethe
the papers
papers by
Tallmadg(1965)
e(1965)
and
Spiers
(1974). In
othercases
casesthe
the static
static meniscus
Tallmadge
and
Spiers
et et
al.al.(1974).
In other
meniscus
extendup
uptotothe
thestagnation
stag nationpoint,
point, whichis
always present
present on
on
isis assumedtotoextend
is always
meniscus.The
The
differentialequation
equation
thestatic
staticmeniscus
meniscusisisapplied
appliedas
asaa
the
differential
forforthe
themeniscus.
boundarycondition
conditionatatthe
thestagnation
stag nationpoint.
point. This
procedure does
does not
not
boundary
This procedure
g uaranteecontinuous
continuousslope
slopeand
andcurvature
curvaturealong
along the
theentire
entiremeniscus,
meniscus,
guarantee
contrary
the claims
itsfirst
firstproponents
proponents,
Esmail
&Hummel
(1975),
contrarytotothe
claims of
of its
, Esmail
& Hummel
(
1975), and
there would
wouldseem
seem
nothingspecial
specialabout
aboutthe
thestagnation
stag nationpoint
pointon
onthe
the
there
totobebenothing
meniscus
effects
meniscus that
that would
wouldpermit
permitone
onetotodeduce
deducethat
thatdynamic
dynamic
effects are
are

DIP COATING
COATING AT
AT INTERMEDIATE
INTERMEDIATE CAPILLARY
CAPILLARY NUMBER
NUMBER

74 RUSCHAK
74
RUSCHAK
neg lig ible below
belowthis
thispoint.
point. What
morethe
, thedifferential
equationfor
forthe
the
negligible
Whatis ismore,
static
applied at
stagnation
static meniscus
meniscusthat
thatisis applied
at the stag
nation point
point has
hasbeen
beenincorrectly
incorrectly
Levi
(1964p.
, p.36);
36) ; a achange
chang eininthe
the
takenfrom
fromthe
thebook
bookofofDeryagin
Deryag in&&Levi
taken
(1964,
positive
direction of
X axis
in in
thethe
sign
thethefirst
positivedirection
of the
theX
axisproduces
producesa achange
change
sig of
n of
first
derivative
film thickness
thickness,, which
whichhas
has apparently
apparently been
derivative of
of the
thefilm
been overlooked.
overlooked.
Although Nigam
&&
Esmail
(1980)
later
admitted
thethe
adad
hoc
nature
of ofthis
Although
Nig am
Esmail
(1980
) later
admitted
hoc
nature
this
boundary
condition,
appear in
papers(Tekic
(Tekic&&Jovanovic
Jovanovic
boundary
condition,it it continues
continues to
to appear
in papers
1982) , and
andininitsits incorrect
incorrectform
formatatthat.
that.
1982),
Although
Althoug himproved
improvedagreement
ag reementwith
withexperimental
experimental data
data atat moderate
moderate
and/orhigh
highcapillary
capillary numbers
claimed for
for many
analysessubsequent
subsequenttoto
and/or
numbersisis claimed
manyanalyses
that
Landau
justify ad
adhoc
hoc mathematical
mathematical
thatof
ofLan
dau&
&Levich,
Levichthis
, thisdoes
doesnot
notreally
reallyjustify
procedures. Perhaps
the best
best way
waytotosolve
solve the
the dip-coating
dip-coating problem
problematat
procedures.
Perhaps the
capillary
numbers higher
capillary numbers
hig her than
than 0.01
0.01 isis by aa two-dimensional
two-dimensional numerical
numerical
method.
a finite-difference
scheme and
method.Lee
Lee&&Tallmadge
Tallmadg(1974)
e(1974used
) used
a finite-difference scheme
and had
had
some
1.0.1. 0.Current
finitesomesuccess
successforforcapillary
capillary numbers
numberslarger
largerthan
thanabout
about
Current
finite
element methods
clement
methodscan
canhandle
handlethis
this problem
problemmore
moreeasily
easilyand
andwithout
withoutthe
the
restriction
number.
restriction on the
the capillary
capillary number.
Coating Flows
Upstreamofof the
the Coating
Coating
Flows Metered
Metered Upstream
Coating Meniscus
Meniscus
coating
flow
meteredbybythe
thecoating
coating
BLADE
COATING
In In
dipdip
coating
the the
flow
raterateis ismetered
meniscus,
as as
a result
thickness
is issensitive
meniscus,and
and
a resultthethecoating
coating
thickness
sensitivetotothe
thefluid
fluid
propertiesand
andthe
thesubstrate
substratespeed.
speed.There
animportant
importantclass
classof
of
properties
There is,is, however
however,, an
self-metering coating
coating flows
in which
the metering
takes place
place upstream
self-metering
flows in
which the
metering takes
upstream ofof
the coating
coating meniscus.
meniscus. The
coatingmeniscus
meniscusessentially
essentially responds
responds toto an
an
the
The coating
imposedflow
flowrate,
rate, much
muchasasininpremetered
premeteredcoating.
coating.While
Whilethese
thesecoating
coating
imposed
flows
arenot
notas
as accurate
accurateas
as aa premetere
dcoating
coatingflow,
flow, aasubstantial
substantialdegree
flows are
premetered
degree
independence
thecoating
coatingthickness
thicknessfrom
fromthe
thefluid
fluidproperties
properties and
andthe
the
ofofindependence
ofofthe
substrate
substratespeed
speedcan
canbe
beachieved.
achieved.
One
of of
such
a self-metering
is isthe
Oneexample
example
such
a self-meteringcoating
coatingdevice
device
theblade
bladecoater,
coater,
commonlyused
usedto to
applycoatings
coatingsduring
during the
the manufacture
manufacture ofof paper
paper
commonly
apply
(Gartaganis
1978).
simple model
model of
t~reener &
(Gartaganisetetal.
al. 1978
) .AAsimple
of aa blade
blade coater
coater byGreener
Middleman
(1974)
illustrates
thethe
principle.
Middleman
(1974
) illustrates
principle.The
Theface
faceof
ofthe
theblade
bladehas
hasaasmall
small
slope
drawninto
slope6[) with
withrespect
respecttotothe
therigid
rigidsubstrate,
substrate, so
so that
thatthe
the liquid
liquid isdrawn
intoaa
slowlyconverging
convergingregion
region(Figure
(Figure5).
5) .The
blade isis presumed
befloo
ded
slowly
The blade
presumedtoto be
flooded
upstream
(an
excess
liquidis issupplied),
supplied) , and
andsurface-tension
surface-tensioneffects
effectsare
are
upstream
(an
excess
of of
liquid
presumed
neg ligiblesosothat
thatth~
thepressure
pressurecan
canbc
betaken
takentotobe
besensibly
sensibly
presumed
to to
b~be
n~gligible
atmospheric
In terms
dimensionless group
atmosphericatateach
eachend
endofofthe
theblade.
blade.In
terms of
of the dimensionless
g roup
[)L/E,the
theratio
ratioof
of the
the coating
coating thickness
thickness to
to the
ap is
is g given
iven by
bb = ~L/E,
the ggap
byD/E
DIE==
(1
b
b)/(2
Themost
mostimportant
feature
ofofthis
(1+
)(
/ 2++b).b).The
important
feature
thisresult
resultisis that
that the
the coating
coating
thickness
thicknessisis independent
independentofoffluid
fluid properties
properties and
andsubstrate
substratesp~cd.
speed.
Oftenthe
theblade
bladeis isnot
notrigidly
rig idlyfixe
d with
withrespect
respectto
to the
the substrate.
substrate. Rather,
Rather,
Often
fixed
it
is
loaded
by
one
means
or
another
,
an
d
the
loading
controls
the
it is loaded
one means or another, and the loading controls the
BLADE COATING
COATING
COATING FWWS
FLOWS
7575
I"'''''''---L
0ZZZZZZZ777ZZ l~

k/////////////////////////////~~/
VZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZZ
s
Figure 5 5 Blade
Blade coater
coater flooded
Fixture
flooded upstream.
upstream.
coating
coatinggap.
gap. If
If A isis the
the force
force per
per unit
unit width
widthapplied
appliedtoto the
theblade,
blade, then
then
Ab2/6/-lS
In(1+
b)-2b/(2 +b). Thus
Thusbb and
andthethegap
gapEE follow
follow when
whenAAis is
A6z/6#S = In(1
+b)-2b/(2+b).
1/3, and
specified. For
Forthe
thespecial
specialcase
casebb
1, EE -- L(/-lS/2A)I/3,
andthe
thelarger
largerthe
the
specified.
<< 1,
L(6#S/2A)
=
loadingthe
thesmaller
smallerthe
thegap.
gap.
loading
An important
variation
this type
offlow
field
thatfor
for
ROLL
COATING
An important
variation
of thisof type
of flow
field
is isthat
theroll
roll coater.
Figure6,
6, two
tworotating
rotatingrollers
rollers are
are separated
byaa
the
coater.As
As shown
shownininFigure
separated by
gapE,
E, which
whichisis much
smallerthan
thantheir
their radii
gap
muchsmaller
radiiRIR1and
andR2
R2. For
For the
the moment
moment
any number.
numberIt
. Itisisusually
usually
theratio
ratioof
of the
the speeds
speeds of
of the
the rollers,
rollers, a,a,may
the
maybe
be any
presumed
important
of the
flow
fieldisisnear
nearthe
thenip,
nip, where
wherethe
the
presumed
thatthat
thethe
important
partpart
of the
flow
field
roller
together and
equations
roller surfaces
surfaces are
are close together
andnearly
nearly parallel,
parallel, so
so that
that the equations
fornearly
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
canbe
beused.
used. If
the characteristic
characteristic film
nessTT
for
flow can
If the
film thick
thickness
1/2,
isis taken
X direction
(ER) 2,
tak ento
to be
beEE and
andthe
thecharacteristic
characteristiclength
lengthininthe
theX
directionto
tobe
be(ER)1/
where
where1/R
l/R===1/RI
l/RI++l/R2,
I/R2' then
thenthetherelative
relative slope
slope between
betweenthe
thecylinder
cylinder
2, and
1/2,
surfaces isis on
on the
the order
order ofof 6 ==
(E/R)1/
and the
the flow
will be
be nearly
nearly
surfaces
= (E/R)
flow will
rectilinear when
152I
the distance
distance F(X)
rectilinear
when2
62<< 1.
1. Furthermore
Furthermore,, when
when 62<<
1 the
F(X)
betweenthe
therollers
rollers may
approximatedby
bythe
thefirst
first terms
terms of
of aa power
power
between
may be
be approximated
series,
namelyff==
==.
F/E = 1 +
x2/2. It
It is also
also usually
usually presumed
presumedthat
series, namely
F/E
+x2/2.
thatinertial
inertial
and
effects
andgravitational
gravitational
effectsare
arenegligible.
negligible.
If the
flooded on
sides
(that
If
the rollers
rollers are
areflooded
onboth
both
sides
(thatis,is, ifif the
the liquid
liquid extends
extendstoto
Ixl
1), then
rate is
A 2== =Q/SE
2(1++a)/3,
a)/3,
Ixl>>1),
thenthe
thedimensionless
dimensionlessflow
flow rate
is given
givenby
by
Q/SE= 2(1
where
flow rate
rate per
perunit
unitwidth
width
(Gatcombe
1945).When
When
whereQQisisthe
the volumetric
volumetricflow
(Gatcombe
1945).
the
notflooded
flooded on
coating meniscus,
therollers
rollers are
are not
onone
oneside
sideand
andthere
thereisis aa coating
meniscus, the
the
problem
is isconsiderably
more
difficult
to to
solve,
thethe
flow
field
problem
considerably
more
difficult
solve,because
because
flow
fieldininthe
the
vicinity of the coating
two dimensional
dimensional(Taylor
(Taylor1963).
1963). If
vicinity
coating meniscus isis two
themeniscus
meniscusforms
formsat atxx= m,
m,then
thenthetheslope
slopebetween
between
rollersurfaces
surfaces
the
thethe
roller
there
will
be
bm.
Furthermore
,
as
long
as
inertial
effects
are
negligible
the
there will be 6m. Furthermore,as long as inertial effects are negligible, , the
transition
flow between
transition from
fromthe
thenearly
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
betweenthetheroller
rollersurfaces
surfacestoto
fully
films will
take place
place over
over aa distance
distance comparable
comparabletotothat
fully formed
formedliquid
liquidfilms
will take
that
ROLL COATING

76 RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
76
betweenthe
theroller
roller surfaces where
, namely
=
between
wherethe
the coating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusforms
forms,
namelyWW-Ef(m) (Coyne
(Coyne&
&Elrod
Elrod
1970)The
.The
fractionalchange
chang einindistance
distancebetween
the
Ef(m)
1970).
fractional
between the
roller
transition region
therefore expected
expectedto
to be
the
roller surfaces
surfaces over
over this
this transition
reg ion is
is therefore
be on
onthe
and
this is
is required
to be
be small,
small, then
thenthe
theroller
roller surfaces
canbe
be
orderof,Sm,
ofbm, and
order
if ifthis
required to
surfaces can
consideredparallel
parallelover
overthe
thetransition
transitionregion.
reg ion. Thus
flowfield
fielddivides
divides
considered
Thus thetheflow
naturally into
into two
two parts:
parts: aa two-dimensional
two-dimensionalportion
portionbetween
betweenparallel
parallel
naturally
surfaces in
in the
the immediate
vicinity of the coating
meniscus, and
andaanearly
nearly
surfaces
immediate vicinity
coating meniscus,
rectilinear portion
1982) .
rectilinear
portion elsewhere(Taylor
(Taylor 1963
1963,, Ruschak
Ruschak1982).
The
near
thethe
coating
thatthat
arises
flowproblem
problem
near
coatingmeniscus
meniscus
arisesininthis
thisway
wayisis
Theflow
sketched
Taylor (1963)
sk etchedininFigure
Fig ure7 7for
forthe
the case
caseaa == 1.
1. Taylor
(1963)pointed
pointedout
outthat
thatthe
the
dimensionless
flow rate
rate q q===Q/SW
Q/SW depends
thethecapillary
dependsonly
onlyupon
upon
capillary
dimensionless flow
number.
pressure
number.The
Theasymptotic
asymptotic
pressuregradient
g radientupstream
upstreamcan
canbebeexpressed
expressedinin
termsofofqq as
as dp/dx
dp/dx = 12(1
12(1 _q)!f2.
this pressure
pressure gradient
g radient provides
provides
terms
-q)/f2. Indeed
Indeed, , this
thatthe
thesolution
solutiontotothe
the equations
equations
oneofofthe
the boundary
boundaryconditions
conditionsatatxx ==mmthat
one
fornearly
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
therollers
rollers must
mustsatisfy.
satisfy. Unfortunately
for
flow between
betweenthe
Unfortunately,,
this boundary
boundary
condition
notuseful
usefuluntil
untilqq isis determined
functionofof
this
condition
is isnot
determinedasasaafunction
thecapillary
capillary number
numberbyby
solvingthethedifficult
difficultflow
problemofofFigure
Fig ure7.7. In
the
solving
flow problem
In
----------x
Figure 6
Rollcoater
coater flooded
flooded upstream.
Fioure
6 Roll
upstream.
COATING FLOWS
fact, Taylor
resorted to
, Coyne
fact,
Taylor resorted
to special
special experiments
experimentsto
to measure
measureq.q.Later
Later,
Coyne&&
Elrod(1970)
(1970) determined
determinedqq approximately
approximately
(fora aclosely
closelyrelated
related flow
flow
Elrod
(for
problem)
that
involves
problem)byby a amethod
method
that
involvesassuming
assuminga functional
a functionalform
formfor
forthe
the
velocity
field,, and
and Ruschak
Ruschak(1982)
(1982) solved
without making
velocityfield
solved for
forqq without
making simplisimpli
fications
using the
thefinite-element
. When
thecapillary
capillary number
fications by
by using
finite-element method
method.
Whenthe
numberisis
than about
about 0.01,
Equation(3)
(3) can
can be
be used
used to
to compute
computeq.q.With
With W
W/2
. less
less than
0. 01, Equation
/2 asas
the
forforthe
result
theappropriate
appropriateradius
radiusofofcurvature
curvature
thecoating
coatingmeniscus,
meniscusthe
, the
resultisis
2/3. According
q = 1.34c
According totoRuschaks
approximately by
1.34c2/3
Ruschak'sresults,
results, qq is g given
iven approximately
by
1/2
0.54c for
andqq approaches
approachesaaconstant
for 00.01
. 01<<cc << 0.1,
0.1, and
constantvalue
valueofofabout
about0.41
0,41
0.54c1/2
asascc -+
~ ~.
thethe
pressure
gradient
ofofthe
flow should
00.Thus
Thus
pressure
g radient
thenearly
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
shouldbe
be
12k/f2
wherethe
thecoating
coating meniscus
meniscusforms,
forms, and
andkk decreases
decreasesfrom
from11 to
to about
about
12k/f 2 where
0. 59as
as the
the capillary
capillary number
increases from
from00to
to00.
0.59
numberincreases
~.
Frequently, approximate
approximateexpressions
expressionshave
havebeen
beenused
usedfor
forthe
thepressure
pressure
Frequently,
g radient where
where the
the coating
coating meniscus
meniscus forms.
forms. Dowson
&Taylor
Taylor
(1979),
gradient
Dowson&
(1979),
Elrod
(1970), Savage
Savag e(1977a),
(1977a), Sullivan
(1979), and
Coyne
Coyne&&Elrod
(1970),
Sullivan&&Middleman
Middleman(1979),
Bixler (
(1982)
discussed many
manyofofthese.
The Swift-Steiber
Bixler
1982) have
havecritically
critically discussed
these. The
Swift-Steiber
approximation
, for
instanceis, istotoset
set the
g radientto
to zero
zero where
the
approximation,
for
instance,
the pressure
pressure gradient
wherethe
coatingmeniscus
meniscus
forms
, but
as has
been
seen
, this
never
strictlytrue.
true.
coating
forms,
but
as has
justjust
been
seen,
this
isis
never
strictly
According
thepopular
popularPrandtl-Hopkins
Prandtl-Hopk ins
conditionthe
, theinterface
interface forms
forms
According totothe
condition,
stag nationpoint
point
thenearly
nearly
rectilinear
flow
field(i.e.
(i. e. at
atataastagnation
inin
the
rectilinear
flow
field
at aapoint
pointwhere
where
2
2,, which
anduuy
are
both
zero)
.
This
leads
to
a
pressure
g
radient
of
12
(2/3)1f
u and
are
both
zero).
This
leads
to
a
pressure
gradient
of
12(2/3)/f
which
r
isis close
correct result at
at capillary
capillary numbers
numbersnear
close to
to the correct
nearunity.
unity.
Besides
pressure where
where the
Besidesthe
thepressure
pressure gradient,
g radient, the pressure
the coating
coating meniscus
formsisis also
also required
condition and
maybebeestimated
estimated
forms
required as
as aa boundary
boundary condition
and may
(Taylor
thethesolution
Figure
(
Taylor1963)
1963)ororobtained
obtainedbyby
solutionofofthe
theflow
flowfield
field of
of Fig
ure 7
(Ruschak1982).
the the
capillary
number
is large,
(Ruschak
1982)When
.When
capillary
number
is larg ethis
, thispressure
pressurewill
willbe
be on
the
with
thethecharacteristic
theorder
orderofltS/W,
of.uS/W , which
whichisis small
small compared
compared
with
characteristicpressure
pressure
of.uS/bE and
and may
maybebetaken
takenasaszero
thecapillary
capillarynumber
numbeisr issmall,
small, on
on
ofl~S/fiE
zero..When
Whenthe
theother
otherhand,
hand,the
thepressure
pressurewill
will be of the
, and
the
the order
order of
of2a/W
2~r/W,
andthe
theboundary
boundary
conditionbecomes
becomes
2{)lfc, which
whichcan
canbebeofofsome
some
consequence
condition
pp==- 26/fc,
consequence
if ifcc isis
smaller
expression is
is used
used throug
throughout
smallerthan
than6.(). For
Forsimplicity,
simplicity, this
this latter
latter expression
hout
whatfollows.
follows.
what
=

7777
Figure 77 Coating
between
parallel
Coatingmeniscus
meniscus
between
parallelsurfaces.
surfaces.
78 RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
78
Thevalue
valueofof2Avaries
varieslittle
little with
andcc and
andisis close
close to
to 4/3,
4/3, as
the
The
with(j6 and
as when
whenthe
rollers
flooded both
both upstream
upstream and
Benkreira
et et
al.a1. (1981)
rollers areflooded
anddownstream.
downstream
. Benk reira
(1981)
made
1500
experimental
measurements
for for
forward
rollroll
coating
> 0)0) at
made
1500
experimental
measurements
forward
coating(a(a>
capillary
numbers between
betweenabout
about0.04
0. 04 and
and
capillary numbers
between0.03
0. 03and
and15,
15, and
andfor
for(jb between
0. 3.Theyfound
found2..1=
1. 31
with
a standard
deviation
of 0. 4%. Pitts
Pitts&
0.3..They
= 1.31
with
a standard
deviation
of 0.49/o.
&Greiller
Greiller
betweenabout
about0.06
0. 06and
and0.3
0. 3and
andfor
foraa = l.
(1961) measured
measured
flowrates
ratesfor
for(j6 between
(1961)
flow
They
2Atotolie-between
Theyfound
found
lie-between1.26
1. 2 6and
and1.38,
1. 38, and
andthey
theynoted
notedthat
that A2 decreases
decreases
slightly
increasing speed
(capillary number
number).
According totothe
slig htly with increasing
speed(capillary
) . According
thetheotheo
retical
of Ruschak
Ruschak(1982
(1982),) , for capillary
capillary numbers
numbersat
retical results of
at even
evenmultiples
multiples
ofof 10
10,10the
predicted
values
of o2f A.are,arerespectively,
10between
between0.01
0. 01and
and
, the
predicted
values
, respectively,
1.36,
and 11.29
Thus the
flow rates
. 06.Thus
theflow
rates predicted
predicted by
by
1. 36, 1.33,
1. 33, 11.30,
. 30, and
. 29 forb 3 = 00.06.
Gatcombe
(1945
) for
flooded
rollersare
areexpected
expectedtotobebecorrect
correctwithin
withinaafew
few
Gatcombe(1945)
for
flooded
rollers
and6,
b, and
andasasa aresult,
result, the
therollers
rollers meter
meterthe
the
percentfor
fortypical
typicalvalues
valuesofofc and
percent
liquidin
in much
thesame
sameway
way
bladecoater.
coater.
liquid
muchthe
as asthetheblade
andq.q.
The
positionofof the
the coating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusis issimply
simplyrelated
related to
to A2 and
The position
Fromthethe
definition
ofofq,
From
definition
q, the
the distance
distancebetween
betweenthe
theroller
roller surfaces
surfaces wherethe
the
coating meniscus
meniscus forms
forms isis W
QISq = EA.lq,
so that
that ff= Ajq
and
coating
W == Q/Sq
E2/q, so
2/q and
12
m
[2(Ajq_1)]
/ . When
capillarynumber
number
smallthat
thatqq is
is much
m= [2(2/q1)] 1/2.
Whenthethecapillary
is issososmall
much
smaller
than 1,1, the
thethenip
smallerthan
the coating
coating meniscus
meniscusforms
formstoo
toofarfarfrom
from
nip(m
(m>>
1)1)
for the
theassumption
assumption
nearly
rectilinearflow
flowtotobebevalid
validup
uptotothe
thevicinity
vicinity
for
of ofnearly
rectilinear
the coating
coating meniscus,
meniscus, and
anda afully
fully two-dimensional
two-dimensional
analysis
order.As
ofofthe
analysis
is isininorder.
As
the
thecapillary
capillary number
numberincreases,
increases, sosotoo
toodoes
doesqq increase,
increase, and
andthe
themeniscus
meniscusisis
drawn
toward
nip.
drawn
toward
thethenip.
It
(a > 0)
flow
It isis necessary to k know
nowinin forward
forwardroll
roll coating
coating (a>
0) how the
theflow
divides
other words
words what
divides between
betweenthe
thetwo
tworollers,
rollers, or
or in
in other
whatisisthe
the coating
coating
thickness
Pitts &&Greiller
Greiller (1961
(1961)
observed that
thick nesson
oneach
eachroller?
roller? Pitts
) observed
that two
tworegions
regions
recirculation are
are usually
usually(but
) present
the coating
coating
ofofrecirculation
(but not
not always
always)
present upstream
upstreamofof the
meniscus.
(1982)
that
thethe
equations
forfornearly
flow
meniscusSavage
.Savage
(1982noted
) noted
that
equations
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
predict
On
predictthe
the stagnation
stag nationpoint
point marking
mark ingthetheonset
onsetofofthese
theserecirculations.
recirculations. On
theassumption
assumptionthat
thatthe
thestreamline
streamlinepassing
passingthrough
throughthis
thispoint
pointultimately
ultimately
the
becomes
(an assumption
becomesthethefree-surface
free-surface streamline
streamline(an
assumptionconsistent
consistentwith
withthe
the
observations
&Greiller),
predict quantitatively
quantitatively how
how
observationsofofPitts
Pitts&
Greiller) , he was able
able to
to predict
theflow
divides.Actually
this idea
idea some
someyearsearlier
years earlier(see
(see
the
flow divides.
Actually,,c.-s.
C.-S.Yih
ih pursued
pursued this
Hintermaier
&
White
1965
)
and
obtained
a
result
that
,
althoug
h
correct
, is
Hintermaier &White 1965) and obtained a result that, although correct, is
limited
to
the
special
case
where
a
is
nearly
1
.
With
A
and
..12
the
flow
rates
limited to the special case wherea is nearly 1. With21
l and 2~ the flow rates
sothat
that..11
A., Savag
e'sresult
result
ultimatelyassociated
associated
with
rollers11and
and22 so
ultimately
with
rollers
21++ ..122
Savages
2 = 2,
1
s
1"5.
may
be
expressed
as
..1
/..11
a
.
.
This
form
of
the
result
was
pointed
out
by
maybe expressed as 22/21
This form of the result was pointed out by
2 =a
D.
J
.
Coyle
(personal
communication
,
1983
)
and
follows
immediately
from
D. J. Coyle (personal communication, 1983) and follows immediately from
Savage'swork.
work.Savage
Savage
presented
experimental
data
support
result,
Savages
presented
experimental
data
thatthat
support
hishis
result,
and
Benk
reira
et
al
.
(1981
)
used
a
least-squares
analysis
of
their
1500
data
and Benkreira et al. (1981) used a least-squares analysis of their 1500 data
TM (the asymmetryfor a = 1 was attributed
points
22/21 = 0.87a
pointsto
to obtain
obtainA2/A1
0. 87a1.6S
(the asymmetry fora
1 was attributed

COATING FLOWS
FLOWS
COATING
79
79
gravitationaleffects).
effects). Equation
1.67for
for very
very
totogravitational
Equation(3)
(3) predicts
predicts an
an exponent
exponentofof1.67
small
numbers.
smallcapillary
capillary numbers.

Instability
Instability of
ofCoating
Coating Flows:
Flows: Ribbing
Ribbing Lines
Lines
The
calculationofof the
the steady,
steady, two-dimensional
flowfield
The calculation
two-dimensional flow
field,, and
and sometimes
sometimes
the
determination
of
the
range
of
conditions
over
which
such
solutiontoto
the determination of the range of conditions over which such a asolution
thegoverning
governingequations
equations
exists,isisoften
often just
just aa prelude
to aa determination
of
the
exists,
prelude to
determination of
the
flow.The
Theflow
flow instabili~ty
called ribbing
ribbing lines
has received
thestability
stabilityof
of the
theflow.
instabili.ty called
lines has
aagreat
deal of
the literature.
Thisinstability
instability may
maybe observed
observedinin
greatdeal
of attention
attentionin
in the
literature.This
roll
coating
and
slide
coating
,
for
example.
The
flow
field
for
ribbing
linesisis
roll coating and slide coating, for example.Theflow field for ribbing lines
steady
but
three
dimensional.
More
specifically
,
the
flow
field
becomes
steady but three dimensional. More specifically, the flow field becomes
periodicinin the
the third
andthe
the coating
coating itself
itself becomes
and
periodic
third dimension
dimension,, and
becomesribbed
ribbed and
uneven.
Such
an
event
is
usually
intolerable
in
a
coating
process
,
and
so
the
uneven. Suchan event is usually intolerable in a coating process, and so the
study
of
this
and
other
instabilities
is
of
considerable
importance.
study of this and other instabilities is of considerable importance.
The
theoretical calculations
calculations and
observationsofSaffman
The theoretical
and experimental
experimental observations
of Saffman&&
Taylor
(
1958)
provided
the
first
insights
into
the
ribbing
instability.
Taylor (1958) providedthe first insights into the ribbing instability. Saffman
Saffman
&Taylor
Taylor
used
equations
fornearly
nearlyrectilinear
rectilinearflow
include
&
used
thethe
equations
for
flow,, expanded
expandedtotoinclude
the
third
dimension
,
to
evaluate
the
stability
of
a
coating
meniscus
between
the third dimension,to evaluate the stability of a coating meniscusbetween
parallel surfaces
surfaces(Figure
7) to
foundthat
thatthe
theflow
parallel
(Figure 7)
to small
small disturbances
disturbances.. They
Theyfound
flow
isis unstable
if the pressure
pressure gradient
flow
unstableif
gradient corresponding
correspondingtotothetherectilinear
rectilinearflow
2, is is
upstream
positive.
upstreamofof the
themeniscus,
meniscus, namely
namelydP/dX
dP/dX= 12#S(1--q)/W
12J.lS(1-q)/W2,
positive.
Because
exceed
0.41
(Ruschak
1982),
is isalways
Becauseqq cannot
cannot
exceed
0.41
(Ruschak
1982),thisthis
alwaysthethecase.
case.
Arguments
by by
Pitts
&&Greiller
(1961)
understand
Arguments
Pitts
Greiller
(1961)are
areuseful
usefulinin trying
trying to
to understand
this
They consider
this result.
result.They
consider the
the evolution
evolution of
of the
the disturbance
disturbancetoto be
bequasiquasi
steady-state, and
andthey
they suppose
supposethat
thatatat some
somelocation
locationinin the
the third
steady-state,
third dimension
dimension
thecoating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusmoves
moves
slightlyupstream
upstreambecause
becauseofofaadisturbance.
disturbance.The
the
slightly
The
linear pressure
pressure field
field of
linear
of positive
positive slope
slopeupstream
upstream of the displaced
displaced meniscus
remainsthe
thesame
same
thatbehind
behind
undisturbed
meniscus
, but
it isshifted
shifted
remains
as asthat
thethe
undisturbed
meniscus,
but
it is
along
alongthe
theX
X axis
axisby
bythe
thedistance
distance the
the displaced
displaced meniscus
meniscus has
has moved.
moved.ItIt
followsthat
thatat
at any
the disturbed
follows
any position
position X,
X, the
the pressure
pressure behind
behind the
disturbed meniscus
meniscus
isis more
morepositive
behind the
undisturbed meniscus.
Therefore, ,flow
flow
positive than
than that
that behind
the undisturbed
meniscus.Therefore
will
region behind
behind the
disturbedmeniscus
meniscus toward
will occur
occur from
fromthe
the region
the disturbed
towardthe
theregion
region
behindthe
theundisturbed
undisturbedmeniscus,
meniscusand
, and
disturbance
willbebereinforced.
reinforced.
behind
thethe
disturbance
will
Inforward
forwardroll
rollcoating
coatingwith
withequal
equalroller
rollerspeeds,
speeds, the
theposition
positionofofthe
the
In
coating
is isnear
thethenip
thethe
roller
coatingmeniscus
meniscus
near
nipwhere
where
rollersurfaces
surfacesare
arenearly
nearlyparallel
parallel
ifif the
numberis issufficiently
large,, as
as was
was seen in
the capillary
capillary number
sufficiently large
in the preceding
preceding
section.
In light
the findings
findings ofSa
of Saffman
&Taylor,
section.In
light of the
f
f man&
Taylorit, itisis not
not surprising
surprisingthat
that
forward
rollcoating
coatingisissubject
subjecttotothe
theribbing-line
ribbing-lineinstability.
instability. According
forward
roll
Accordingtoto
theexperimental
experimentalobservations
observationsofofPitts
Pitts &
Greiller(1961), Mill
the
& Greiller.(1961),
Mill&& South
South
(1967),
et al.
rollroll
coating
is isstable
andGreener
Greener
et al.(1980),
(1980),forward
forward
coating
stableatatsufficiently
sufficiently
(1967), and
low
unstable
as asthethecapillary
lowcapillary
capillary numbers
numbersbut
buteventually
eventuallybecomes
becomes
unstable
capillary
=

80 RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
80
number
increased and
andthe
thecoating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusisis drawn
drawntoward
towardthethenip.
nip.
number
is isincreased
Thus
factthat
thatthe
theroller
roller surfaces
extentevidently
evidentlyhas
hasaa
Thus
thethefact
surfaces diverge
diverge to some
someextent
stabilizing
stabilizingeffect
effect on
onthe
theflow
flowfield.
field.
The mechanisms
by which
diverging
surfaces
stabilize
thetheflow
The
mechanisms
by which
diverging
surfaces
stabilize
flowfield
field were
were
elucidated
spreader and
Pitts &
elucidatedby
byPearson
Pearson(1960)
(1960)ininhis
hisanalysis
analysis of a spreader
and by
byPitts
Greiller
their analysis
analysisof
of the
the forward
forwardroll
rollcoater
coaterfor
forthe
thecase
caseaa =
Greiller (1961
(1961)) inintheir
= 1.
FollowingPitts
Pitts &
&Greiller,
Greiller, suppose
supposethat
thatatat some
somelocation
locationininthe
thethird
third
Following
dimension
meniscusmoves
moves
slightlyupstream
upstreambecause
because
disturbance.
dimension
thethemeniscus
slightly
of ofa adisturbance.
Because
rollersurfaces
surfacesdiverge
divergeslightly,
slightly, the
the radius
radius of
of curvature
curvatureofof the
the
Because
thethe
roller
coatingmeniscus
meniscusmust
must
decrease
movesinward,
inward,and
and
thusthe
thepressure
pressureatat
coating
decrease
asasit it moves
thus
the meniscus
meniscus will
will become
morenegative
negative by
by the
the amount
the
become more
amount c(2(J/W2)dF/dX,
e(2tr/W2)dF/dX,
whereec isis the
the distance
distance the
andW
Wis isthe
thedistance
distance
where
the meniscus
meniscus has
has moved
moved and
between
rollersurfaces
surfaces atat the
the position
position of
of the
the coating
coating meniscus
meniscusininthe
the
between
thethe
roller
two-dimensional
flowfield.
field.The
pressure behind
two-dimensional
flow
The pressure
behind the undisturbed
undisturbed meniscus
meniscus
the value
value of
of X
the displaced
displaced meniscus
meniscusisis more
morenegative
negative than
thanthe
the
atat the
X ofof the
pressure atatthe
the amount
wherethe
the
pressure
the undisturbed
undisturbed meniscus
meniscus by the
amount cdP/dX,
e dP/dX, where
pressure
flow just
upstream of
pressuregradient
gradientisisthat
thatfor
for the
the nearly
nearly rectilinear
rectilinearflow
just upstream
of
the
in inthethetwo-dimensional
flow
field.
If,If,atatthis
X, the
the
thecoating
coatingmeniscus
meniscus
two-dimensional
flow
field.
thisX,
pressure isis higher
the displaced
displaced meniscus than
than behind
behind the
the unun
pressure
higher behind
behind the
displaced meniscus,
meniscus, then
then liquid
liquid will
will flow
behindthe
thedisplaced
displaced
displaced
flow from
from behind
meniscustoward
towardthetheundisplaced
undisplacedmeniscus
meniscus
and
increasethethedisturbance.
disturbance.
meniscus
and
increase
Thus
comparingthe
theabove
abovetwo
twoterms,
terms, the
the disturbance
disturbance can
Thus, , comparing
can grow
grow whenever
whenever
dP/dX >>(2tr/W2)dF/dX.
instability
dP/dX
(2(J/W2)dF/dX.ForFor
instabilitythe
the pressure
pressure gradient
gradient must
mustnot
not
onlybebepositive
positivebut
butalso
alsosufficiently
sufficiently large
provedthat
thatthis
this
only
large.. Savage
Savage(l977a,b
(1977a,b)) proved
inequality
inequalityisis aa necessary
necessarybut
butnot
notsufficient
sufficient condition
conditionforforinstability,
instability, and
and
Gokhale
(1983)
Gokhale
(1983)derived
deriveda astronger
strongernecessary
necessarycondition.
condition.
The
secondstabilizing
stabilizing mechanism
mechanismfollows
followsfrom
fromthetheresult
result ofof Taylor
The second
Taylor
(1963
onthe
thegeometric
geometricsimilarity
similarity ofof the
theflow
flowfield
field near
near the
the coating
coating
(1963)) on
meniscus. Taylors
Taylor'sresult
result isis again
that the
the flow
rate QQ atat the
the coating
coating
meniscus.
again that
flow rate
q, where
whereWis isthe
thedistance
distancebetween
betweenthe
thesurfaces
surfaces and
and
meniscus
givenby
bySSW
meniscus
is isgiven
Wq,
whereqq depends
dependsonly
onlyupon
upon
capillarynumber.
number.
Thusif, ifaadisturbance
disturbance
where
thethe
capillary
Thus,
causesaasection
sectionof
of the coating
to move
moveslightly
slightly upstream,
upstream, the
theflow
causes
coating meniscus
meniscusto
flow
rate past
past itit is
is reduced
becausethe
thesurfaces
surfaces are
are closer
closer together.
together. A
simple
rate
reduced because
A simple
mass-conservation
argument
meniscus
shows
thisresponse
responsehas
hasaa
mass-conservation
argument
at at
thethemeniscus
shows
thatthat
this
dampening
effectononthe
thedisturbance.
disturbance.
dampening
effect
Figure88shows
showsa aflow
flowgeometry
geometry
similartotothe
the spreader
spreaderconsidered
considered by
by
Figure
similar
Pearson
The dimensionless
Pearson(1960),
(1960), which
whichIIhave
haveanalyzed
analyzedfor
forthis
this review.
review. The
dimensionless
flowrate
rateIl2 isis taken
tobe
thatfor
forthe
theforward
forwardroll
rollcoater.
coater.
flow
taken to
be 4/3
4/3 to
to approximate
approximatethat
In
which
thethe
flow
field
InFigure
Figure99the
thecapillary
capillary number
numberabove
above
which
flow
fieldisisunstable
unstabletoto
smalldisturbances
disturbancesisis plotted
plottedagainst
against ~,
ex, the
the relative
relative slope
the
small
slope between
between the
linearly
surfaces.. The
Thecurve
curve has
has purposely
purposely been
linearly diverging
diverging surfaces
been extended
extended toto
values ofof ~
ex that
thatare
arenot
notsmall.
small. In
Inlight
light of
of the
the stabilizing
stabilizing mechanisms
values
mechanisms
81
81
COATING FLOWS
FLOWS

Figure
Figure 88
Coating
meniscus
between
linearlydiverging
divergingsurfaces.
surfaces.
Coating
meniscus
between
linearly
discussed, itit is not

at which the
theflow
discussed,
not surprising
surprising that
that the
thecapillary
capillarynumber
numberat
flow
becomes
unstable
to
small
disturbances
increases
with
the
slope
between
becomesunstable to small disturbances increases with the slope between
(~
= 0.176)
0.176) correcorre
thesurfaces.
surfaces.The
rathersubstantial
substantialdivergence
divergenceofof1010
(a =
the
The rather
sponds
to
the
small
capillary
number
of
0.054
.
The
stabilizing
mechanisms
sponds to the small capillary numberof 0.054. The stabilizing mechanisms
areweak
weak indeed.
indeed.
are
1,0
I I
I I
I I1[
II
I I
I I
II
IlL
0.1
0.1
UNSTABLE
UNSTABLE
//
/
/
//
0.01
0,0t
STABLE
STABLE
I I I I IIII
0.01
O,Ol
I I ~ ~lll
I I I I I li
O.OOI
________L-______LW
0.001
0.001
0,001
0.1
o,1
1.0
I,O
Figure 9
9 Stability
Stability of
betweenlinearly
linearly diverging
diverging surfaces:
surfaces: linearlinear
of aa coating
coating meniscus
meniscus between
stability
(1960); ---- necessary condition
conditionfor
forinstability
instability
stability analysis
analysis following
following Pearson
Pearson (1960);
Greiller (1961)
(1977a,b).
following
Pitts &
following Pitts
&Greiller
(1961)and
and Savage
Savage(1977a,b).

82
RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
Also plotted
condition
forfor
instability
plottedininFigure
Figure9 9is isthethenecessary
necessary
condition
instability
Also
determined
bybyPitts
(1961).This
This condition
condition appears
appears to
approach
determined
Pitts& Greiller
Greiller(1961).
to approach
the
asymptotically as
numberdecreases.
There isis
theexact
exactresult
result asymptotically
as the
the capillary
capillary number
decreases.There
other
that
condition
for for
instability
otherevidence
evidence
thatthe
thenecessary
necessary
condition
instabilityis isuseful
usefulonly
onlyfor
for
small
numbers.By
By comparing
smallcapillary
capillary numbers.
comparingpredictions
predictionswith
with experimental
experimentaldata,
data,
Savage
thatthat
thethe
necessary
condition
instability
Savage(1977a)
(1977a)found
found
necessary
conditio:nforfor
instabilitygives
gives a
reasonable
region
of of
stability
reasonableestimate
estimateof ofthethe
region
stabilityforfora aroller
rollerand
andflat-plate
flat-plate
geometry
over
On the
geometry
overthe
thecapillary
capillary number
numberrange
rangeofof0.06-0.11.
0.06--0.11. On
theother
otherhand,
hand,
when
Greener
et et
al. al.(1980)
their
stability
(1980) compared
compared
their
stabilitydata
datafor
forforward
forwardroll
roll
when
Greener
coating
numbers ininthe
0.1-10, they
they found
foundthat
thatthe
the
coatingfor
for capillary
capillary numbers
the range
range0.1-10,
necessary
underestimates the
necessarycondition
conditionfor
forinstability
instability substantially
substantially underestimates
the region
region
stability.However
, under
underthe
theexperimental
experimentalconditions
conditions
Greener
ofofstability.
However,
of ofGreener
et et
al.,al.,
thecoating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusforms
forms
fromthe
thenip
nipthat
that aa fully two-dimensional
the
sosofarfarfrom
two-dimensional
treatmentisis probably
probablyinin order
order anyway.
anyway.
treatment
Althoughnotnot
strictly
correct,
Although
strictly
correctit, itisisinstructive
instructivetotouse
usethe
thestability
stabilityresults
results
for
flow ininaalinearly
linearly diverging
9)9)totopredict
predictthe
thestability
stabilityofofthe
the
forflow
divergingregion
region(Figure
(Figure
forward
To dodothis
forwardroll
rollcoater.
coater.To
thisit it isis necessary
necessary only
only to
to estimate
estimatethe
theslope
slope
between
betweenthetheroller
roller surfaces
surfaces where the
the coating
coating meniscus
meniscusforms.
forms. Since
Sincethe
the
meniscus
where
f f
= 2/q,
since
f f= 1 +1+x2/2,
meniscusforms
forms
where
A/q,andand
since
x2/2,it itfollows
followsthat
thatthis
this
close to
to 4/3,
4/3, and
the value.
value
/2. Moreover
slope
fi[2(2/q- 1)] l1/2.
Moreover,,2A isisclose
and the
slopeisis given
given by
byJ[2(A/q-l)]
ofofqq as
function ofc c isisk nown
known
(Ruschak1982).
Thus forfora agiven
as a function
(Ruschak
1982). Thus
givencapillary
capillary
numberq, qcan
canbebelooked
look edupupand
and
Figure
can
used
estimatethe
theslope
slope
number,
Figure
9 9can
bebe
used
to toestimate
between
rollersurfaces
surfacesatatwhich
which
instabilityoccurs.
occurs.The
Thevalue
value
that
between
thethe
roller
instability
ofoffiJ that
gives
then follows immediately
immediately.. The
The results
showninin Figure
gives this
this slope then
results are shown
Figure
along with
with the
the experimental
experimental data
data of Mill
South(1967)
(1967) and
andthe
the
10, along
Mill && South
experimentalcorrelations
correlationsofof Pitts
Greiller (1961)
andGreener
Greener
experimental
Pitts &
& Greiller
(1961) and
et etal.al.
(1980). The
agreementbetween
betweenthethepredictions
predictionsand
andthethedata
datais isgood.
good.It
(1980).
The agreement
therefore
theflow
flowdepends
depends
thereforeseems
seemsthat
thatininforward
forwardroll
rollcoating
coatingthe
thestability
stability of the
primarilyupon
upon
thedivergence
divergencebetween
between
rollersurfaces
surfaces where
wherethe
thecoating
coating
primarily
the
thethe
roller
meniscus
locates
: :the
likely
the
flow
isistotobe
meniscus
locates
thegreater
greaterthe
thedivergence,
divergence,the
themore
more
lik ely
the
flow
be
stable.
stable.
=
Computer
ComputerMethods
Methodsfor
for Flow
Flow Simulation
Simulation
The
flownear
neara acoating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusis isnearly
nearly always
alwaystwo
twodimensional.
dimensional.This
Thisisis
The flow
trueeven
evenwhen,
whenas
, asininroll
rollcoating
the major
majorportion
portionofofthe
theflow
flowfield
field has
has
true
coating, , the
nearly
Moreover,viscous,
nearlyparallel
parallelstreamlines.
streamlines.Moreover
, viscousinertial,
, inertial, surface
surfacetension,
tension, and
and
effects may
all be
behighly
highly
gravitational
mayall
beimportant
important ; ; the
theflow
flowgeometry
geometrymaybe
complicated (for
be
irregular and
irregular
and complicated
(for example
example,, some
somefluid
fluid boundaries
boundaries may
may be
compliant); ; and
andsometimes,
sometimesas
, asininthe
the photographic
photographic
industryseveral
, severalliquid
liquid
compliant)
industry,
layers may
maybebeapplied
appliedsimultaneously.
simultaneously.Often
non-Newtonian
effectsare
are
layers
Often non-Newtonian
effects
important.Moreover,
Moreover
, an
analysisofofthe
thetwo-dimensional,
two-dimensional,steady-state
steady-stateflow
important.
an
analysis
flow
COATING FLOWS
COATING
FLOWS
I.O
83
83
I Z~
Annu.
Annu.
Rev.
Rev.
Fluid
Fluid
Mech.
Mech.
1985.17:65-89.
1985.17:65-89.
Downloaded
Downloaded
from
from
arjournals.annualreviews.org
www.annualreviews.org
by University
by Annual of
Reviews
Wyoming
on 05/26/09.
on 09/07/13.
For For
personal
personal
use use
only.
only.
UNSTABLE
0.1
STABLE
STABLE
I
I
0.01
------L---L-L-L---
0,01 --0,001
0.001
0.01
0.01
0,1
0.1
E/R
E/R
Figure lO
10 Stability
Stability of
of forward
South (1967);
(1967);
Fi#ure
forward roll
roll coating
coating:: data
data by
by Mill
Mill &
& South
experimental
(1961);
experimentalcorrelation
correlation of
experimental correlation
correlation ofofPitts
Pitts& Greiller
& Greiller
(1961); -- experimental
scus
Greener
(1980); _ theoretical
prediction based
based on
ofaacoating
coatingmeni
meniscus
theoretical prediction
on the
the stability
stability of
Greeneretet al.
al. (1980);
betweenlinearly
linearly diverging
divergingsurfaces
surfaces(Figures
(Figures88 and
and9).
9).
between
-
isis often
valueifif th the
stabilityofofth the
flow
cannotbe
be assessed.Th
These
often of
of little
little value
e stability
eflow
cannot
ese
requirementsare
arelargely
larg elybeyond
beyond
e means
of classicalanalysis.
analysis.
requirements
theth means
of classical
recent years
meth odsfor
for flow
simulation have
h ave advanced
advancedtoto
Inrecent
In
years computer
computer methods
flow simulation
the
th e point
point where
wh eremost
moststeady-state,
steady-state, two-dimensional
two-dimensionalflow
flowfields
fields can
can be
be
efficiently
calculated. Kistler
Kistler& &Scriven
Scriven (1983
(1983)) recently
efficiently calculated.
recently reviewed
reviewedthese
th ese
methods.
included
as as
examples
calculated
flow
fields
forforroll,
meth ods.They
Th ey
included
examples
calculated
flow
fields
roll,
extrusion, slide,
slide, and
curtain coating
did a
extrusion,
and curtain
coating.. Kobayash
Kobayashii ctet al.a1. (1982
(1982)) did
parameterstudy
studyonontheth eslide-coater
slide-coaterflow
ood ag
reement
parameter
flowfield
field and
andfound
foundg good
agreement
between
andand
an an
experimentally
obtained
flow
profile.
betweena acomputed
computed
experimentally
obtained
flow
profile.Kistler
Kistler

82
RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
Also plotted
condition
forfor
instability
plottedininFigure
Figure9 9is isthethenecessary
necessary
condition
instability
Also
determined
bybyPitts
(1961).This
This condition
condition appears
appears to
approach
determined
Pitts& Greiller
Greiller(1961).
to approach
the
asymptotically as
numberdecreases.
There isis
theexact
exactresult
result asymptotically
as the
the capillary
capillary number
decreases.There
other
that
condition
for for
instability
otherevidence
evidence
thatthe
thenecessary
necessary
condition
instabilityis isuseful
usefulonly
onlyfor
for
small
numbers.By
By comparing
smallcapillary
capillary numbers.
comparingpredictions
predictionswith
with experimental
experimentaldata,
data,
Savage
thatthat
thethe
necessary
condition
instability
Savage(1977a)
(1977a)found
found
necessary
conditio:nforfor
instabilitygives
gives a
reasonable
region
of of
stability
reasonableestimate
estimateof ofthethe
region
stabilityforfora aroller
rollerand
andflat-plate
flat-plate
geometry
over
On the
geometry
overthe
thecapillary
capillary number
numberrange
rangeofof0.06-0.11.
0.06--0.11. On
theother
otherhand,
hand,
when
Greener
et et
al. al.(1980)
their
stability
(1980) compared
compared
their
stabilitydata
datafor
forforward
forwardroll
roll
when
Greener
coating
numbers ininthe
0.1-10, they
they found
foundthat
thatthe
the
coatingfor
for capillary
capillary numbers
the range
range0.1-10,
necessary
underestimates the
necessarycondition
conditionfor
forinstability
instability substantially
substantially underestimates
the region
region
stability.However
, under
underthe
theexperimental
experimentalconditions
conditions
Greener
ofofstability.
However,
of ofGreener
et et
al.,al.,
thecoating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusforms
forms
fromthe
thenip
nipthat
that aa fully two-dimensional
the
sosofarfarfrom
two-dimensional
treatmentisis probably
probablyinin order
order anyway.
anyway.
treatment
Althoughnotnot
strictly
correct,
Although
strictly
correctit, itisisinstructive
instructivetotouse
usethe
thestability
stabilityresults
results
for
flow ininaalinearly
linearly diverging
9)9)totopredict
predictthe
thestability
stabilityofofthe
the
forflow
divergingregion
region(Figure
(Figure
forward
To dodothis
forwardroll
rollcoater.
coater.To
thisit it isis necessary
necessary only
only to
to estimate
estimatethe
theslope
slope
between
betweenthetheroller
roller surfaces
surfaces where the
the coating
coating meniscus
meniscusforms.
forms. Since
Sincethe
the
meniscus
where
f f
= 2/q,
since
f f= 1 +1+x2/2,
meniscusforms
forms
where
A/q,andand
since
x2/2,it itfollows
followsthat
thatthis
this
close to
to 4/3,
4/3, and
the value.
value
/2. Moreover
slope
fi[2(2/q- 1)] l1/2.
Moreover,,2A isisclose
and the
slopeisis given
given by
byJ[2(A/q-l)]
ofofqq as
function ofc c isisk nown
known
(Ruschak1982).
Thus forfora agiven
as a function
(Ruschak
1982). Thus
givencapillary
capillary
numberq, qcan
canbebelooked
look edupupand
and
Figure
can
used
estimatethe
theslope
slope
number,
Figure
9 9can
bebe
used
to toestimate
between
rollersurfaces
surfacesatatwhich
which
instabilityoccurs.
occurs.The
Thevalue
value
that
between
thethe
roller
instability
ofoffiJ that
gives
then follows immediately
immediately.. The
The results
showninin Figure
gives this
this slope then
results are shown
Figure
along with
with the
the experimental
experimental data
data of Mill
South(1967)
(1967) and
andthe
the
10, along
Mill && South
experimentalcorrelations
correlationsofof Pitts
Greiller (1961)
andGreener
Greener
experimental
Pitts &
& Greiller
(1961) and
et etal.al.
(1980). The
agreementbetween
betweenthethepredictions
predictionsand
andthethedata
datais isgood.
good.It
(1980).
The agreement
therefore
theflow
flowdepends
depends
thereforeseems
seemsthat
thatininforward
forwardroll
rollcoating
coatingthe
thestability
stability of the
primarilyupon
upon
thedivergence
divergencebetween
between
rollersurfaces
surfaces where
wherethe
thecoating
coating
primarily
the
thethe
roller
meniscus
locates
: :the
likely
the
flow
isistotobe
meniscus
locates
thegreater
greaterthe
thedivergence,
divergence,the
themore
more
lik ely
the
flow
be
stable.
stable.
=
Computer
ComputerMethods
Methodsfor
for Flow
Flow Simulation
Simulation
The
flownear
neara acoating
coatingmeniscus
meniscusis isnearly
nearly always
alwaystwo
twodimensional.
dimensional.This
Thisisis
The flow
trueeven
evenwhen,
whenas
, asininroll
rollcoating
the major
majorportion
portionofofthe
theflow
flowfield
field has
has
true
coating, , the
nearly
Moreover,viscous,
nearlyparallel
parallelstreamlines.
streamlines.Moreover
, viscousinertial,
, inertial, surface
surfacetension,
tension, and
and
effects may
all be
behighly
highly
gravitational
mayall
beimportant
important ; ; the
theflow
flowgeometry
geometrymaybe
complicated (for
be
irregular and
irregular
and complicated
(for example
example,, some
somefluid
fluid boundaries
boundaries may
may be
compliant); ; and
andsometimes,
sometimesas
, asininthe
the photographic
photographic
industryseveral
, severalliquid
liquid
compliant)
industry,
layers may
maybebeapplied
appliedsimultaneously.
simultaneously.Often
non-Newtonian
effectsare
are
layers
Often non-Newtonian
effects
important.Moreover,
Moreover
, an
analysisofofthe
thetwo-dimensional,
two-dimensional,steady-state
steady-stateflow
important.
an
analysis
flow

COATING
COATING FLOWS
FLOWS
85
85
the details
details of
of the
fieldof
is aa part,
so itit isis not
generally
the
the flow
flow field
of which
whichitit is
part, and
and so
not generally
possible to
to measure
the apparent
apparent dynamic
dynamiccontact
contactangle
angle inin one
oneflow
flow
possible
measure the
geometry
and
then
apply
thisangle
angleas
as aa boundary
conditionininanother
anotherflow
geometry
and
then
apply
this
boundarycondition
flow
geometry. The
apparent dynamic
dynamiccontact
contact angles
angles reported
geometry.
The apparent
reported by
by Ngan
Ngan&
&
DussanV.V.(1982)
(1982)forforliquid
liquiddisplacing
displacingairair between
betweenglass
glassslides
slides atat low
low
Dussan
capillary number
numberarearethe
themost
most
directsupporting
supporting
evidenceforforthis
thisconcluconclu
capillary
direct
evidence
found
spacing
between
slides
affects
sion. Ngan
Ngan&
&Dussan
Dussan
sion.
V.V.found
thatthat
thethe
spacing
between
the the
slides
affects
thevalue
valueof
of the
the apparent
dynamiccontact
contactangle.
angle.Kistler
Kistler&
Scriven(1982)
(1982)
the
apparent dynamic
&Scriven
providedfurther
further support
supportbybycalculating
calculating the
the variation
variation of
of the
the apparent
apparent
provided
dynamic
contactangle
an glewith
withchanges
chan gesinin flow
flow parameters
parameters
curtaincoating
coating
dynamic
contact
forforcurtain
high capillary
capillary numbers
.Less
direct support
fromthe
the experimental
atat high
numbers.
Less direct
support comes
comesfrom
experimental
findingthat
thatthe
the speed
speedof
of onset of air
byaltering
altering
finding
air entrainment
entrainment can be changedby
theflow
field(Perry
Akulov
1964
, Levi
1966
, infact,
fact, a
the
flow field
(Perry 1967
1967,, Levi
Levi &Akulov
1964,
Levi
1966).
It) .It
is, isin
common
observation
in the
coating
artart
that
common
observation
in the
coating
thatthe
thespeed
speedofofair
air entrainment
entrainment
depends
dependsupon
uponthe
thecoating
coating method.
method.
Modeling
flownear
nearthethethree-phase
three-phaseline
lineisis complicated
complicated by
bythe
the
Modeling
of ofthetheflow
breakdownofofthe
the classical
classical hydrodynamic
breakdown
hydrodynamic equations
equations and/or
and/or boundary
boundary
this region.
Scriven(1971)
thatthe
theequations
conditions in
in this
conditions
region.Huh
Huh&& Scriven
(1971)showed
showedthat
equations
andboundary
boundaryconditions
conditionsofofclassical
classical hydrodynamics
make the
the unacunac
and
hydrodynamics make
ceptableprediction
predictionthat
thatthe
theflow
of liquid
liquid in
contact
ceptable
flow of
in the
theneighborhood
neighborhoodofofaa contact
line
an unbounded
unboundedforce
They suggest
line exerts
exerts an
forceononthethesubstrate.
substrate. They
suggestthat
thatthe
the
classical
boundarycondition
notnot
be be
valid
near
thethe
wetting
line.
classical no-slip
no-slip boundary
conditionmay
may
valid
near
wetting
line.
Although
investigators
thatthat
allowing
slip
Althoughsubsequent
subsequent
investigatorshave
haveshown
shown
allowing
slipininthe
the
immediatevicinity
immediate
thisthisforce
vic init yofofthe
thethree-phase
three-phaseline
lineremoves
removes
forcesingularity
singularity
(DussanV.
remain
of finding
a realistic
theproblems
problems
remain
offinding
a realisticmodel
modelforforslip
slip
(Dussan
V1979),
. 1979),the
and
line.
andspecifying
specifyinga acontact
contactangle
angleatatthe
thethree-phase
three-phase
line.
Hansen
&&Toong
(1971)
forces
Toong
(1971)realized
realizedthat
thathydrodynamic
hydrodynamic
forcescan
cancause
causethe
the
Hansen
slope
slopeofofthe meniscus
meniscusto
t ochange
changerapidly
rapidlyvery
verynear
nearthe
thethree-phase
three-phaseline.
line.
Indeed,
Indeed,they
theypredicted
predictedthat
thatsignificant
significant changes
changesininslope
slope occur
occurover
overdistances
distances
toosmall
too
microscope.. They
They conclude
that,
smalltotobe
beresolved
resolved with
with an
an optical
optical microscope
conclude
that,inin
general,
apparent dynamic
general, the
the apparent
dynamiccontact
contactangle
angleis isnot
notequal
equaltotothe
theactual
actual
contactangle
angleatat the
thethree-phase
three-phaseline,
line, and
and that
that much
muchif ifnot
notallallofof the
the
contact
variation
of
the
apparent
dynamic
contact
angle
with
speed
can
be
variation
apparent dynamic contact angle with speed can be
attributed
to
hydrodynamic
bending
of
the
meniscus
very
near
the
attributed
to hydrodynamic bending of the meniscus very near the
substrate, rather
rather than
than to
tochanges
the actual
actual contact
contactangle.
later
substrate,
changes inin the
angle. Some
Somelater
investigators
(e.g.
Hocking
&
Rivers
1982)
have
assumed
that
the
actual
investigators (e.g. Hocking &Rivers 1982) have assumed that the actual
dynamic
contact
angle
does
notnot
vary
at at
allallwith
dynamic
contact
angle
does
vary
withspeed,
speed, so
sothat
that changes
changesinin
apparent
contact
angle
hydrodynamic
apparentdynamic
dynamic
contact
angleare
areentirely
entirely attributable
attributable totohydrodynamic
bendingofofthe
themeniscus
meniscus
over
a region
very
closetotothe
thesubstrate.
substrate.
bending
over
a region
very
close
By incorporating
By
incorporatingthethedisjoining
disjoiningpressure
pressureofofDeryagin,
DeryaginTeletzke
, Teletzkeet etal.al.
(1984)
hydrodynamicequations
to to
include
thethe
effects
(1984) modified
modifiedthe
theclassical
classical hydrodynamic
equations
include
effects
of fluid
overdistances
distances from
fromthe
thesubstrate
substratesososmall
small(less
(less than
than
of
fluid microstructure
microstructure over

86
86
RUSCHAK
RUSCHAK
1 }lm) that
longer
homogeneous.
They
predict that
1/~m)
that the
the liquid
liquidisisnono
longer
homogeneous,
They predict
that below
belowa
certain
speed no
entrained,, but
but that
that above
is entrained
abovethis
this speed
speed an
anair
air film
film is
is
certain speed
noair
air is
entrained
so thin
thin that
that the residual
residual air
not likely to
to be
be
entrained that
thatisis at
at first
first so
air is not
detected ((Miyamoto
Miyamoto
& Scriven
1 982).
The
thickness
film increases
increases
detected
&Scriven
1982).
The
thickness
of of
thetheairairfilm
with further
fu rther speed
not be
be whether
whetherair
air is
is
speed increases.
increases. Thus
Thusthe
the question
question may
maynot
entrained
enoughisis entrained
entrained to
to produce
detectable residual
residual
entrained,, but
but whether
whether enough
produce detectable
air.
withan
anair
air film left on
air. Even
Evenwith
onthe
the substrate,
substrate, Teletzke
Teletzke et al.
al. found
foundtha
thatt the
. The
contact angle
angle was not
not 180
1 80".
apparent
dynamiccontact
apparent dynamic
Theapparent
apparent angle
anglebecame
became
only whenthe
theair
air film got
1800
180
got so thick
thick that
that disjoining
disjoining pressures
pressuresbecame
became
negligible.
of a thin air
negligible. The
Thepresence of
air film
filmseparating
separatingthe
thesubstrate
substratefrom
fromthe
the
lliquid
iq uid circumvents
thesingularity
singularity atat aa three-phase
three-phaseline,
line. Teletzke
Teletzke et
e t al,
al.
circumvents the
-phase line
suggest that
that this
this air
air film
filmmay
mayjustify slip
slipnear
nearaathree
three-phase
line ininmacro
macrohydrodynamic models.
scopic hydrodynamic
In
third approach,
approach,the
ofofair
a three-phase
three-phaseline
airby
byliquid
liquid at
at a
line
In a third
the displacement
displacement
is modeled
as aa molecular
rate process
process by
byusing
usingthe
the statistical-mechanical
statistical-mechanical
modeledas
molecular rate
theory
of rate
theory of
rate processes
processes developed
developed by
by H.
I4. Eyring
Eyring and
and others.
others. The
The theory
theory
contact angle
angle as
as a
leads to
to an
anexpression
expressionfor
forthe
theapparent
apparentdynamic
dynamiccontact
a function
function
of speed
speed that
experinaentaldata
datavery
verywell
well(Blake
(Blake&&Haynes
Haynes 1969).
of
that fits experimental
1969).
Presently,
however,the
the theory
theory does
doesnot
not take
takeaccount
accountofofhydrodynamic
hydrodynamic
Presently, however,
effects
contact angle.
angle .
effects on
onthe
theapparent
apparentdynamic
dynamiccontact
Unfortunately,
Unfortunately, these
these theories
theories are
are not
not developed
developed to
to the
the point
point where
where
ven further
further awayis
is the
canbe
bemade
made
about
theirutility.
utility. E
definite judgments
judgmentscan
about
their
Even
routine
routine application
application of
ofaaproven
proventheory
theoryfor
fordynamic
dynamicwetting
wetting to
to the
themodeling
modeling
coating
of coa
ting flows.
flows.
Concluding Remarks
Concludin9
Remarks
Considerable progress
and
Considerable
progress has been made
madeatatelucidating
elucidating the
the structure
structure and
stability
thelimitations
limitationsof
ofclassical
classical analytical
stability of
ofcoating
coating flows.
flows. However,
However,the
analytical
approaches have
havecertainly
certainly limited progress
of coating
approaches
progress on
on the
the modeling
modeling of
coating
flows. Until
Until recently,
recently, nearly
nearlyall
allcoating
coatingflows
flowsstudied
studiedwere
werecharacterized
characterizedby
by
flows.
nearly
parallel streamlines.
his is
nearly parallel
streamlines, T
This
isdoubtless
doubtlessthe
thecase
casebecause
becausethe
theequations
equations
rectilinear flow. In
simplify
greatlyfor
fornearly
nearlyrectilinear
of capillary
capillary hydrodynamics
hydrodynamicssimplify
greatly
In
general, however,
coating meniscus
meniscus is
is highly two
however, the
the flow
flow near
near aa coating
twodimensional.
Thefailure
failure to
to treat
treat the
areasof
offlow
flowfields
fields
dimensional. The
the two-dimensional
two-dimensionalareas
realistically has
hasled
ledininthethe
past
of hoc
ad hoc
boundary
conditionsoon
realistically
past
to to
thethe
useuse
of ad
boundary
conditions
n
the nearly rectilinear
portion of
Therange
range of
off the
the
rectilinear portion
o f tthe
h e flow field.
field . The
of validity
validity o
analysis isisthen
theninindoubt,
doubt,and
and
theadad
hoc
boundaryconditions
conditions become
becomeas
the
hoc
boundary
much
subjectof
ofattention
attention as
as the
mucha asubject
the original
original problem.
problem.
There
coatingflows
flowsthat
that exhibit
exhibit nearly
There isis aa great
great need
need to
to look
look beyond
beyond coating
nearly
parallel streamlines. It
It is
parallel
is similarly
similarlydesirable
desirableto
to relax
relax the
the usual
usual restriction
restriction of
of
ects. Non-Newtonian
effects merit
attention,
negligible inertial
inertial effeffects.
Non-Newtonian
effects
merit more
more attention,
because many
manyif ifnot
notmost
mostofofthe
theliquids
liquids coated
coated depart
departsignificantly
significantly from
because
from

COATING
FLOWS
FLOWS
87
87
Newtonianbehavior.
behavior.
also important
recognize that
that an
an analysis
analysis of
of
Newtonian
It Itisis also
important toto recognize
the steady,
stea dy, two-dimensional
two-dime nsionaflow
lflow
fi eldis islikely
l ke
i l y to
to have
ha ve limited
limite dvalue
unle ss
the
field
value unless
the
theflow
flowfield
field to
to three
three-dimensional
disturbances
thestability
sta bility of the
- dimensiona l disturb
a nces can
ca n be
be
evaluated.
evaluated. Finite-element
Finite-element methods
methodsimplemented
implementedononmodern
modern computers
computers
ha ve demonstrated
demonstra ted
considera blepromise
promise
ha ndlingsuch
suchcomplications.
complica tions.
have
considerable
forforhandling
Although many
manyofofthe
the remaining
remaining problems
problemsare
are computational,
computational, the
the
Although
phenomenon
ofa ir
e ntra inment
sta nds
outas
a sone
onefor
for whichaa proven
phenomenon
of air
entrainment
stands
out
proven model
model
not aavailable.
va ila ble. The
complexone,
one, involving
involving both
both
isis not
The phenomenon
phenomenon isis a complex
ma croscopic
flow
effectsaand
ndmicroscopic
microscopicevents
eventsat
a ta dynamic
dy na micwetting
wettingline
line
macroscopic
flow
effects
tha tare
erstood .
that
are far
far from
fromclearly
clearly und
understood.
Flowfields
fie dl sthat
that can
liquid ofofggiven
iven properties
properties into
into a suitably
Flow
can transform
transform aaliquid
suitably
thin, uniform
uniformfilm
filmaat t high
highspeeds
speedsare
a renot
noteasily
ea sily identified
ide ntifiedaand
ndaanalyzed.
na yl zed.
thin,
None the el ssthe
, theinterplay
inte rplayamong
a mong
viscous
, inertia ,lgravitational,
g ra vita tio nal, aand
ndcapilca pil
Nonetheless,
viscous,
inertial,
lary
well
thenu
nuances
of free
free bound
boundaries,
makes
s well
a as
s the
a nces of
a ries, m
a kesthis
thischallengcha lleng
al ry effects,
effects, a as
ingclass
cla ss offlow
a ninteresting
interesting one
onefor
forfluid
a nicia ns.
ing
flow problems
problemsan
fluid mech
mechanicians.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I thank
thank Eastman
Eastman Kodak
Kodak Company
forfor
supporting
Company
supportingthis
this work.
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