Running head: JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

Job & Social Skills Training for Adolescents with Intellectual and Cognitive Disabilities
Ian Witherby
Boston College
School of Social Work

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!2
Abstract

This paper proposes an evaluation project for the Inclusive Concurrent Enrollment
Initiative, a state-run grant program designed to provide inclusive learning opportunities in
Massachusetts public higher education institutions for transition-age youth with intellectual and
cognitive disabilities. A description of the Initiative is offered, and general transition-age
practices are discussed.
Several relevant constructs and theories are put forth for contextual purposes, including
the benefits of inclusive education, self-efficacy, employment opportunities & successes, and
other disparate outcomes for disabled adolescents.
A brief literature review glosses over advances made in inclusive education research, in
particular peer-training and -mentoring programs which have seen considerable success.
Limitations to existing studies and avenues for future research are delineated.
The evaluation proposal is then detailed; evaluation questions, hypotheses, and expected
results are all considered. The sampling methods and design of the study are discussed. Data
collection methods are described and several instruments are proffered. Finally, expected results
of the evaluation are detailed, and implications of the proposed evaluation are offered
in conclusion.

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!3

Job & Social Skills Training for Adolescents with Intellectual and Cognitive Disabilities
The Inclusive Concurrent Enrollment Initiative is a grant program administered by the
Massachusetts Executive Office of Education; it funds individual programs on college campuses
who partner with neighboring school districts in order to provide transition services and inclusive
classroom experiences to adolescents with intellectual and cognitive disabilities who would not
otherwise have a college experience.
General transition theory dictates that youth do better when they are advanced with their
peers; since these underserved youth would not typically move on to college with their nondisabled peers, ICEI provides a service designed to better prepare youth for employment andas
a general guidelineprovide them with opportunities for self-actualization via social, life, and
job skills training.
Relevant Theories & Constructs
Clark (1994), Wehman (1993), and the WHO (1997)among othershave firmly
established that students with intellectual and cognitive disabilities require training in selfadvocacy and job & life skills, adult agency referrals, family involvement, and ongoing job
training in order to succeed; ideally, a comprehensive educational foundation during high school
and throughout transition should be implemented. (Mohanty, 2015)
Aside from the obvious and firmly established interpersonal benefits of inclusive
education, inclusive practices reflect democratic values insofar as they exemplify the
participatory ideals of our society. This perspective involves a fundamental shift in the way
society views these vulnerable populations; the conversation ceases to hinge on difficulties or
limitations and begins to revolve around their treatment by society.

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!4

From this perspective, policy and programmatic goals no longer need to be structured
around improvements in quality of life for youth with intellectual and cognitive disabilities;
rather, the focus becomes on how to help these young people become fully-functioning members
of societyand as a result, to explore how this inclusive and participant-driven treatment
benefits everyone. (Osgood, 2010).
The continued success of transition-age adolescents has much to do with future
opportunity under the best of circumstances; youth with intellectual and cognitive disabilities are
significantly more vulnerable during these crucial years and often face additionaland often
seemingly insurmountablechallenges which until recently remained unaddressed by both
social and educational services. Richardson (2000) maintains that young people who lack social
and emotional competence frequently cause discipline problems and are unsuccessful in their
academic pursuits. These challenges are not limited to academic venues; they also encompass
external and community-based arenas in the form of un-employability, social maladjustment, and
emotional disturbance. (Osgood, 2010; Mohanty, 2015)
In order to address these disparate outcomes, public education classrooms have seen
increasing emphasis on inclusive educational environments for children and adolescents with
intellectual and cognitive disabilities. For approximately 30 years, the emphasis on inclusive
education practices has been steadily growing. Policy and programmatic changes have often
arisen as a result of legislative action or as a result of judicial rulings. Regardless of how they are
implemented, these improvements to classroom practiceand the superior outcomes they
provide studentshave been well-documented. (Shea, 2006).

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!5

Critical Literature Review

In a 2005 study of socioeconomic status and willingness of 33 high school boys to
socially accept 38 same-sex disabled peers, Plata & Trusty found that regardless of academic
designation, boys from low SES [socioeconomic status] backgrounds were more willing than
their counterparts to accept peers with learning disabilities. Citing previous research, they also
maintain that the peer group is an essential avenue that assists individuals social development.
There is no reason to believe that disabled childrens learning needs are functionally different
than those of their non-disabled peers, at least when it comes to what skills society expects of
them once they leave their respective educational institutions.
Plata & Trusty warn that it may be difficult for students with atypical characteristics,
such as learning disabilities, to be accepted by existing peer groups. To date, research on social
status of adolescents with LD [learning disabilities] indicates that these students do not fare well
in mainstream settings. Results of their study indicate that when significant differences were
found between SES groups low SES students were more willing than either the middle or high
SES peers to allow students with LD to participate. The authors note that perhaps the most
prominent limitation of this study is that past studies results are contradictory. Also, no effort
was made to identify specific characteristics of low or high SES groups which might have
contributed to attitudes as they pertain to people with disabilities.
Chois 2007 review of peer training methods is a broad but cursory overview of existing
research into peer training methods for children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (or ASD). He
notes that

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!6

limitations and obstacles in actual implementation of classwide peer tutoring need to be

considered. If classwide peer tutoring is implemented for older children, it may well be
important to consider the ability or academic performance level of children with autism,
as well as to control the difficulty level of cognitive tasks. Also some reinforcements for
the group performance, not individual performance, are likely to be essential.
(Choi, 2007, 96)
He closes by remarking that despite successful research outcomes of peer tutoring
approaches, the use of peer-mediated interventions appears to be rare in schools.
In their 2015 nationwide survey of postsecondary education programs for students with
intellectual disabilities, Plotner & Marshall discovered many common characteristics of
programs based on college campuses. Faculty buy-in was perceived as extremely important to
program success, and funding was identified as the number one concern. Their results also show
that most barriers to success decrease over time, suggesting that if properly implemented and
maintained, student support programs tend to become integrated into campus life writ large. It is
not time itself through which these barriers are addressed, but rather the effort and preparation of
program developers tackling initial barriers that allowed them to diminish in influence (Plotner
& Marshall, 2015).
Limitations to Plotner & Marshalls study include the studys retrospective nature, only
collecting data at one point in time, and the fact that data was collected from program
administrators onlynot from other stakeholders, campus participants, or partnering districts.
The most current study surrounding peer support of disabled children was published by
Bobzien and Judge in 2015. Researchers conducted a small study of a summer camp geared

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!7

towards helping children ages 10-21 with ASD acquire and practice new and necessary social
skills. Bobzien & Judge found that all volunteer [non-disabled] peer buddies appeared open to
interacting, playing and developing friendships with their disabled peers. Finally, they
concluded that
age appropriate peers who feel more independent, enjoy making new friends and seek out
adventure would make positive volunteer peer buddies at camps for children with ASD
because of their openness and positive attitude towards these unique campers.
Bobzien & Judge noted several limitations to the study. Small sample size prevented
generalizability to a larger population. Additionally, prior exposure to or experience with
children with ASD was neither captured or controlled for in the study design. There was no
comparison group or control group of non-participating children, and all measures were selfreported.
The best example of a study aiming to determine the efficacy of peer involvement in
learning & social support for students with intellectual disabilities comes from Sheehy et al., who
in 2011 evaluated a program in the UK designed to provide peer access to personal advisors.
Their program, called Connexions (sic),
employs personal advisors (PAs) who work with individual young people [with
disabilities] and facilitate their ability to make informed and effective decisions in
charting a successful transition into adult life. The role of the PA [was found to be]
central in addressing barriers to [social] participation and facilitating aspirations.
Their project collated life stories from individual interviews with 25 young people and a group
interview with eight participants (Sheehy, 2011). Overall, they found the PAs connections with

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!8

youth extremely beneficial to overall social functioning and emotional awareness, but remarked
that their research is limited in scale and representativeness. They also noted a self-selection
bias due to the volunteer nature of the study.
Evaluation Question, Hypothesis, & Expected Results
ICEI oversees more than a dozen semi-independent campus programs, the outcomes of
which are unclear andmore importantlyunmeasured. The Initiative has several primary goals
which canat least in some waysbe quantified. Further, the literature surrounding inclusive
practice and peer-based social training is still relatively new; few studies exist which fully flesh
out the positive and negative aspects of this kind of intervention, especially when it is tailored so
closely to adolescents with intellectual and cognitive disabilities.
Therefore, the proposed evaluation is designed to measure the effectiveness of several
different kinds of social & job skills training programs, including those implemented by nondisabled peers. Given the literature & available data on the efficacy of peer-based interventions
(especially those peers with similar cultural backgrounds per research conducted by Sheehy
(2011) and Plotner (2015)), the alternative hypothesis is that peer-supported interventions will be
associated with higher rates of job & employer satisfaction, improved social skills, and greater
levels of self-esteem. The null hypothesis is that peer-involved training will have no effect on
these criteria.
Methods
Sample
The Inclusive Concurrent Enrollment Initiative provides funds for 13 college campuses
distributed across Massachusetts. The campuses belong to each silo of public higher education

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!9

(programs exist at community colleges, state universities, and the University of Massachusetts
system). For consistencys sake (and in order to remove a potential confounding variable), we
will use three community colleges (one silo) instead of branching out. Internal structures,
policies, and campus environments (e.g. research vs. teaching base & faculty involvement)
present too much of a challenge at this point in the study. Campuses will self-select themselves
into the study.
Campus ICEI program cohorts generally peak at around 15 active students per campus
per academic semester. 10 students each at three campuses will be recruited to participate. 12
peer mentors (opportunity sampled) will also be needed. Three program administrators (one from
each campus) will collect data & provide technical support for the peer mentors. Additionally,
the study will need the participation of an unknown number of employers (at most, 30 employers
will need to be involved).
Design
The proposed evaluation is a longitudinal quasi-experimental study designed to test the
effectiveness of three methods of social & job skills training. There is no control group (which
limits the validity of the results), but rather three comparison groups10 students who receive
traditional educational coaching via adult staff, 10 students who receive small-group training
facilitated by a peer, and 10 students who receive exclusive attention from one peer mentor.
Participating students will be followed throughout two years of active, on-campus training and
then tracked through two years of subsequent off-campus employment opportunities.

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!10

Due to the possible competency status of some of the participants, parental or guardian
consent will be required for all participants. Program administrators at each of the participating
campuses will be responsible for collecting and maintaining these consents.
Inherent weaknesses of the quasi-experimental design include lack of external validity
(because of probability sampling). The traditional shortfall of lack of internal validity (because of
non-random group assignment) is also a concern in these types of studies.
Before the training process begins, a brief baseline measurement of social & job skills
will be conducted. As no student will be allowed to participate if they already have off-campus
employment, there will be no baseline measurement for employee or job satisfaction.
Data collection procedures
Data will be collected via face-to-face interviews pre-intervention and via phone calls for
post-employment follow-up. This will allow for minimal intervention after the fact. Program
administrators at each of the three selected campuses will administer the initial interviews as well
as the phone call follow-up.
Instruments
The most valuable instrument for measuring outcomes will be the Transitional Youth
Follow-up Survey, which was developed specifically for use with transition-age youth with
intellectual and cognitive disabilities. The TYFS identifies variables related to employment
outcomes (Simonsen, 2013). Respondents indicate demographic, school-based, and individual
& family variables, as well as four subscales for measuring (a) self-determination skills, (b)
self-management, (c) community mobility, and (d) level of family involvement (ibid.). The
survey creators used existing questions to create this measure, and feedback on items was

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!11

provided by experts to determine content validity[Additionally,] employment outcomes were

coded and reliability checks were conducted (ibid.).
Given the intellectual and emotional capabilities of the studys participants, evaluators
will also use the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Children. Adapted from the European version to
better speak to American audiences, the SEQ-C is developmentally appropriate for a high school
population. As reported in 2011 by Zullig et al., the coefficient alpha for the 8-item scale in a
U.S. high school sample was .89. Spearman rank-correlation coefficients ranged from .36-.63.
These alphas are perfectly acceptable for these purposes.
The TYFS and SEQ-C measure job-related and self-efficacy characteristics; still missing
is a larger perspective on affecting change more broadly. Any empowerment program must
necessarily include components geared towards extra-personal relationships: those abilities that
we cultivate in order to facilitate a neighborhood, community, or political change. Skills in this
arena signify an appreciation for the happiness of others as well as a fundamental beliefs in not
only our power to shape the world around us, but also a recognition of the value of other people.
The Teen Voice Index (TVI) provides such a perspective. It measures an individuals
perception of personal power or self-efficacy, community problem-solving belief, political
activity, and ideas of the president (Scales, 2011). Construct validity of this measure is
evidenced by the fact that all items were taken from previous surveys with known, acceptable
psychometric properties. An independent Confirmatory Factor Analysus and Rasch analysis was
conducted [and] showed consistent evidence of both acceptable reliability and validity posthoc evidence for the predictive validity of the index was also found. (Scales, 2011).

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!12

As for measuring job performance, numerous employers commonly use performance

evaluations in the course of doing business. Copies of the evaluations for participating students
will be requested and analyzed during the follow-up stages of the evaluation. Number of
positions held and length of time at each of those positions will also be captured.
In addition to the measures listed above, program administrators will ask several openended questions (both at inception and follow-up) designed to illicit self-aware responses. Topics
for the open-ended questions include discussing the subjects degree of self-efficacy &
empowerment, examples of happiness in their day-to-day lives, and descriptions of their goals.
Adherence to and consistent attendance at skills training sessions would be measured.
Results
Qualitative data will be analyzed using available tools in order to discover common
themes, trends, and threads running through the varied responses. Employment evaluations will
be similarly analyzed, as there is no common evaluation or measurement standard for job
performance.
Common practice would dictate running several different tests for correlation between
variables, including in this case adherence to social skills approaches and length of time at each
position. However, T-tests would be more valuable in this case; determining relative differences
based on comparison group would be important. Possible test variables include age at program
termination, parental status, family income, presence of siblings, presence of additional postcollege training, and increase in satisfaction or goal attainment. Comparing average skill set
retention and longevity via simple regression analyses and measures of central tendency (mean
& mode) would be critical.

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!13
Discussion

Expected Findings
I believe that the evaluation would show that the impact of peer mentorship would be
increased as the mentor-to-student ratio declined, insofar as social skills and general
empowerment are concerned. However, I am unconvinced that peer mentorship (of any variety)
would substantially or significantly affect the number, frequency, or duration of employment
opportunities after termination of the training sessions.
Strengths, Limitations, and Future Questions
Researchers should examine those non-disabled children who participate in peer support
and mentoring programs. Several instruments exist (especially the Openness Scale) which
specifically measure the level of comfort youth and adolescents feel while interacting with their
disabled peers. It would be interesting to note any ancillary social benefits these non-disabled
children pick up as a result of their exposure to and training with disabled children.
Geographic distances and community differences were not considered. Additionally, no
examination of high school transition policy or educational practices was undertaken. Given the
potential differences across school districts, comprehensive analysis of effectiveness would take
both of these considerations into account.
The fact that campuses self-selected to participate in the study is a limitation as well, as is
the fact that peer mentors were already involved in their respective campus programs. Future
studies may want to consider recruitment of individuals not already involved with students with
intellectual and cognitive disabilities.

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!14

Most peer mentors currently receive some program-specific training; however, a lack of
standardization across campuses makes eliminating this variable difficult. Future studies should
endeavor to standardize the intervention.
Finally, the lack of a baseline analysis for half of the measured outcomes means that the
effectiveness of the programs change process cannot be fully identified or quantified. The lack
of a true control group may also mean that any observed change effects would be exaggerated.
Implications
As far as employment prospects, I believe that a more effective intervention would be to
train and/or educate potential future employers directly about the benefits of utilizing youth with
intellectual and cognitive disabilities. Inclusion of these workers in mainstream society is largely
the responsibility of the workforce, not of the students advocates.
However, the best way to provide these more enlightened employers is to start earlyan
unexpected benefit of these types of inclusive programs is that they benefit entire campus
communities, rather than just the students directly participating in the programs. Peer mentors,
faculty members, and administrators alike are beginning to understand that equitable
participation in the social processin the workforce and in every day lifeenhances all of our
lives.

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!15
References

Choi, S. H. -. (2007). Peer training methods for children and adolescents with autism: A review.
International Journal of Pedagogies & Learning, 3(3), 92-100. Retrieved from http://
search.proquest.com/docview/894124236?accountid=9673.
Mohanty, A. (2015). Vocational counselling and transition skill training for adolescents with
special needs. Creative Education, 6(2), 255-261. Retrieved from http://
search.proquest.com/docview/1663762590?accountid=9673.
Plata, M., & Trusty, J. (2005). Effect of socioeconomic status on general and at-risk high school
boys willingness to accept same-sex peers with ld. Adolescence, 40(157), 47-66.
Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/195943236?accountid=9673.
Plotner, A. J., & Marshall, K. J. (2015). Postsecondary education programs for students with an
intellectual disability: Facilitators and barriers to implementation. Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities, 53(1), 58-69,87,89. Retrieved from http://
search.proquest.com/docview/1654943314?accountid=9673.
Scales, P. C., Benson, P. L., & Roehlkepartain, E. C. (2011). Teen voice index doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1037/t30941-000.
Shea, M. M.So you think it's inclusion...think again: A quantitative analysis of stakeholder
perceptions in community youth organizations Available from Social Services Abstracts.
(61388410; 200702959). Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61388410?
accountid=9673.

JOB & SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING

!16

Sheehy, K., Kumrai, R., & Woodhead, M. (2011). Young people's experiences of personal
advisors and the connexions service. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International
Journal, 30(3), 168-182. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/02610151111124923.
Simonsen, M. L., & Neubert, D. A. (2013). Transition youth follow-up survey doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1037/t27629-000.
Osgood, D. W., Foster, E. M., & Courtney, M. E. (2010). Vulnerable populations and the
transition to adulthood. The Future of Children, 20(1) Retrieved from http://
search.proquest.com/docview/741609925?accountid=9673.
Poon-McBrayer, K., & Wong, P. (2013). Inclusive education services for children and youth with
disabilities: Values, roles and challenges of school leaders. Children and Youth Services
Review, 35(9), 1520-1525. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.06.009.
Richardson, R. C. (2000). Teaching social and emotional competence. Children & Schools,
22(4), 246-251. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/61326953?
accountid=9673.