A. P. French Newtonian Mechanics 1971

Newtonian mechanics
A. R French
Introductory
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1997
The M.I.T.
Introductory
Physics
Series
Special RelatiVity
A.P.FRENCH
Vibrations and
Waves
A.P.FRENCH
Newtonian Mechanics
A.P.FRENCH
TheM.I.T.
Introductory
Physics
Series
Newtonian
Mechanics
A. E French
PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Nelson
TIIOMAS NELSON AND SONS LTD

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po Box 18123 Nairobi Kenya
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1
Copyright
1971, 1965 by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
First published in Great Britain 1971
sbn 17 771074 8 (paper)

L^bn 17 761075 1 (boards)
PROTON
per
ic'
47809
551 we
Made and
printed by
William Clowes & Sons Ltd, Beccles, Colchester and
London
Contents
Preface
xi
Prologue
PART I
1
THE APPROACH TO NEWTONIAN DYNAMICS

universe of particles
21
The particulate view

Eleclrons and nucleons
Atomic nuclei
25
Atoms
26
21
24
Molecules; licing cells
Sand and dust

Other
32
lerrestrial objecls
Planels
and satellifes
Stars
Galaxies
33
35
36
PROBLEMS
28
31
38
Space, time, and motion

What is motion?
43
Frames ofreference
46
Coordinale systems
48
43
Combination ofvector displacements
The
53
56
resolution ofvectors
59
Vector addilion and the properties ofspace
Time
61
Uni is and standards oflength and time

66
Space-time graphs
63
67
Velocily
68
lnslantaneous velocily
Relatlve velocily
and relative motion
72
Planetary motions: Ptolemy versus Copernicus
PROBLEMS
74
78
85
Accelerated motions
85
87
The analysis of straight-line motion
93
A comment on exlraneous roots
95
Trujectory problems in two dimensions
98
Free fail of individual aloms
102
Other features of motion in free fail
Acceleralion
105
Uniform circular motion
and acceleralion
108
PROBLEMS
Velocily
in
polar coordinales
106
115
Forces and equilibrium

116
Forces in static equilibrium

118
Units offorce
Ekuilibrium conditions; forces as vectors
Action and reaction in the contact of objects

124
Rotational ekuilibrium; loraue
Forces without contact; weight
119
123
128
130
and slrings
problems
132
Pulleys
The various
139
forces of nature
139
The hasic lypes offorces

140
Gravitatkmal forces
Electric
and magnetic forces
Nuclear forces
145
147
Forces between neutral atoms
Con laci forces
1 50
Frictional contact forces
problems
VI
152
154
Concluding remarks
154
148
Force, inertia, and motion

The
161
161
of inertia
mass: Newlon's law
164
Some comments on Newlon's law
167
principle
Force and
Scales
inertial
ofmass and force
170
The effect of a continuing force

The incariance of Newton's law;
173
Incar iance with specific force laws
Newlon's law and time reuersal

Concluding remarks
180
problems
PART
7
II
173
relatioily
176
178
181
CLASSICAL MECHANICS AT
WORK
Using Newton's law

Some
I
188
inlroduclory examples
Motion
Mo
187
in
ion in
two dimensions
194
198
circle
Curoilinear motion with changing speed
200
Circular pai lis of charged particles in uniform magnelic fields
Charged particle
in
a magnelic fielcl
202
205
Mass
spectrographs
206
The fracture ofrapidly rotating objects
Motion against resistive forces
210
Deiailed analysis ofresisted motion
Motion gocerned by viscosily

218
Growlh and decay ofresisted motion
208
213
221
Air resistance and "independence of molions"

Simple harmonic motion
226
More about simple harmonic motion

problems
234
225
231
Universal gravitation
245
The discovery of universal gravitation

The orbit s of the planets
246
Planetary periods
249
Kepler's third law
252
The moon and the apple
256
Finding the dislance to the
The gracitational
Other
satellites
moon
attraciion
of the
eartli
259
of a large sphere
265
The ualue of G, and the mass of the earth

Local uariations of g
270
The mass of the sun
274
Vll
245
261
268
275
Finding the dislance to the sun
Mass and
weight
Weightlessness
279
285
286
Learning about other planets

288
The moons ofJupiter
291
The discovery ofNeptune
295
Gravilation outside the solar system

Einstein's theory
299
of gravilation
PROBLEMS
301
307
Collisions and conservation laws

308
The laws of impact
The conservation of linear momentum
310
Momentum as a vector guantity
313
Action, reaction, and impulse
309
Extending the principie of momentum conservation

321
The force exerted hy a stream ofparticles
324
Reaction from a fluid jet
327
Rocket propulsion
Collisions and frames ofreference
331
333
335
Kinetic energy in collisions
The zero-momentum frame

Collision processes in two dimensions
339
342
Elastic nuclear collisions

Inelastic
and explosive processes
What
a collisionl
is
346
351
lnteracting particles subject t o external forces
The pressure of a gas

356
The neutrino
357
PROBLtMS
10
Energy conservation
vibrational motions
in
318
352
354
dynamics;
367
367
368
of motion
Work, energy, and power
Introduction
lntegrals
373
Gravitational potential energy
More about
376
one-dimensional situations
379
The energy methodfor one-dimensional motions

384
Some examples of the energy method
The harmonic oscillator by the energy method

395
Small oscillations in general
The linear oscillator as a two-body problem
Collision processes inuolving energy storage
The diatomic molecule

411
PROBLEMS
Vlll
405
381
393
397
400
Conservative forces and motion in space

Extending the concepl of conservative forces
425
Acceleration of two connected masses
426
Object moving in a verlical circle
An experimenl by Galileo
Mass on a puraboiic track
423
423
429
431
434
The simple pendulum
437
The pendulum cis a harmonic oscillator
440
The pendulum with larger amplitudo
Universal gravitation: a conservative central force
446
A gravitating spherical shell
450
A gravitating sphere
453
Escape velocities
More
Fields
aboul the cri teria for conservative forces
and the gradien! of potential energy
Motion in conservative fields

The effect of dissipative forces
473
Gauss's law
Applications of Gauss's theorem
PROBLEMS
12
III
457
461
Equipotential surfaces
PART
442
463
466
470
476
478
SOME SPECIAL TOPICS
Inertial forces
493
and non-inertial frames
Motion observed from unaccelerated frames

Motion observed front an accelerated frame
497
Accelerated frames and inertial forces
Accelerometers
501
Accelerating frames and gravity
Centrifugal force
494
495
504
507
511
514
518
Dynamics on a merry-go-round
519
General ecjuation of motion in a rotating frame
524
The earth as a rotating reference frame
The tides
531
535
Tidal heights; effect of the sun
538
The search for a fundamental inertial frame
542
Speculations on the origin of inertia
Centrifuges
Coriolis forces
PROBLEMS
13
Motion under
546
555
central forces
Basic features of the problem

The law ofequal areas
557
555
The conservation of angular momentum
IX
560
Energy conseruation
Vse of the
563
molions
in ceniral force
565
effectiue potential-energy citrues
568
Bounded orbtts
Unbcnmded orbits
569
572
Circular orbtts in an inuerse-square force field
574
Small perturbation of a circular orbit
577
The elliptic orbits ofthe planels
583
Deducing the inuerse-scpiare law from the eltipse
585
Elliptic orbits: analylical treatment
589
Energy in an elliptic orbit
591
Molion near the earth's surface
592
Interplcmetciry transfer orbits
595
Calculaling an orbit from inilial condilions
596
A family of relai ed orbits
598
Central force motion as a two-body problem
Deducing the orbit from the force law
604
Rutherford scattering
609
Cross sections for scattering
Alpha-particle scattering (Geiger
Magazine excerpts)
615
An historical note
problems
617
14
600
and Marsden, Philosophical
612
Extended systems and rotational dynamics
627
Momentum and kinetic energy of a many-particle system

632
Angtilar momentum
636
Angular momentum as a fundamental quanlity
639
Conseruation of angular momentum
643
Moments of inertia of extended objects
647
Two theorems concerning moments of inertia
651
Kinetic energy ofrotaling objects
Angular momentum conseruation and kinetic energy
and rigid pendulums

Motion under combined forces and tonjues
Impu/sioe forces and torgues
668
Bachground to gyroscopic motion
671
Torsional oscillations
Gyroscope
More
in
steady precession
about precessional motion
Gyroscopes
as gyroscopes
Gyroscopic motion
in teriris
The precession of the equinoxes

problems
700
Appendix
709
Bibliography
lndex
686
of F =
ia
691
Niitation
Answers
677
680
683
in nauigation
Atoms and nuclei
to
713
problems
733
659
664
723
694
688
654
628
Preface
the
work
of the Education Research Center at M.I.T. (formerly
the Science
Teaching Center)
is
concerned with curriculum im-
and aids
provement, with the process of instruction

with the learning process
established
by M.I.T.
Friedman as
its
undergraduate
in 1960,
Director.
and
primarily with respect to students
itself,
at the college or university
thereto,
level.
The Center was
with the late Professor Francis L.
Since 1961 the Center has been sup-
ported mainly by the National Science Foundation; generous

support has also been received from the Kettering Foundation,
Companies Foundation, the Victoria Foundation, the

Grant
Foundation, and the Bing Foundation.
T.
The M.I.T. Introductory Physics Series, a direct outgrowth
the Shell
W.
of the Center's work,
is
designed to be a set of short books that,
taken collectively, span the main areas of basic physics. The

series seeks to emphasize the interaction of experiment and intuition in generating physical theories.
The books
in
the series are
intended to provide a variety of possible bases for introductory

courses, ranging
from those which
physics to those which
embody
chiefly
emphasize
a considerable
classical
amount of atomic
and quantum physics. The various volumes are intended to be

compatible in level and style of treatment but are not conceived
as a tightly knit package; on the contrary, each
to
book
is
designed
be reasonably self-contained and usable as an individual com-
ponent
in
many
different course structures.
XI
The text material in the present volume is designed to be a

more or less self-contained introduction to Newtonian mechanics,
such that a student with little or no grounding in the subject can,
considerable proficicncy.
the
book
Approach
suggested by
is
its
division into three parts.
Newtonian Dynamics,
to
poses. First,
it
is
Part
The
I,
intended to serve two pur-
does discuss the basic concepts of kinematics and
dynamics, more or
less
from
study of mechanics squarely
phenomena and of
is
brought gradually to a level of

rough guide to the possible use of
at the beginning, be
by beginning
scratch. Second,
in the
it
seeks to place the
context of the world of physical
This
neccssarily imperfect physical theories.
a conscious reaction, on the author's
part, against the preserta-
tion of mechanics as "applied mathematics," with the divorce-
ment from
and the misleading impression of rigor that
reality
has engendered in generations of
brought up
in the British
this
students (especially, alas, those
educational system).
The
student
who
Newton's laws will find little

of an analytical or quantitative sort to learn from Part I, but he
may still derive some value and interest from reading through it
some
already has
for
its
expertise in using
broader implications.
Part
Classical
II,
heart of the book.

relegate Part
emphasis
is
Mechanics at Work,
Some
is
undoubtedly the
instructors will wish to begin here,
to the status of
background reading.
The
on Newton's second law applied to individual
and
initial
objccts.
Later, the emphasis shifts to systems of two or more particlcs, and

to the conservation laws for momentum and energy. A fairly
lengthy chapter
is
place in the whole

gravitation
and
its
devoted to the subject that deserves pride of
Newtonian scheme the theory of universal

successes, which can
still
be appreciated as a
pinnacle in man's attempts to discover order in the vast universe

in
which he finds himself.

Part
III,
Some
Special Topics, concerns
itself
with the prob-
lems of noninertial frames, central-force motions, and rotational

dynamics. Most of this material, except perhaps the fundamental
motion and angular momentum, could be

regarded as optional if this book is used as the basis of a genuinely
introduetory presentation of mechanics. Undoubtedly the book
as a whole contains more material than could in its entirety be
features of rotational
covered in a one-term course; one could, however, consider using

Parts
and
XII
III
and
II
as a manageablc paekage for beginners, and Parts
as a text for students having
some
prior preparation.
II
One of
the great satisfactions of classical mechanics
the vast range and variety of physical systems to which

ples can be applied.
make
The attempt has been made
its
in this
lies in
princi-
book
to
such applications and, as in other books

"document" the presentation with appropriate
from original sources. Enriched in this way by its own
explicit reference to
in this series, to
citations
history, classical
mechanics has an excitement that
author's view, surpassed
is
not, in this
by any of the more recent
fields
of
physical thory.
This book,
like the others in the series,
owes much to the
and suggestions of many people, both

students and instructors. A special acknowledgment in connection
with the present volume is due to Prof. A. M. Hudson, of Occidenthoughts,
criticisms,
Los Angeles, who worked with the present author in

the preparation of the preliminary text from which, five years
Grateful thanks are also due to
later, this final version evolved.
tal College,
Eva M. Hakala and William H. Ingham

in
preparing the manuscript
for their invaluable help
for publication.
A. P.
Cambridge, Massachusetts
July 1970
XIII
FRENCH
Newtonian
mechanics
In the Beginning was Mechanics.
max von laue,
/ offer this
work as
the
History ofPhysics (1950)
mathematical principles of philosophy,
for the whole burden of philosophy seems
from
the
nature,
phenomena ofmotions
and thenfrom
to consist in this
to investigate
theforces of
these forces to demonstrate the other
phenomena.
newton, Preface
to the Principia (1686)
Prologue
one of the most prominent features of the universe is motion.

Galaxies have motions with respect to other galaxies, all stars
have motions, the planets have distinctive motions against the
background of the stars, the events that capture our attention
most quickly in everyday life are those involving motion, and
even the apparently inert book that you are
now reading
is
made
up of atoms in rapid motion about their equilibrium positions.

"Give me matter and motion," said the seventeenth-century
French philosopher Rene Descartes, "and I will construct the
universe." There can be
we must
no doubt that motion
learn to deal with at all levels
we
if
the world around us.
Isaac
is
phenomenon
are to understand
.
Newton developed
a precise and
powerful theory
j
regarding motion, according to which the changes of_motion of
any object are the
result of Jorces acting
created the subject with "wmcrTthis

is
called classical or
book
on itfln so doing he
coBeerned and which
is
Newtonian mechanics.
the history of science, because
it
It
was a landmark
in
replacea a merely descriptive
account of phenomena with a rational and marvelously successful
scheme of cause and
effect.
Indeed, the strict causal nature of
Newtonian mechanics had an impressive influence in the development of Western thought and civilization generally, provoking
fundamental questions about the interrelationships of science,
philosophy, and religion, with repercussions in social ideas and
other areas of
human endeavor.
Classical mechanics
character.
For
it
starts
is
a subject with a fascinating dual
out from the kinds of everyday experiences
that are as old as mankind, yet
it
some
brings us face to face with
of the most profound questions about the universe in which we

find ourselves. Is it not remarkable that the fiight of a thrown
pebble, or the fail of an apple, should contain the clue to the
mechanics of the heavens and should ultimately involve some of

the most basic questions that we are able to formulate about the
nature of space and time?
though
it
Sometimes mechanics
is
presented as
consisted merely of the routine application of
evident or revealed truths.
self-
Nothing could be further from the
a superb example of a physical theory, slowly evolved

and refined through the continuing interplay between observation
case;
it is
and hypothesis.
The
is
richness of our first-hand acquaintance with mechanics
impressive,
hand we
and through the partnership of mind and eye and
solve,
direct action, innumerable dynamical problems
by
without benefit of mathematical analysis. Like Moliere's famous

character, M. Jourdain, who learned that he had been speaking
prose
all his life
without realizing
it,
every
human
being
an
is
expert in the consequences of the laws of mechanics, whether or
not he has ever seen these laws written down. The skilled sportsman or athlete has an almost incredible degree of judgment and
control of the
amount and
achieve a desired result.
It
direction of muscular effort needed to
has been estimated, for example, that
championship would have changed

hands in 1962 if one crucial swing at the ball had been a mere
But experiencing and controlling the motions
millimeter lower.
of objects in this very personal sense is a far cry from analyzing
World
the
Series baseball
'
terms of physical laws and equations. It is the task of

classical mechanics to discover and formulate the essential
principles, so that they can be applied to any situation, par-
them
in
ticularly to
inanimate objects interacting with one another.
intimate familiarity with our
consequences, although
it
own muscular
actions
and
Our
their
represents a kind of understanding
(and an important kind, too), does not help us much here.

The greatest triumph of classical mechanics was Newton's
own
success in analyzing the workings of the solar system
feat immortalized in the famous couplet of his contemporary and
admirer, the poet Alexander Pope
P.
Kirkpatrick,
Prologue
Am.
J.
Phys., 31, 606 (1963).
Nature and Nature's Laws Iay hid
God
Men
said "Let
Newton
and
be,"
night
in
was
all
light.
had observed the motions of the heavenly bodies since time

They had noticed various regularities and had
immemorial.
learned to predict such things as conjunctions of the planets and

eclipses of the
sun and moon. Then,
in the sixteenth century,
the
Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe amassed meticulous records, of

unprecedented accuracy, of the planetary motions. His assistant,
Johannes Kepler, after wrestling with

formation for years, found that
all
this
enormous body of
in-
the observations could be
summarized as follows:
1
2.
The
The
planets
move
in ellipses
having the sun at one focus.
joining the sun to a given planet sweeps out
line
equal areas in equal times.

3.
mean
The square of
distance
a planet's year, divided by the cube of
from the sun,
the
is
same
its
for all planets.
This represented a magnificent advance in man's knowledge

of the mechanics of the heavens, but
Why? was
rather than a theory.
it
was
still
the question that
an answer. Then came Newton, with
his
a description
still
looked for
concept of force as the
cause of changes of motion, and with his postulate of a particular
the inverse-square law of gravitation.
law of force
how
he demonstrated
Using these
Kepler's laws were just one consequence
of a scheme of things that also included the falling apple and other
terrestrial
tails
of
I
motions.
this
(Later in this
universal gravitation had
planetary periods and distances,

did theory.
from which
tions of a theory
phenomena, or
familiar
shall
go into the de-
it
done no more than to
would
still
is, it
it
it
was deduced.
Investigating the predic-
fit
unsuspected
an already
new framework. In either

searching tests, by which it must
into the
case the theory
is
'To which there
the almost equally famous, although facetious, riposte:
is
It
subjected to
did not last; the Devil, howling
"Ho,
Let Einstein be!" restored the status quo.

(Sir
had
could be applied to situations besides
may involve looking for hitherto

it may involve
recognizing that
phenomenon must
relate
have been a splen-
But, like any other good theory in physics,
predictive value; that
the ones
book we
great achievement of Newton's.)
Prologue
John Squire)
stand or
With Newton's theory of
fail.
almost entirely
tests resided
but what a
list!
gravitation, the initial
in the analysis
of
known effects
Here are some of the phenomena
for
which
Newton proceeded to give quantitative explanations:

1.
the earth and Jupiter because of their
The bulging of
rotation.
2.
The
variation of the acceleration of gravity with latitude
over the earth's surface.

3.
The generation of
the tides by the
combined action of
sun and moon.

4.
5.
The paths of the comets through the solar system.

The slow steady change in direction of the earth's
axis
gravitational torques from the sun
and
of rotation produced by
moon.
years,
(A complete cycle of this variation takes about 25,000

and the so-called "precession of the equinoxes" is a mani-
festation of
it.)
This marvelous illumination

represented the last
it
in
of the workings of nature
part of Newton's program, as he described
our opening quotation
".
and then from these forces to
demonstrate the other phenomena."

ceals not only the
This modest phrase conimmensity of the achievement but also the
magnitude of the role played by mathematics

ment.
Newton had,
in
in this
the theory of universal
develop-
gravitation,
created what would be called today a mathematical model of the

solar system. And having once made the model, he followed out
a host of
its
The working out was purely

step the test of the conclusions
other implications.
mathematical, but the
final
involved a return to the world of physical experience, in the

detailed checking of his predictions against the quantitative data
of astronomy.
Although Newton's mechanical picture of the universe was
amply confirmed
of
its
in his
own
greatest triumphs.
was the use of his laws to
time, he did not live to see
some
Perhaps the most impressive of these

identify previously unrecognized
mem-
By a painstaking and lengthy analysis

known
planets, it was inferred that disof
the
of the motions
other
planets must be at work. Thus it
turbing influences due to
bers of the solar system.
was that Neptune was discovered in 1846, and Pluto in 1930.

In each case it was a matter of deducing where a telescope should
be pointed to reveal a new planet, identifiable through its changing position with respect to the general background of the stars.
Prologuc
What more
the theory
striking
and convincing evidence could
Probably everyone
who
reads this book has
acquaintance with classical mechanics and with
And
mathematically precise statements.

to realize that, as with
was not
there be that
works?
this
some
may make
any other physical theory,
prior
expression in
its
its
it
hard
development
a matter of mathematical logic applied undisWas Newton inexorably driven

to the inverse-square Iaw? By no means. It was the result of
guesswork, intuition, and imagination. In Newton's own words:
just
criminatingly to a mass of data.
"I began to think of gravity extending to the orbit of the
Moon,
fromKepler's Ruleof the periodictimesofthePlanets

and
I deduced that the forces which keep the Planets in their orbits
.
must be reciprocally as the squares of their distances from the

centers about which they revolve; and thereby compared the
force requisite to keep the
Moon
in her orbit with the force of
and found them to answer

leap of this sort although seldom
gravity at the surface of the Earth,
pretty nearly."
An
intellectual
as great as Newton's
or model.
It is
is
involved in the creation of any theory
a process of induction, and
facts immediately at hand.
Some
facts
it
goes beyond the
may even be
temporarily
brushed aside or ignored in the interests of pursuing the

idea, for a partially correct theory is often better than
at
all.
And
at all stages there
is
main
no theory
a constant interplay between
experiment and theory, in the process of which fresh observations

are continually suggesting themselves and modification of the
theory
is
an ever-present
possibility.
The following diagram, the
relevance of which goes beyond the realm of classical mechanics,

suggests this pattern of man's investigation of matter and motion.
Laws of Motion
INDUCTION
1
Laws
of
Force
Observations
and Experiments
DEDUCTION-
J
Mathematical
Models
Predictions
The enormous
success of classical mechanics
made
it
seem,
more was needed to account for the

whole world of physical phenomena.
This belief reached a
pinnacle toward the end of the nineteenth century, when some
at one stage, that nothing
Prologue
optimistic physicists felt that physics was, in principle, complete.
They could hardly have chosen a more unfortunate time at which

to form such a conclusion, for within the next few decades
physics underwent its greatest upheaval since Newton. The discovery of radioactivity, of the electron and the nucleus, and the
subtleties
ideas.
of electromagnetism, called for fundamentally new

that Newtonian mechanics, like
Thus we know today
every physical theory, has
its
The
fundamental limitations.
analysis of motions at extremely high speeds requires the use of

modified descriptions of space and time, as spelled out by Albert
In the analysis of phe-
Einstein's special theory of relativity.
nomena on the atomic or subatomic
scale, the
still
modifications described by quantum theory are
more
drastic
required.
And
Newton's particular version of gravitational theory,

success, has had to admit modifications embodied in Einstein's
for all its
general theory of relativity.

in
But
an enormous range and
this
does not alter the fact that,
variety of situations,
Newtonian
means to analyze and predict the

from electrons to galaxies. Its range
mechanics provides us with the
motions of physical objects,

of validity, and
its limits,
are indicated very qualitatively in the
figure below.
In developing the subject of classical mechanics in this book,
we
shall try to indicate
how
the horizons of
its
physical world, and the horizons of one's
Mechanics, as we
gradually broadened.
not at
all
application to the
own
view, can be
shall try to present
a cut-and-dried subject that would justify
its
Cosmological
Physics
10-'
10 !0 m
Galaxy
Atom
Size
Proloeuc
it,
is
description
game
as "applied mathematics," in which the rules of the

given at the outset and in which one's only concern
We
ing the rules to a variety of situations.
which
ferent approach, in
sumptions that cannot be rigorously
Newton
essence of doing physics.
beginning of
Book
III
with apply-
wish to offer a
dif-
one can be conscious of
at every stage
partial or limited data
working with
is
are
and of making use of

But
justifled.
this is
himself said as much.
as-
the
At
the
of the Principia he propounds four "Rules
of Reasoning in Philosophy," of which the last runs as follows:
"In experimental philosophy we are to look upon propositions inferred
by general induction from phenomena as accurately
or very nearly true, notwithstanding any contrary hypotheses

that
may
be imagined,
by which they may
till
such time as other phenomena occur,
made more
either be
The person who
exceptions."
waits for complete information
on the way to dooming himself never to

to construct a useful theory.
accurate, or liable to
is
an experiment or
finish
Lest this should be taken, however,
as an encouragement to slipshod or superficial thinking, we shall

end this introduction with a little fable due to George Polya.
1
He
writes as a mathematician, but the moral for physicists (and
others)
is
clear.
The Logician, the Mathematician,
and
the Physicist,
"Look
at this
that the
what he
"A
by
than 100 and
less
calls induction, that all
physicist
divisible
mathematician," said the logician.
99 numbers are
first
the Engineer
numbers are less
believes," said the
1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and
6.
"He
observes
infers, hence,
by
than a hundred."
mathematician, "that 60
He examines a few more
is
cases,
taken at random (as he says). Since 60 is

also divisible by these, he considers the experimental evidence
such as
10, 20,
sufficient."
and
30,
"Yes, but look at the engineers," said the physicist.
all odd numbers are prime numbers.

At any rate, 1 can be considered as a prime number, he argued.
Then there come 3, 5, and 7, all indubitably primes. Then there
comes 9; an awkward case; it does not seem to be a prime num-
"An
engineer suspected that
'This cautionary tale is to be found in a
book
entitled Induction
and Analogy
Mathematics, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1954. This

volume and its companion, Patterns of Plausible Inference, make delightful
in
reading for any scientist.
Prologuc
Yet
ber.
said,
'I
and
1 1
'Corning back to
13 are certainly primes.
conclude that 9 must be an experimental
error.'
9,'
he
" But
having done his teasing, Polya adds these remarks.

only too obvious that induction can lead to error. Yet
It is
it is
remarkable that induction sometimes leads to truth, since the

chances of error seem so overwhelming. Should we begin with
the study of the obvious cases in which induction
fails,
or with
the study of those remarkable cases in which induction succeeds?
The study of precious
stones
is
understandably more attractive
than that of ordinary pebbles and, moreover,
was much more
it
the precious stones than the pebbles that led the mineralogists
to the wonderful science of crystallography.
With that encouragement, we shall, in Chapter

approach to the study of classical mechanics, which
most
end
perfect
and polished gems
this Prologue,
l,
is
begin our
one of the
in the physicist's treasury.
We
however, with some preparatory exercises.
EXERCISES-HORS D'OEUVRES
meaning of the phrase "hors d'oeuvre" is "outside
The exercises below correspond exactly to that
the work."
definition, although it is hoped that they will also whet the
The
literal
appetite as hors d'oeuvres should.
They
deal mostly with order-
power of 10)
an important
role in a physicist's approach to problems but seldom get emphasized or systematically presented in textbooks. For example,
of-magnitude estimates
(i.e.,
estimates to the nearest
and judicious approximations things that play
everybody learns the binomial theorem, but how many students

think of it as a useful tool for obtaining a quite good value for
the hypotenuse of a right triangle, by the approximation
^ + b^'â{\+^
where we assume b
<
b =
wrong by only about 6 percent 1.5 instead

it takes practice and some conscious
a, the result is
of 1.414
.)
a?
(Even
in the
worst possible case, with
Moreover,
develop the habit of assessing, quite crudely, the magnitudes of quantities and the relative importance of various possible effects in a physical system. For example, in dealing with
effort to
objects
10
moving through
Prologue
liquids,
can one quickly decide whether
viscosity or turbulence is going to be the chief source of resistance
for an object of given speed
of the effects of changes
and
the properties of systems.
well-known essay by
Size," which
J.
linear
An
dimensions?
awareness
of scale can give valuable insights into
[A beautiful example of this is the

"On Being the Right
B. S. Haldane,
reprinted in The World of Mathematics, Vol.
is
Newman,
New
II
Simon and Schuster,

methods and ways of thought one can deepen
one's appreciation of physical phenomena and can improve one's
feeling for what the world is like and how it behaves.
(J.
R.
By
the use of such
It
ed.),
how much one
surprising
is
relatively small stock
York, 1956.]
can do with the help of a
of primary information
which
might
in-
clude such items as the following:
Physical Magnitudes
Gravitational acceleration (g)

Densities of solids
and
liquids
10 m/sec'
kg/m 3
3
4
10 -10
kg/m
Density of air at sea level
Length of day
10
Length of year
3.16
Earth's radius
6400
km
(approx.)
sec (approx.)
10
sec
I0
75
Angle subtended by finger thickness

1 (approx.)
at arm's length
mm (approx.)
Thickness of paper
0.1
Mass of
0.5 g (approx.)
a paperclip
Highest mountains, deepest oceans
10
km
Earth-moon separation
3.8
Earth-sun separation
1.5
X
X
Atmospheric pressure
Equivalent to weight of
1
(approx.)
10
10
km
km
kg/cm 2
or a 10-m
column of water
Avogadro's number
6.0
Atomic masses
1.6
Linear dimensions of atoms
10
Molecules/cm
Atoms/cm
3
i
n gas at
in solids
Elementary charge
(e)
4 X
_,0
2.7
23
10
1.6
Electron mass
Speed of
light
light
EKcrcises- hors d'oeuvres
X
X
10
23
10- 27 kgto
_25
kg
10
m (approx.)
10
13
(approx.)
10~ 30
Wavelength of
11
STP
X
X
lO
-1
kg (approx.)
8
10 m/sec
-7
10
(approx.)
sec
Malhematical Magnitudes
w2
e
log, o 3
(radians)
rad
0.16
arc
sr
0.08
log,,, 4
log, o e
full
log,
logc 10
0.48
length/radius.
full circle
Solid angle (steradians)
m 0.60
~ 0.43
T0.50
10
2.7
20.30
log 10
Angle
2.3
circle
Full
2jrrad.
57.
area/(radius)
2
.
Full sphere
4*- sr.
sphere.
Approximations
Binomial theorem:
Forx
(1
1,
e.g.,
(1
(1
For b
(a
a,
2
-x)" a
+
+
b)"
x)
x)
3*
fl*(l
- **
~
+ jjjY
(1
an
+x)- 1/2
(l+n?\
Othcr expansions:
For
sin
rad,
fl
3
>
6
cos d
For
a:
log (1
1,
log,
No
(l
~ x
+Jc) 0.43x
x)
answers are given to the problems that follow.
For
most of them, you yourself will be the best judge.
You may want
to turn to an encyclopedia or other reference
book
some
of your assumptions or conclusions. If you are not prepared
at this point to tackle
return to
/
What
them
is
all,
don't worry; you can always
the order of magnitude of the

its
number of times that

was formed?
the
axis since the solar system
During the average lifetime of a human being, how many heart-
beats are there ?
them
later.
earth has rotated on
to check
How many
Make reasoned
breaths ?
estimates of (a) the total
number of
ancestors ytou
would have (ignoring inbreeding) since the beginning of the human

race, and (b) the number of hairs on your head.
4
The
(a)
12
present world population
How many
Prologue
(human)
is
about 3
10.
squarc kilometers of land are there per person?
How many
(b) If
feet
long
is
the side of a square of that area?
one assumes that the population has been doubling every
50 years throughout the existence of the human race, when did Adam
start it all ? If the doubling every 50 years were to continue,
and Eve
how long would

over
it
be before people were standing shoulder to shoulder
land area of the world?
all the
Estimate the order of magnitude of the mass of (a) a speck of dust
(b)
grain of sak (or sugar, or sand); (c) a
water corresponding to
(e) the
(0 a small
hill,
500
ft
in.
high; and (g)
mouse;
Mount
an elephant;
(d)
of rainfall over
square mile;
Everest.
Estimate the order of magnilude of the number of atoms in (a) a
pin's head, (b) a
human
and
being, (c) the earth's atmosphere,
(d) the
whole earth.
now
Estimate the fraction of the total mass of the earth that
the
form of
Estimate (a) the total volume of ocean water on the earth, and
mass of sah
(b) the total
in all the
universe.
in
oceans.
estimated that there are about 10 80 protons
It is
is
living things.
If all these
(known)
the
in
were lumped into a sphere so that they were
what would the radius of the sphere be? Ignore the

spherical objects are packed and takc the radius of a
proton to be about 10~ 15 m.
just touching,
spaces
left
when
10 The sun is losing mass (in the form of radiant energy) at the rate of
about 4 million tons per second. What fraction of its mass has it lost
during the lifetime of the solar system
11 Estimate the time in minutcs that
of about 1000 people to use up

ing were sealed.
10%
it
would take
for a theatre
of the available oxygen
The average adult absorbs about one
if
audience
the build-
sixth
of the
oxygen that he or she inhales at each breath.

2
falls on the earth at the rate of about 2 cal/cm /min.
repremegawatts
or
horsepower,
amount
of
power,
in
Estimate the
sented by the solar energy falling on an area of 100 square miles
12 Solar energy
about the area of a good-sized
city.
How would
power requirementsofsuch a city?

hp = 746 W.)
total
1
(1 cal
this
comparc with the

= U/sec;
1
4.2 J;
13 Starting from an estimate of the total mileage that an automobile

tire will give
before wearing out, estimate what thickness of rubber
is
one revolution of the wheel. Consider the possible

physical significance of the result. (With acknowledgment to E. M.
Rogers, Physics for the lnquiring Mind, Princeton University Press,
worn
off during
Princeton, N. J., 1%0.)
14
13
An
ine.vpensive wristwatch
(a)
What
Exercises
is its
is
found to
fractional dcviation
hors d'oei v
re s
lose
2 min/day.
from the correct rate?
By how much could the length of a ruler (nominally 1 ft long)

in. and still be fractionally as accurate as the
(b)
differ
from exactly 12
watch
15 The astronomer Tycho Brahe made observations on the angular

posilions of stars
at its center
and planets by using a quadrant, with one peephole
of curvature and another peephole mounted on the arc.
One such quadrant had a
radius of about 2
ments could usually be trusted
to
m, and Tycho's measure-
minute of arc
What diameter
(^g).
of peepholes would havc been needed for him to attain
this
accuracy ?
16 Jupiter has a mass about 300 times that of the earth, but
density
(a)
is
only about one
What
fifth
its
mean
that of the earth.
radius
would
radius
would a planet of
a planet of Jupiter's
mass and
earth's
density have?
(b)
What
earth's
mass and
Jupiter's
density have ?
17 Identical spheres of material are
tightly
packed
in
a given volume
of space.
(a)
Consider why one does not need to
know
the radius of the
spheres, but only the density of the material, in order to calculate the
total
mass contained
in the
volume, provided that the linear dimensions
of the volume are large compared to the radius of the individual spheres.
(b) Consider the possibility of packing
may be chosen and used.

Show that the total surface area
more material
if
two
sizes
of spheres
(c)
of the spheres of part (a) does
depend on the radius of the spheres (an important consideration in

the design of such things as filters, which absorb in proportion to the
total
exposed surface area within a given volume).
18 Calculate the ratio of surface area to volume for

radius
r,
(b)
a cube of edge
a,
and
(c)
(a) a
sphere of
a right circular cylinder of
d. For a given value of the volume,

which of these shapes has the greatest surface area ? The least surface
diameter and height both equal to
area?
19
How many
at the sun?
seconds of arc does the diameter of the earth subtend

a football be
At what distance from an observer should
placed to subtend an equal angle?
20
From
the time the lower limb of the sun touches the horizon
it
sun to disappear beneath the horizon.

(a) Approximately what angle (exprcssed both in degrees and in
radians) does the diameter of the sun subtend at the earth ?
(b) At what distance from your eye does a coin of about ^-in.
takes approximately 2
diameter
(c)
What
14
Prologue
for the
a dime or a nickel) just block out the disk of the sun?

solid angle (in steradians) does the sun subtend at the
(e.g.,
earth?
min
21
How many
inches per mile does a terrestrial great circle
(e.g.,
meridian of longitude) deviate from a straight line ?
22
crude measure of the roughness of a nearly spherical surface
could be defined by Ar/r, where Ar
the height or depth of local
is
irregularities. Estimate this ratio for an orange, a ping-pong
ball,
and
the earth.
23
What
is
the probability (expressed as
sized meteorite falling to earth
would
chance in 10") that a good-
strike
a man-made structure?
A human ?
24
Two
want to measure the speed of sound by the following

positioned some distance away from the
students
One of them,
procedure.
The second student starts a stopwatch

and stops it when he hears the bang. The speed
roughly 300 m/scc, and the students must admit the
other, sets off a firecracker.
when he
sees the flash
of sound in air
possibility
is
of an error (of undetermined sign) of perhaps 0.3 sec in the
elapsed time recorded.
If they
wish to keep the error in the measured

the
minimum distance over which
sides of length 5
m and m adjoining the right
speed of sound to within
5%, what is
they can perform the experiment?
25
A right triangle has
Calculate the length of the hypotenuse from the binomial ex-
angle.
pansion to two terms only, and estimate the fractional error
approximate
26 The radius of a sphere
What
is
in this
result.
is
measured with an uncertainty of 1%.

volume?
the percentage uncertainty in the
27 Construct a piece of semilogarithmic graph paper by using the

graduations on your slide rulc to
mark off the

X
function y = 2
ruler to
the
abscissa.
mark
On
off the ordinates
this piece
and a normal
of paper draw a graph of
28 The subjective sensations of loudness or brightness have bcen

judged to be approximately proportional to the logarithm of the
intensity, so that equal mulliples of intensity are associated with equal
(For example,
arithmetic increases in sensation.

tional to 2, 4, 8,
intensities
and 16 would correspond to equal increases
tion.) In acoustics, this
has led to the measurement of sound
proporin sensa-
intensities
Taking as a reference value the intensity /o of the faintest

audible sound, the decibel level of a sound of intensity / is defined by
in decibels.
the equation
dB = lOlogio
(a)
what
An
intolerable noise level
is
intensity /o?
15
represented by about 120 dB.
factor does the intensity of such a
Exercises
hors d'oeuvres
By
sound exceed the threshold
(b)
similar logarithmic scale

stars (as seen
brightness of
is
used to describe the relative
from the earth)
in
terms of magnitudes.
"one magnitude" have a ratio of apparent brightness
Stars differing by
Thus
equal to about 2.5.
a "first-magnitude" (very bright) star
times brighter than a second-magnitude star, (2.5)
than a third-magnitude star, and so on.

largely to differences of distance.)
200-in.
The
is
2.5
times brighter
(These differences are due
faintest stars detectable with the
Palomar telescope are of about the twenty-fourth magnitude.

us from such a star less
By what factor is the amount of light reaching

than we receive from a first-magnitude star ?
29 The universe appears to be undergoing a general expansion in which

the galaxies are receding from us at speeds proportional to their disThis
tances.
is
described by Hubble's law, v
r,
where the con-
becoming equal to the speed of light, c

(= 3 X 10 8 m/sec), at r 10 26 m. This would imply that the mean
mass per unit volume in the universe is decreasing with time.
(a) Suppose that the universe is represented by a sphere of volume
stant
a corresponds
V at any
time
is
instant.
to
Show
that the fractional increase of
volume per unit
given by
dV
dt
3a
(b) Calculate the fractional decrease
of mean density per second
and per century.

30 The table
lists
the
mean
orbit radii of successivc planets expressed in
terms of the earth's orbit radius. The planets are numbered
Planet
r/rg
Mercury
Venus
0.72
1.00
(a)
Make
abscissa.
is
Earth
Mars
1.52
Jupiter
5.20
Saturn
Uranus
9.54
19.2
is
ordinate and the
(Or, alternatively, plot values of
logarithmic paper.)
On
this
samc graph,
r /re against
7,
8).
The points representing the seven
ably well fitted by a straight
16
(i.e.,
at n
6,
planets can thcn be reason-
line.
is taken to represent the asteroid

between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, what value of r/rE would
(b) If
belt
number
n on semi-
replot the points for Jupiter,
Saturn, and Uranus at values of n increased by unity
and
order ():
0.39
a graph in which \og(r/rE)
in
Prologue
5 in the revised plot
your graph imply for
this ?
Compare with
the actual
mean
radius of
the asteroid belt.

(c) If n = 9 is taken to suggest an orbit radius for the next planet
(Neptune) beyond Uranus, what value of r/re would your graph
imply ?
(d)
Compare with
the observed value.
Consider whether, in the
light
of (b) and
(c),
your graph can
be regarded as the expression of a physical law with predictive value.

(As a matter of history, it was so used. See the account of the discovery of Neptune near the end of Chapter
8.)
PHILOSOPHLE
NATURALIS
PRINCIPI A
MATHEMATICA
Autore
J S. NEWTON,
S.
& Socictatis Regalis
S,
Reg.
5.
Juiii
Soaetatis Rcgi* ac
title
was
officially
page oflhe firsl edilion of Newion's

It may be seen thal Ihe work
accepted by Ihe Royal Sociely of London
when ils president was thefamous diarist

Samuel Pepys (who was also Secretary to Ihe Admirally
at Ihe time).
S.
I,
Strealcr.
Proftat
Amo MDCLXXXVII.
Principia (published 1687).
in July, 1686,
JE S
1686.
Typis Jofepbi
plures Bibliopolas.
Facsimile oflhe
Soc.
ND
L
Juflii
Sodalt.
IMPRIMATUR
R
P
Mathefeos
Irin. Coli. Cantab. Soc.
Profeflbre Lucafiano,
apud
PartI
The approach
Newtonian
dynamics
to
//
seems probable
Matter
in solid,
to
me, that God
in the
Beginningfortrid
massy, hard, impenetrable, moveable
Particles ....
newton, Opticks (1730)
THE PARTICULATE
VI
EW
the essence of
the
Newtonian approach to mechanics
the motion of a given object
which
it
outset
we
is
by
subjected
its
is
is
that
analyzed in terms of the forces to
Thus from the very
environment.
are concerned with discrete objects of various kinds.
special interest attaches to objects that
can be treated as
they are point masses; such objects are called particles.

strictest sense there is
Nevertheless,
nothing
you have
in
nature that
lived for years in a
fits
if
In the
this definition.
world of particles
and
electrons, atoms, baseballs, earth satellites, stars, galaxies
is.
If you have read
George Orwell's famous political satire Animal Farm, you may
remember the cynical proclamation "Ali animals are equal,
have an excellent idea of what a particle
but some animals are more equal than others."

the
same way, you may
protons, for example) are
feel
that
more
some
particles (electrons or
particulate than others.
any case the judgement as to whether something

only be
made
in
terms of
In somewhat
is
specific
specific questions
But
particle
in
can
kinds of
experiments and observations.
And
the answer to the question "Is such and such an object
a particle?"
is
not a clear-cut yes or no, but "It depends." For
example, atoms and atomic nuclei will look
'Actually,
might
(i.e.,
behave)
like
Newton himself
now
call
reserved the word "particle" to denote what we

"fundamental particles"atoms and other such natural
but the
building blocks
usage has since changed.
21
Fig.
1-1
Photograph
of a portion of the
night sky. (Photograph
from
the
Hale
Obsercatories.)
particles if
you don't
hit
Planets and stars will
them too hard.
look like particles (both visually and in behavior)
enough away from them
(see Fig. 1-1).
objects has spatial extension

will
and an
if
you
get far
But every one of these
internal structure,
and there
always be circumstances in which these features must be
taken into account.
Very often
this will
be done by picturing a
given object not as a single point particle but as an assemblage
of such ideal particles, more or

another.
(If the
possible to
make
less firmly
connected to one
connections are sufficiently strong,

use of another fiction
it
may be
the ideal "rigid body"
that further simplifies the analysis of rotational motions, in

particular.)
22
For the moment, however, we
shall restrict ourselves
to a consideration of objects that exist as recognizable, individual

entities
and behave,
in appropriate circumstances, as particles
in the idealized dynamical sense.
What
sort of information
description of a particle?
we
write
down without any
(or, for that matter,

1.
Mass
2.
Size
3.
Shape
do we need to build up a good
Here are a few obvious items, which

suggestion that the
list is
exhaustive
sharply categorized):
4. Internal structure
Electric charge
5.
6.
Magnetic properties
7.
Interaction with other particles of the
8.
Interaction with
though that
Partial
same kind
different sorts of particles

list
may
be,
it is
already formidable, and
would not be realistic to tackle it all at once. So we ask a more

modest question What is the smalkst number of properties that
it
suffkes to characterize a particle?
we
If
are concerned with the
so-called "elementary" particles (electrons, mesons, etc), the

state of charge (positive, negative, or neutral) is
datum, along with the mass, and these two
many
an important
may be
sufficient to
Most other
composed of large numbers of atoms, are normally
electrically neutral, and in any event the mass alone is for many
identify such a particle in
circumstances.
objects,
purposes the only property that counts in considering a particle's
dynamic behavior
provided
we take
being independently specified.
'
the forces acting
at least approximately, the size also.
Not only
this
is
most informative pieces of data concerning any

magnitude
may
to be filled in later,
if
we want
laws of interaction
The
many
one of our
object, but
its
of the finer details will have
shall begin with a
not exhaustive or detailed.
interactions of the
23
we
particles are objects possessing
'Of course,
as
reasonably be treated as a point mass.
Recognizing, then, that
is
it
will help to tell us whether, in given circumstances,
the particle
which
on
however, useful to know,
It is,
On
minimal description
mass and
size.
the contrary,
particulate view
(e.g.,
is
we have sought
from characteristic
by gravitatton), then the
the subject of Chapter 5.
to treat the forces as being derived
body with its surroundings

must also be known. That
in
Our survey
to reduce
minimum,
to a
it
consistent with illustrating the gen-
scheme of things, by considering only the masses and the
eral
linear dimensions of
some
typical particles.
We
the smallest and least massive particles and go
shall begin with
up the
scale until
You
to be a fundamental limit.
we reach what appears
appreciate that this account, brief though
it is,
will
draws upon the
of a tremendous amount of painstaking observation and
results
research in diverse fields.
note on units
In this
book we
second
(MKS)
with
most frequently employ the meter-kilogram-
at least for the basic
it,
If not,
shall
metric system.
you should learn
it
You
are probably already familiar
measures of mass, length, and time.
at this time.
occasional use of other measures.
We shall,
however,
make
In mechanics the conversion
from one system of measurement to another presents no problem,

because
(This
a matter of applying simple numerical factors.

contrast to electromagnetism, where the particular
it is
is
in
just
choice of primary quantities affects the detailed formulation of

the theory.)
A tabulation
of
MKS and
other units
is
given in the
Appendix.
ELECTRONS AND NUCLEONS

The
principal building blocks of matter
of physics and
from the standpoint
chemistry are electrons, protons,
and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons are virtually equivalent as constituents

of atomic nuclei and are lumped together under the generic
nucleons.
mentary
The
amount of research on
and on the structure of
particles,
title
the so-called ele-
vast
nucleons, has not
brought forth any evidence for particles notably smaller (or

notably less massive) than those that were known to science 50
years ago. Thus, although the study of subatomic particles
field
of very great richness and complexity,
filled
is
with bizarre and
previously unsuspected phenomena, the microscopic limits of

the physical world are still well represented by such familiar
particles as electrons
and protons.
Theelectron,withamassofaboutl(r
to be
24
more
precise), is
by far the
universc of particles
30 kg(9.1
lightest (by
l(T
more than
31
kg
three
(The elusive
10) of the familiar constituents of matter.
powers of
no
neutrino, emitted in radioactive beta decay, appears to have
mass at
This puts
all.
of the electron
it
-15 m.
size
not sharply or uniquely defined for
is
however, we regard the electron as a sphere of
If,
electric charge, its radius
10
The
not something that can be unequivocally stated.
is
Indeed, the concept of size
any object.
a rather special category!)
in
can be estimated to be of the order of
In our present state of knowledge, the electron can
properly be regarded as a fundamental particle, in the sense that

there
is
no evidence that it can be analyzed
The nucleon, with
a mass of 1.67
basic ingredient of atoms.
proton
is
it
(like the
In
it
kg,
is
the other
the
charged form
electron) completely stable; that
cannot survive
its electrically
and a neutrino. The
13
neutral
is,
it
form
but decays radio-
isolation
in
about
actively (with a half-life of
electron,
into other constituents.

10~ 27
electrically
its
survives indefinitely in isolation. In
the neutron
min) into a proton, an
fact that neutrons spontaneously
hydrogen atoms has led some
give birth to the constituents of
cosmologists to suggest that neutrons represent the true primeval

particles of the universe
but that
have a diameter of about
is
10
just a speculation.
-15
m by
Nucleons
which we mean
that the nuclear matter appears to be confined within a moderately

well defined region of this size.
Unlike electrons, nucleons seem
to have a quite
structure, in
complex internal
of mesons are incorporated.
which various types
But from the standpoint of atomic
physics they can be regarded as primary particles.
ATOMIC NUCLEI
The combination of protons and neutrons
to
form nuclei pro-
vides the basis for the various forms of stable, ordinary matter
as
we know
it.
The
individual proton.
(that of
10
-25
238
kg.
smallest
The
U) contains
and
lightest nucleus is
of course the
heaviest naturally occurring nucleus
238 nucleons and has a mass of 4.0
All nuclei have about the
same mass per unit volume,
so that their diameters are roughly proportional to the cube

roots of the numbers of the nucleons.
cover a range from about 3
Thus nuclear diameters

10~ 15 to 2 X 10~ 14 m.
unit of distance has been defined that
when dealing with nuclear dimensions.
25
Alomic
nuclei
is
It is
very convenient
named
after the
1
Enrico Fermi
Italian physicist
lfermi(F)
H)" 18
m=
10- 13
cm
Thus the range of nuciear diameters
The
density of nuciear matter
is
from about
10
17
kg/m 3
This
is
so vast
(it is larger,
than the density of water) that
although we
now have
we
Given that the
enormous.
is
uranium nucleus has a mass of about 4 X 10

of about 10 F, you can deduce (do it!) that
really
evidence that
-25
its
3 to 20 F.
kg and a radius
density is about
14
by a factor of 10 ,
cannot apprehend
some astronomical
it,
objects
(neutron stars) are composed of this nuciear matter in bulk.
ATOMS
A
great deal
was learned about atomic masses long before
From
possible to count individual atoms.
it
was
the concepts of valence
and chemical combinations, chemists established a relative mass

The mole was
scale based on assigning to hydrogen a mass of 1
introduced as that amount of any element or compound whose
mass in grams was equal numerically to its relative mass on this
.
Furthermore, from the relative proportions of elements

combined to form compounds, it was known that a mole of
any substance must contain the same unique number of atoms
the number known as
(or molecules in the case of compounds)
number
was itself unknown.
But this
Avogadro's constant.
Obviously, if the number could be determined, the mass of an
scale.
that
individual
The
atom could be found.

mass
existence of characteristic
transfers in electrolysis
gave corroborative evidence on relative atomic masses but also

pointed the
way
clear that the electrolytic

teristic
mass determinations, for it seemed

phenomena stemmed from a charac-
to absolute
atomic charge
was necessary was
unit. Ali that
to establish
the size of this unit (e)a feat finally achieved in Millikan's

precision
measurements
mass values are
listed in
in
1909.
Some
representative atomic
Table 1-1.
and
'E. Fermi (1901-1954) was the greatest Italian physicist since Galileo
one of the most distinguished scientists of the twentieth century, gifted in
both theoretical and experimental work. He achieved popular fame as the
man who produced the first self-sustained nuciear chain reaction, at the University of Chicago in 1942.
26
TABLE
ATOMIC MASSES
1-1:
Atomic
Electrotytic
mass
kg/C
Element
H
C
1.04
lO" 8
10- 8
10- 8
10~ 7
8.29
Na
Al
K
Zn
Ag
mass.
kg
1.67
2e
12
2.00
2e
16
2.66
23
3.81
3e
27
4.48
39
6.49
65
107
1.09
X
X
2.38 X
9.32 X lO" 8
4.05 X 10" 7
3.39 X 10- 7
6
1.118 X 106.22
Approximate
relative mass
Charge
per ion
transfer,
2e
e
1.79
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
lO" 27
10" 26
lO" 26
K)- 26
-26
10
-26
lO
10- 2S
10~ 2S
Modern precision measurements of atomic masses are based

on mass spectroscopy (see p. 206 for an account of the principles)
and are quoted in terms of an atomic mass unit (amu). This is
now defined as tV of the mass of the isotope carbon 12.
lamu =
1.66043
Since almost
all
10" 27 kg
the mass of any
atom
is
concentrated in
its
nucleus (99.95% for hydrogen, rising to 99.98% for uranium),
we can say
that to a
mass of
just the
as
we have
approximation the mass of an atom
nucleus.
its
represents a leap of
eters,
first
many
But, in terms of
orders of magnitude.
just seen, are of the order of 10
the
size,
is
atom
Nuclear diam-
-14
m. Atomic
4
diameters are typically about 10 times larger than this i.e., of
-1
the order of 10
m. One way of getting a feeling for what this
factor
this
means
page
is
is
to consider that if the dot
you
letter i
on
taken to represent a medium-weight nucleus, the outer
boundary of the atom

fine
on a printed
is
about 10
ft
away. Think of a grain of
sand suspended in the niiddle of your bedroom or study, and

will get
a feeling for what that
means
in three dimensions.
(Nuclei are really very small.)

It is
very convenient to take 10
-10
as a unit of distance
in describing atomic sizes or interatomic distances in solids
and
other condensed states in which the atoms are closely packed.
The
A.
unit
named
after the nineteenth-century
Swedish
physicist,
Angstrom:
J.
It is
is
angstrom (A)
10 -10
m=
10~ 8 cm
10 5
noteworthy that the heaviest atoms are not markedly bigger
than the lightest ones, although there are systematic variations,
27
Atoms
'
Fig.
1-2
'
Relative atotnic radii (iiiferred from atomic
volumes) versus atomic mass number, A.
with pronounced peaks at the alkali atoms, as one progresses
through the periodic table of the elements (see Fig. 1-2).

Atoms are so small that it is hard to develop any real ap-
enormous numbers of atoms present in even

objects. For example, the smallest object that can be
preciation of the
the tiniest
seen with a good microscope has a diameter of perhaps a few

tenths of a micron
anda mass
of the order of 10~
to
10~
fi
kg.
This minuscule object nevertheless contains something like 1

billion atoms. Or (to take another example) a very good labora-
vacuum may contain residual gas at a pressure of a few times

of atmospheric. One cubic centimeter of such a vacuum
tory
10
-1
'
would likewise contain about
billion
atoms.
The atoms or molecules of a gas at normal atmospheric

pressure are separated from one another, on the average, by
about 10 times
their diameter.
This
justifies
(although only
barely) the picture of a gas as a collection of particles that
move
independently of one another most of the time.
MOLECULES; LIVING CELLS

Our
first
introduction to molecules
is likely
to be in an elementary
chemistry course, which very reasonably limits
its
attention to
simple molecules made up of small numbers of atoms
C0 2) Na 2 S0 4 C 6 H 6
,
the order of 10 or 100
28
2 0,
with molecular weights of
and the like,

and with diameters of a few angstroms.
Edge of Bacterium
coli
Foot-and-
mouth
virus
Bushy stunt
virus
10,000,000
Yellow
fever virus'
|Tobacco mosaic virus

Fig 1-3
Sizes
,000
half-le
Hemocyanin molecule 16,000,000
of
microscopic and sub-
mo Hemoglobin molecule (63,000)
microscopic objects,
m A bumin m0 |ecule (40,000)

|
from
,
J.
bacteria
down
to
.
r, i t -a
A. V. Butler, Inside
Amino acjd chain _ 10
units (1|30 0)
* Su 6ar molecule (350)
'
the Living Cell,
George Allen
,, %
Smgle am,n0 aC,d moleCule (130)
&
0.1
Vnwin, London, 1959.)
u.=
10,000
These then, do not represent much of an advance, either in size

or in mass, on the individual atoms we have just been discussing.
But through the development of biochemistry and biophysics we

have come to know of molecules of remarkable size and com-
We
plexity.
can feel
justified in
regarding them as particles on
the strength of such features as a unique molecular weight for

all
molecules of a given type.
The
biggest objects that are
de-
scribable as single molecules have molecular weights of the order

20
7
kg and lengths
hence masses of the order of 10~
of 10
amu
of the order of 10~
m.
Such objects
are,
however, far more
important for their structure, and for their involvement

logical
processes,
particles.
The
in bio-
than for their rather precarious status as
particle
dynamics of a protein molecule
is
a pretty
limited perhaps to the behavior of the molecule

structure
a study
a centrifuge whereas the elucidation of
in
slim subject
its
that requires (and merits) the
chemists and crystallographers.
is
most intensive efforts of brilliant

It would be both presumptuous
and inappropriate to attempt to discuss such matters here, but

it is perhaps worth indicating the range of magnitudes of such
particles with the help of Fig. 1-3.
29
Molecules; living
cells
A convenient unit
of length
for describing biological systems

1
The
micron (m)
= lO" 9 m =
largest object
across and
would be
limit of resolution
of
shown
is
10 4
in Fig.
visible in a
about
is
0.2/n
the micron:
A
1-3 (a bacterium)
good microscope
rather
less
is
(for
about 1m
which the
than one wavelength
light).
Figure 1-3 includes some viruses, which have a peculiar

status
between living and nonliving
definite size
and mass,
possessed
of a
rather
isolatable (perhaps as a crystalline sub-
stance), yet able to multiply in a suitable environment.
Figure
an electron-microscope photograph of some virus particles.

These are almost the smallest particles of matter of which we can
form a clear image in the ordinary photographic sense. (You
1-4
is
have perhaps seen "photographs" of atomic arrangements as

observed with the device called a field ion microscope. These
are not direct images of individual atoms, although the pattern
Fig.
1-4
particles
Sphericat
of
polio virus.
[C. E. Schwerdt et
al.,
Proc. Soc. Exptl.
Biol.
Med., 86, 310
(1954).
Photograph
courtesy of Robley
C. Williams.]
30
A. universe
of particles
'
1
does reveal their spatial relationships.)
we go one step further along this biological road, then

of course we come to the living cell, which has the kind of significance for a biologist that the atom has for a physical scientist.
If
Certainly
appropriate to regard biological cells as particles,
it is
most of them
albeit of such a special kind that the study of
outside physics.
venient reference points on our scale of physical magnitudes,

that
is
lies
They do, however, provide us with some con-
except,
our only reason for mentioning them here
and
per-
haps, for the matter of reminding ourselves that biological systems

also belong within
framework defined by the fundamental
atomic interactions.
Although some
single cells
may be
than
less
1/*
(certain
more than 1 cm (e.g., the yolk of a hen's egg), the

cells of most living organisms have diameters of the order of
I0~ 5 m (1<V) on the average. Thus a human being, with a
volume of about 0. 1 m 3 contains about 10 4 cells, each of which
bacteria) or
(on the average) contains about 10
l4
atoms.
SAND AND DUST

Vast areas of our earth arc covered with particles that have come
from the breaking down of massive rock formations.
and are
ically very inert
word
These
predominantly of quartz (crystalline Si0 2 ), are chem-
particles,
just the kind of objects to
"particle" applies in ordinary speech
The
and inanimate.
earth's surface,
and
small
the
that surface, are loaded with such particles.
of
(say, of the order
ground.
The
Others, orders of magnitude smaller,
combined
The
fail.
effect
visible,
atmosphere above
biggest ones
mm across) rest more or less firmly on the
motes of dust dancing

tendency to
which the
but
in
fate
of wind
may be
seen as
the sunlight, apparently showing
no
of a given particle depends on the
(or air resistance)
and
gravity.
Ac-
cumulations of windblown sand are found to be made up of

particles
maximum of about
mm. Below that size
from a
of about 0.01
airborne,
and
mm diameter to a minimum
the material tends to remain
the smallest dust particles are of the order of
'Improvemcnts in electron- and proton-microscope technique reach further

and further down into the world of small particles. In 1969 the helical structure of a protein molecule was photographed in an electron microscope.
31
Sand and dust
Fig. 1-5
Size distribulion
(After R. A. Bagnold,
The
of particles found on or above the earlh's surface.

Blown Sand and Desert Dunes,
Physics of
Meihuen, London, 1941.)
10
-4
mm
Figure 1-5 shows an approximate
(=0.1/*) diameter.
classification
of particle sizes for dust, sand, and other small
particles.
OTHER TERRESTRIAL OBJECTS

man-made
In a range from the smallest sand grains to the largest
objects we are in the realm of our most immediate experience:

things that are large enough to be apprehended by the unaided
sight or touch, yet not so big that
ready a large number,
we cannot
human
and a
factor of 1000
achieve a rather
terms, 100
is al-
up or down in
linear
In ordinary
direct awareness of them.
from human dimensions brings us close to the
scale
limits of
anything that can properly be regarded as a fuli, first-hand contact with the physical world.
chiefly
upon
we depend
Outside that domain
indirect evidence, imagination
and analogy.
Since the densities of most solid materials (as
we
find
them
in the earth's crust) are of the order of magnitude of a few
thousand kg/m 3 , the range of diameters from a grain of sand

(1 mm) to a cliff or a dam (1 km) implies a range of masses from
about
mg
2
to 10'
kg
(i.e.,
10
(or the weight associated with
tons).
it
Actually, if
mass
itself
under the gravitational con-
ditions at the earth's surface) were to be our criterion, then the
range we have just stated goes far beyond the span of

perceptions. In terms of weights,
direct experience gives us
about 10
mg
some
or as heavy as 1000
it
would be
fair to
human
say that our
feeling for objects as light as
kg i.e., up
to a factor of 10
with respect to a central value of the order of 0. 1 kg (or a few

ounces).
32
universc of particles
PLANETS AND SATELLITES

For an earthdweller going about his ordinary daily affairs, it is
almost impossible as well as unrealisticto regard the earth as
a particle. We cannot help but be aware, primarily, of the vastness of the earth and of the fact that man's greatest edifices are,
at least in terms
tions of
its
of physical
into space for

different point
size, totally insignificant
if
And all
placed on the same footing as the other planets.

can, on
be regarded as particles moving in
this scale,
about a much more massive
of them
their orbits
In Kepler's mathe-
particle, the sun.
and subsequently
matical description of the orbits of the planets,

in
modifica-
we can imagine ourselves backing off

100 million miles or so, we can arrive at a very
of view. The earth loses its special status and is
Yet
surface.
Newton's dynamical theory of these motions, the planets could

be regarded as point particles their extent and
legitimately
internal structure were in
no way
relevant.
The
reason, of course,
was the simple one that on the scale of the solar system the
more than mere points, as is obvious whenever

we look up into the night sky. The earth's diameter is only about
-4
of the distance between earth and sun and the sun's own
10
planets are
little
diameter
only 10
that a
is
good
-2
of the same distance.
No
wonder, then,
approximation to the dynamics of the solar
first
system can be obtained by taking such ratios to be zero.
But we should not

indeed,
we
cannot.
rest content with
When Newton
such an approximation;
turned his attention from the
planetary orbits to the tides, the physical extent of the earth
became a key
feature, because
it
was only
this that
made
possible
the existence of tide-producing forces, through a significant

change of the moon's gravitational effect over a distance equal
to the earth's diameter.
In
any
case, once
we
free ourselves of
the restriction of dealing with terrestrial objects and terrestrial
phenomena, the
particles that
comprise the solar system are
among the first to claim our attention.

The planets can be described as roughly spherical particles,
somewhat flattened as a result of their own rotation. Their
range of diameters
Mercury and
is
considerable
Jupiter.
a factor of nearly 30 between
Since the
really drastically (the densest
is
mean
densities
do not
differ
our earth, at 5.5 times the density
of water), the masses cover a very great range indeed. Again the
extremes are Mercury and Jupiter, and there
6000 between their masses.
33
Planets and satellites
is
a factor of about
Figure 1-6 depicts these principal
Fig. 1-6
Relative sizes of
llre
planets
and the
planets in correct relative scale.
The
sun.
which has
size of the sun,
about the same density as Jupiter but 10 times the diameter and
about 1000 times the mass, is indicated for comparison. The
same data are presented

TABLE
1-2:
in
Table 1-2.
DATA ON THE PLANETS
Mean
radius,
km
M/ME
R/Re
10 3
Mean
density,
6.37
1.00
1.000
5400
5100
5520
(Moon)
Mars
(1.74)
(0.27)
(0.012)
(3360)
3.37
0.53
0.108
3970
Jupiter
69.9
10.98
317.8
Saturn
58.5
9.20
95.2
680
Uranus
Neptune
23.3
3.66
14.5
1600
17.2
2250
Mercury
Venus
Earth
2.42
6.10
0.38
0.054
0.96
0.815
22.1
3.48
Pluto
3.0
0.47
(Sun)
(6.96
10 6 )
1330
0.8?
(3.33
(1093)
kg/m 3
10 5)
(1400)
The nine major planets represent almost
all
the mass of
matter around the sun (and Jupiter alone accounts for almost
two thirds of
it),
but the number of other captive objects
we
is
ignore
There are, first, the natural

man's contributions, there are about 30 known satellites of the
planets, most of them extremely tiny in comparison with the
enormous.
satellites.
planets to which they are tied.

the largest, but even
the earth.)
terest,
These
it
(Our own moon
has only a
satellites
little
because from their motions
1%
is
relatively
of the mass of
have a very special dynamical

it
the masses of the planets themselves.
34
over
If
in-
has been possible to infer
The planetary
by the minor
satellites are,
however, vastly outnumbered
planets, also called planetoids or asteroids.
Tens
'
of thousands of them are orbiting the sun in the region between
Mars and Jupiter. In size they range from 500 miles

diameter down to 1 mile or less, and they most probably come
the orbits of
in
from the breakup of a
larger body.
Baade's description of them

all
"the
If
the astronomer Walter
vermin of the skies"
representative, they are not greatly beloved
is
at
by professional
skywatchers.
STARS
A star is a magnificently complex structure, almost inconceivably

by human standards and with a fascinating
gigantic
tromagnetism. Yet when we gaze out into space
we
interior
and
dynamics that involves nuclear reactions, gravitation,
see nothing
we look with the eye and the instruments

astrophysicist.
Instead, we see the stars as luminous
of
unless
this,
which
(in contrast to the planets)
sources
of an
points,
continue to appear as point
when examined through even
most powerful
the
In relation to their diameters, in fact, stars are
scopes.
farther
elec-
away from each other than
tele-
much
are the planets of our solar
system.
convenient unit for specifying astronomical distances
vacuum
the Hght-year, the distance light travels in a

1
light-year
The
9.46
is
year:
10 15
nearest star to the sun
about 25,000,000,000,000
in
is
about 4 light-years away, or
miles!
number of other
stars that
are near neighbors of the sun have mutual separations of the
order of 10 light-years or 10
17
diameter to separation about 10

of stars
is
m, which makes the ratio of

-7
-8
or 10
A cluster or
galaxy
thus an excellent example of a system of massive point
of the particles. The
particles, despite the fantastically large size
best vacua attainable in
the laboratory scarcely approach a
corresponding emptiness as given by the ratio of interparticle

spacing to particle diameter.
One must look
to the extreme vacua
of interstellar space, where there are regions containing
one hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter, to find a
less
still
than
emptier
kind of system.
The word "asteroid" derives from the
objects as seen through a telescope.
35
Stars
star-like
appearance of these tiny
Most of
the objects that are recognizable as stars are within
2
the range of 10* solar masses.
regarded as an average or typical
In this sense our sun can be

In terms of size or lumi-
star.
nosity (total radiation) the range of variation
is
much
very
greater, but a worthwhile account of these features would

call
really
for some discussion of the evolution and interior mechanism
of stars; and
this is certainly
not the place to attempt
shall content ourselves, therefore, with
it.
remarking that the
We
stars,
regarded simply as aggregations of matter, with masses between

32
about 10 28 and 10 kg (thus containing something of the order of
10
54
to 10
58 atoms) can
still
be regarded as particles when we
discuss their motions through space, because of the

distances that separate
immense
them from one another.
GALAXIES
In 1900 the words "galaxy" and "universe" were regarded as
being synonymous. Our universe appeared to consist primarily
of a huge number of stars many billions of them scattered
through space (see Fig. 1-1). Here and there, however, could be
seen cloudy objects
nebulae near
enough or big enough to
have an observable extent and even structure, as contrasted with

the pointlike appearance of the stars. By 1900 many thousands
of nebulae were
known and
catalogued.
But what were they?
To quote the astronomer Allan Sandage: "No one knew before

1900.
Very few people knew in 1920. AH astronomers knew
2
For it was in 1924 that the great astronomer
after 1924."
Edwin Hubble produced the conclusive proof
that the nebulae
were, in the picturesque phrase, "island universes" far outside

the region of space occupied by the Milky Way, and that our
G) was only one of innumerable systems of the same general kind. The first suggestion
for such a picture of the universe was in fact put forward by the
own Galaxy
(distinguished with a capital
Kant as long ago as 1755, but of course

more
than a pure hypothesis.
was no
philosopher Immanuel
at that time
it
For extensive discussion, see (for example) F. Hoyle, Fronliers of Aslronomy,

Harper & Row, New York, 1955.
2The story of this development is fascinatingly told by Sandage in his iniropublished
duction to a beautifui book entitled The Hubble Alias of Galaxies,
Hubble's
See
also
Washington,
D.
C.
of
Institution
the
Carnegie
in 1961 by
own classic work, The Realm of the Nebulae, Dover Publications, New York,
;
1958.
36
Fig.
1-7
Cluster of
galaxies in the constellation
Borealis.
Corona
Dislance
about 600 million

light-years.
graphfrom
(Photothe
Hale
Observatories.)
To
quote Sandage again: "Galaxies are the largest single
aggregates of stars in the universe. They are to astronomy what
atoms are to physics." And so far as we can
tell
at present, they
represent the largest particles in the observable scheme of things.
A
10
'
'
single galaxy
stars.
may
contain anywhere from about 10 6 to
Our own Galaxy appears
with a diameter of about 10
21
to be one of the larger ones,
(10
light-years).
As we have
already seen, the stars within an individual galaxy are very widely
spaced indeed, so that the average density of matter in a galaxy

20
is very, very low
only about 10~
kg/m 3 But even so, galaxies
represent notable concentrations of matter.
spacing between galaxies
although there
is
particles,
by
On
the average the
about 100 times their diameter,
a tendency for them to
separations perhaps
galaxies
is
exist in clusters with
10 times less than this.
may, on an appropriately large
scale,
Thus even
the
be regarded as
and the interactions between them may be approximated
treating
them as points
(see Fig. 1-7).
Astronomical surveys indicate that space contains a roughly
uniform concentration of
tinues to be true
galaxies.
If
up to the theoretical
we assume
that this con-
limits of observation,
we
can make some estimate of the content of the universe as a whole.
For
it
would appear that the universe can be represented by a
sphere with a radius of about 10
37
Galaxies
10
light-years (10
26
m).
The
galaxies in general appear to be receding
from us with speeds
proportional to their distances, and at a distance of 10
l0
light-
years the recessional speed would reach the speed of light. At

this speed, because of the "galactic red shift" (a form of the
wavelength and frequency
called
source
in
for radiation
shift
general the Doppler
of energy back to us would
effect),
from a moving
the transmission
to zero, thus setting a natural
fail
limit to the extent of the knowable universe.

If
we
take the average density of matter throughout space
to be about 10
-a(i
kg/m 3
(10
-6
of the density within an individ-
volume of the universe to be

we arrive at a total mass
)
79 hydrogen atoms).
52
(equivalent
to
about
10
kg
of about 10
il
galaxies,
This would then correspond to a total of about 10
ual galaxy) and
assume the
of the order of (10
26 3
each containing about
i.e.,
10"
total
10
78
stars.
m3
Such numbers are of course so
stupendous that they defy any attempt to form a mental image of

the universe as a whole. But it scems that we can be assured of one
thing, at least,
which
is
that the basis of our description of the
what
we described at the outset as "the particulate view" flnds some justiflcation over the entire range
of our experience, from the nucleus to the cosmos. And the fact
that this approach to the description of nature makes sense, while
physical world
embracing a span of about 10
40
not merely aesthetically pleasing;
in distance
it
and 10 80
in
mass,
is
also suggests that something,
we
at least, of the physical description
give. to the
behavior of
atoms will be found applicable to the behavior of galaxies, too.

If we want to find a unifying theme for the study of nature,
especially for the applications of classical mechanics, this particulate
view
is
a strong candidate.
PROBLEMS
1-1
Make
a tabulation of the orders of magnitude of diameter,
volume, mass, and density for a wide selection of objects that you
regard as being of physical importance e.g., nucleus, cell, and star.
For the diameters and masses, rcprcsent the data by labclcd points on
a straight line marked off logarithmically in successive powers of 10.

This should give you a useful overview of the scale of the universe.
1-2
Estimate the number of atoms in:

(a)
(b)
38
The
The
smallest speck of matter

earth.
universe of partieles
you can
see with the
naked
eye.
Calculate the approximate mass, in tons, of a teaspoonful of
1-3
nuclear matter
1-4
closely
packed nuclei or neutrons.
James Jeans once suggested that each time any one of us

is a good chance that this lungful of air contains
onc molecule from the last breath of Julius Caesar. Make your
Sir
draws a breath, there

at least
own
calculation to test this hypothesis.
mm of
6
evacuates a bottle to a pressure of 10~
A vacuum pump
1-5
-9 of atmospheric pressure).
mercury (about 10
Estimate the magni-
tudes of the following quantities:
The number of molecules per cubic centimeter.

The average distance between molecules.
(a)
(b)
In a classic experiment, E. Rutherford and T. Royds
1-6
[Phil.
Mag.,
showed that the alpha particles emitted in radioactive

decay are the nuclei of normal helium atoms. They did this by collecting
the gas resulting from the decay and measuring its spectrum. They
17, 281 (1909)]
started with a source of the radioactive gas radon (itself a decay product
The half-life of radon is 3.8 days; i.e., out of any given

number of atoms present at any instant, half are left, and half have
of radium).
decayed, 3.8 days
later.
When
the experiment started, the rate of alpha-
by the radon was about
particle emission
10 9 per second.
Six
enough helium gas had been collected to display a complete

helium spectrum when an electric discharge was passed through the
tube. What volume of helium gas, as measured at STP, was collected
days
later,
in this
experiment?
function of time
is
[The number of surviving radioactive atoms as a
given by the exponential decay law, N(t)
The number of disintegrations per unit time at any instant

\Noe- u Given the value of the half-life, you can deduce
is
Noe-*'.
\dN/dt\
the value of
the constant, X.]
1-7
law
The general expansion of

[o{r)
volume
the universe as described by Hubble's
amount of mass per
ar] implies that the average
in the universe
should be decreasing by about
unit
17
part in 10
per second (see Hors d'oeuvres no. 29, p. 16). According to one theory
(no longer so strongly held) this Ioss
is
being
made up by the continuous
creation of matter in space.

(a)
Calculate the approximate
cubic meter per year that would,
if
number of hydrogen atoms per

produced throughout the volume
of the universe, bring in the necessary amount of new mass.

(b) It has
of new matter,
been hypothesized (by

if
it
J.
G. King) that the creation
occurs, might well take place, not uniformly
throughout space, but at a rate proportional to the amount of old

matter present within a given volume.
the
On
number of hydrogen atoms equivalent
this hypothesis, calculate
to the
per day in a vessel containing 5 kg of mercury.
39
Problcms
(J.
new mass
created
G. King concluded
on
this basis that a test
sure of
1-8
of the hypothesis was
feasible.)
Torr
(1
mm
of mercury).
Theodore Rosebury,
in his
book Life on
1969), remarks that the total bulk of
all
Man (Viking, New York,
the microorganisms that live
on the surface of a human being (excluding a
is
bottom of a thimble.
taken to be 5
y.
(1
If the
10
-6
mean
on the
accommodated
far larger quantity
inner surfaces of the intestinal system) could easily be

in the
Convert your
an equivalent volume of hydrogen gas as measured at a pres-
result to
radius of these microorganisms
m), what
the order of magnitude of
is
the population of such organisms that each of us carries around

the time ?
Compare
all
human population of the
the result with the total
globe.
1-9
It
seems probable that the planets were formed by condensation
from a nebula, surrounding the
sun,
whose outer diameter corresponded
roughly to the orbit of Pluto.

(a) If this
nebula were assumed to be
thickness equal to about one tenth of
been
its
mean
density in
kg/m 3 ? (Do
in the
its
form of a disk with a
radius,
what would have
not include the mass of the sun
in the calculation.)
(b)
A better picture appears to be of a gas cloud whose thickness

Suppose that Jupiter
increases roughly in proportion to the radius.
were formed from a ring-shaped portion of the cloud, extending radially

for half the distance from the asteroid belt to the orbit of Saturn and
with a thickness equal to this radial extension.
the
mean
What would have been
density of this portion of the nebula ?
(In terms of the radius of the earth's orbit, the orbit of Pluto has a
radius of about 40 units, the asteroid belt
is
at
about
3 units,
and
the
orbit of Saturn has a radius of about 9.5 units.)
1-10 The core of a large globular cluster of stars
about 30,000 stars within a radius of about

(a)
stellar
ratio
Estimate the ratio of the
typically contain
separation of stars to the
diameter in such a core.
(b) At approximately what degree of vacuum would the same

of separation to particle diameter be obtained for the molecules
of a gas?
40
mean
may
5 light-years.
/ do not define time, space, place and motion, since they are
well
known
to all.
newton,
Principia (1686)
Space, time,
and motion
WHAT
IS
MOTION?
you are undoubtedly
familiar with
motion
in all kinds of
mani-
what would you say if you were asked to define it?

The chances are that you would find yourself formulating a
statement in which the phrase "a change of position with time,"
festations, but
or something equivalent to that, expressed the central thought.
For
it
seems that our
depends
in
ability to give
any precise account of motion
an essential way on the use of the separate concepts
We say that an object is moving if it occupies
of space and time.
different positions at different instants,
and any stroboscopic
photograph, such as that shown in Fig. 2-1, gives vivid expression

to this mental picture.
good Newtonians in the sense that

about space and time are closely in harmony
Ali of us grow
our
intuitive ideas
up
to be
The following paragraphs
are a
deliberate attempt to express these ideas in simple terms.
The
with those of
and
himself.
may appear
description
many
Newton
natural
and
plausible,
but
it
embodies
notions which, on closer scrutiny, will turn out to be naive,
difficult
or impossible to defend.
So the account below
apart with square brackets to emphasize
should not be accepted at
its
its
(set
provisional status)
face value but should be read with a
healthy touch of skepticism.
Newton's view, is absolute, in the sense that it

exists permanently and independently of whether there is any
matter in the space or moving through it. To quote Newton's
[Space, in
own words
in the Principia:
"Absolute space, in
its
own
nature,
43
Fig.
2-1
Slrobo-
scopic photograph
of
a motion. {Front
PSSC Physics, D.
C.
Healh, Lexington,
Massachusetis, 1965.)
without relation to anything external, remains always similar
and immovable."
[Space
is
thus a sort of stationary three-dimensional matrix
into which one can place objects or through which objects can
move without producing any

the space.
in space
Each
and
change of
its
interaction between the object
and
object n the universe exists at a particular point
time.
An
object in motion undergoes a continuous
position with time.
And
although
it
would not be
one can imagine the charting of positions with the

help of a vast network of meter sticks, laid out end to end in a
One can
three-dimensional, cubical array throughout space.
practicable,
conceive of extending such measurements to any point in the

universe. In other words, the space is there, and we simply have
a practical task of attaching markers to
it.
Moreover, our
physical measurements agree with the theorems of Euclidean
geometry, and space
is
thus assumed to be Euclidean.
[Time, in Newton's view,
44
is
also absolute
and flows on with-
Again quoting from
out regard to any physical object or event.
and mathematical
the Principia: "AbsoLute, true,
and from
its
own
name
thing external, and by another
language
is
said in the
time, of
itself,
nature, flows equably without relation to anyis
The
As Newton
called duration."
elegant but delightfully uninformative.
remark quoted
at the beginning of this chapter, he
did not attempt to define either space or time.
[One can neither speed up time nor slow down its rate, and
throughout the universe. If we
this flow of time exists uniformly
imagine the instant "'now" as

planet
and
occurs simultaneously on every
it
and an hour
star in the universe,
of this 60-minute interval,
we assume
mark
later
the end
that such a time interval
has been identical for every object in the universe, as could (in
by observations of physical, chemical, or

biological processes at various locations. As an aid to measuring
principle) be verified
time intervals,
it
would be
possible, in principle, to place identical
clocks at each intersection of a meter-stick framework and to
synchronize these clocks so that they indicate the same time at a
common, simultaneous
would
Being identical clocks, they
instant.
thereafter correctly
mark
off the flow of absolute time
and
remain synchronized with each other.

[Space and time, although completely independent of each
other, are in a sense interrelated insofar as
we
find
it
impossible
to conceive of objects existing in space for no time at

existing for a finite time interval but
"nowhere"
all,
in space.
or
Both
to have no
space and time are assumed to be infinitely divisible

ultimate structure.]
The preceding five paragraphs describe in everyday language

some commonsense notions about the nature of space and time.
Embedded in these notions are many assumptions that we adopt,
either
knowingly or unconsciously,
the universe.
many
correct they seem,
we mentioned
in the
at very high speeds,
This
first
became apparent
Prologue) in connection with motions
approaching or equaling the speed of
and with the phenomena of electromagnetism and

;
in
his
development of special
some of the most important

cluding Newton's
how
own
relativity
theory,
it
light,
was Einstein,
who exposed
limitations of classical ideas, in-
ideas about relativity,
and then showed
they needed to be modified, especially with regard to the
concept of time.
45
our picture of
of these ideas have consequences that
are inconsistent with experience.

(as
in developing
fascinating therefore that, however intuitively
It is
What
is
motion
'?
The crux of the matter
is
that
it is
one thing to have abstract
concepts of absolute space and time, and it is another thing to

have a way of describing the actual motion of an object in terms
of measured changes of position during measured intervals of
time. Newton himself understood this very well, at least as far
Thus in the Principia

"But
because
the
parts
of space cannot
we find him remarking:
be seen, or distinguished from one another by our senses, therefore in their stead we use sensible [i.e., observable] measures
measurements were concerned.
as spatial
of them
And
use relative ones

rest,
and motions, we
so, instead of absolute places

.
For
it
may be that
there
is
no body
to which the places and measures of others
ferred."
space,
ments.
it
If there is
really at
may be
re-
any knowledge to be gained about absolute
can only be by inference from these relative measureThus our attention turns to the only basis we have for
describing motion
observation
of what a given object does
in
relation to other objects.
FRAMES OF REFERENCE
If
you should hear somebody say "That car

certain that
would be quite
what
is
is
moving," you
being described
is
a change
of position of the car with respect to the earth's surface and any
buildings and the like that may be nearby. Anybody who an-
nounced "There
is
motion between that car and the

regarded as a tiresome pedant. But this
relative
earth" would be rightly
does not alter the fact that
it
takes the pedantic statement to
We
express the true content of the colloquial one.

local surroundings
and therefore at
accept the
a collection of objects attached to the earth
rest relative to
one another as defining a frame
ofreference with respect to which the changes of position of other

objects can be observed
It is clear
and measured.
that the choice of a particular frame of reference
to which to refer the
motion of an object
of taste and convenience, but
it is
is
entirely
a matter
often advantageous to use a
reference frame in which the description of the motion is simplest.

ship, for example, is for many purposes a self-contained world
within which the position or path of any person
is
most efficiently
described in terms of three perpendicular axes based on the
up and down
the ship itself
uniform
motion
of
The
(according to deck number).
directions fore
46
and
aft,
port and starboard, and
with respect to a frame of reference attached to the earth
may be
unnoticed or even ignored by the passengers, as long as they can

rely
on the navigation
officers.
Is the earth itself at rest?
become accustomed
We would
not say
so.
We
have
to the fact that the earth, like the other
planets, is continually changing
its
position with respect to a
greater frame of reference represented by the stars.
And
since
the stars constitute an almost completely unchanging array of
'i
'
'
JK
f'
'
Fig.
2-2
Apparent
circular molions
of
the stars. (Carillon
'
ff
'f
ir
Tower of Wellesley
College, Wellesley,
Mass., from J. C.
Duncan, Astronomy,
19.)
%ti<$
47
Frames of reference
5th edilion, Harper
&Row,J954,p.
ntjaKKm
reference points in the sky,
we regard
the totality of
them
as
representing a fixed frame of reference, within which the earth
both rotates and moves bodily.
It
remains true, however, that
our primary data are only of relatioe positions and displacements;

the belief that
it
really rotating
on
makes more sense

its
to
assume that the earth
is
axis once every 24 hours, rather than that
is going around us, is one that cannot be

by primary observations alone (see Fig. 2-2). With our
present knowledge of the great masses and enormous numbers of
the stars, it does, to be sure, simply seem more reasonable to
attribute the motion to our puny earth. But it would be hard to
the system of stars

justified
elevate that subjective
Later
we
judgment
into a physical law.
shall see that there are powerful theoretical reasons
for preferring
some reference frames to
others.
The "best"
choice of reference frame becomes ultimately a question of

dynamics i.e., dependent on the actual laws of motion and
But the choice of a particular reference frame is often

made without regard to the dynamics, and for the present we
shall just concern ourselves with the purely kinematic problems
force.
of analyzing positions and motions with respect to any given

frame.
COORDINATE SYSTEMS
frame of reference, as we have said, is defined by some array
of physical objects that remain at rest relative to one another.
Within any such frame, we make measurements of position and
displacement by setting up a coordinate system of some kind.
doing
this
we have
In
a free choice of origin and of the kind of
coordinate system that
is
best suited to the purpose at hand.
Since the space of our experience has three dimensions,
we must
in general specify three separate quantities in order to fix uniquely
the position of a point.
However, most of the problems that we
shall consider will be of
motion confined to a single plane, so
us
first
let
consider the specification of positions and displacements
two dimensions only.

As you are doubtless well aware, the position of a point
in a plane is most often designated with respect to two mutually
perpendicular straight lines, which we call the x and y axes of a
The position
coordinate system, intersecting at an origin O.
of the point P [Fig. 2-3(a)] relative to O is then described by a
position vector r, as shown, characterized by a specific length and
in
48
Fig.
2-3
(a)
Square
grid; the basis
of
Carlesian coordinates
in
a plane. (b) Plane
polar coordinate grid.
Using our perpendicular
a specific direction.
uniquely define
by
ing r
is
2-3(b).
r
makes
in
terms of polar coordinates
Here
with the positive
designating the position of
axis, as
P
r
two dimcnsions)
as shown in Fig.
(r, 0),
P from O and
r is the distance of
measured
wise (conventionally positive) direction.
(In
we can
onto the x and y

However, another important way of specify-
ordinates (x, y), which are projections of

axes, respectively.
axes,
the pair of rectangular (Cartesian) co-
d is
in
the angle that
a counterclock-
The two schemes of
are related as follows:

2
= x2 +
y
= -
tan
(2-1)
X
x =
cos d
= r sin
Figure 2-4 shows examples of the use of these coordinate systems.
We
shall
on various occasions be making use of
unit vectors
that represent displacements of unit length along the basic co-
ordinate directions.
shall
we
In the rectangular (Cartesian) system
in the x and y directions by i and j,

The position veetor r can be written as the sum of its
denote the unit vectors
respectively.
two veetor components:

(In
two dimensions)
xi
In the polar coordinate system,
denote a unit veetor

6
in
and the symbol ee
we
in the direction
(2-2)
shall use the
symbol e r to
of increasing r at constant
to denote a unit veetor at right angles to r
the direction of increasing
purpose comes from
49
+ y\
Coordinate systems
the
9.
(The use of the symbol e for
German word
for
unit,
this
which
is
/*>"
'""'V
y>iui.ins<
(b)
(a)
Example of Cariesian coordinales in use a portion of midtown Manhattan, New York City. (b) Example of plane polar coordinales in
fig. 2-4
usea
North
(a)
radar scopeface with
is shown
afew
incipient thunderslorms (June 3, 1970).
as O" azimuth. The heavy circles ofr
const are at 100
km,
200 km; the lighter circles are spaced by 25 km. (Photograph courtesy of
Department of Meteorology, M.l.T.)
"Einheit.") In this polar-coordinate system, the vector
equal to re r , and one might wonder

introduced at
important as
As we
soon as we
all.
shall see,
why
r is
simply
the unit vector e
however,
it
is
becomes very
consider motions rather than static
displacements, for motions will often have a component per-
pendicular to
r.
Although the above coordinate schemes are the most familiar

ones
and are the only ones we shall be
using in this book for
two-dimensional problems it is worth noting that any mapping

of the surface that uniquely fixes the position of a point is a
possible system.
one
Figure 2-5 shows two examples
a non-
orthogonal system based on straight axes, and the other an

orthogonal system based on two sets of intersecting curves. Such
systems are introduced to capitalize on the kinds of symmetry
that particular physical systems
50
Spacc, time, and motion
may
possess.
Fig.
2-5
Ihal
is freguently
(a) Oblique coordinate system,
time diagrams) in special
relativity.
curvilinear coordinate system,
confocal ellipses
If
(b)
Orthogonal
made o/ intersecting sets of
and hyperbolas.
necessary to specify
it is
ofthe kind
used in Minkowski diagrams (space-
all
three of the spatial coordinates
of a point, the most generally useful coordinate systems are the
three-dimensional rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates (x, y,
and spherical polar coordinates
(r, 6, <p).
These are both
z),
illus-
The Cartesian system is almost always

be right-handed, by which we mean that the positive z
trated in Fig. 2-6(a).
chosen to
direction
is
chosen so that, looking upward along
of rotating from the positive
it,
the process
direction toward the positive
direction corresponds to that of a right-handed screw.
It
then
follows that the cyclic permutations of this operation are also
from -\-y to +z, looking along +x, and from

+x, looking along +y. You may note that the two-
right-handed
+z
to
dimensional coordinate system, as shown
in Fig.
2-3(a),
would
on this convention bc associated with a positive z axis sticking

up toward you out of the plane of the paper. Introducing a unit
vector k in the +z direction, analogous to the i and j of Eq. (2-2),
we can write the vector r as the sum of its three Cartesian vector
components:
r
51
xi
+ yi + zk
Coordinate systems
(2-3)
2-6
Fig.
(a)
Coordinates ofa poinl
in three
dimensions,
showing both spherical polar and right-handed Carlesian

coordinates.
(lalitude
ofa
(6) Point located
and longitude) on a
by angular coordinates
sphere,
and
the unit vectors
local Carlesian coordinate system at the point in
question.
The
description of the position or displacement in spherical
polar coordinates makes use of one distance and two angles.
(Notice that three dimensions requires three independent co-
form they may
ordinates, whatever particular

is,
take.)
as with plane polar coordinates, the distance r
The
distance
from the chosen
shown as in Fig. 2-6(a)] is

simply the angle between the vector r and the positive z axis;
The other angle represents the
it is known as the polar angle.
angle between the zx plane and the plane defined by the z axis
and r. It can be found by drawing a perpendicular PN from the
One
origin.
end point
of the angles [the one
of r onto the xy plane and measuring the angle be-
tween the positive x axis and the projection ON. This angle (p)
The geometry of the figure shows that the
is called the azimuth.
rectangular and spherical polar coordinates are related as follows:
x =
y =
z =
If
52
we
set
r sin
cos
r sin
sin
tp
(2-4)

v?
very unfortunate that a long-established tradition uses the
It is
symbol
d,
the vector
as
r
we
ourselves did earlier, to denote the angle between
and the
x axis
two-dimensional case.
in this special
This need not become a cause for confusion, but one does need
to be
on the alert for the inconsistency of these conventions.

have all grown up with one important use of spherical
We
mapping of the earth's surface. This is

indicated in Fig. 2-6(b). The longitude of a given point is just
the angle ip, and the latitude is an angle, X, equal to jr/2 6.
(This entails calling north latitudes positive and south latitudes
polar coordinates, the
negative.)
At any given point on
the earth's surface a set of three
mutually orthogonal unit vectors defines for us a local coordinate

system; the unit vector e r points vertically upward, the vector ee
points due south, parallel to the surface, and the third unit
vector,
e^,,
points
due
east, also parallel to the surface.
the plane polar coordinates, the vector r
is
As with
given simply by re r
COMBINATION OF VECTOR DISPLACEMENTS

Suppose we were
at
a point P\ on a
flat
horizontal plane [Fig.
2-7 (a)] and wished to go to another point

chose to
by
Fig.
2-7
(a)
make the
+x and +y in
P g. Imagine
Suc-
cessiue displacements
on a plane; the final

position
is
independen!
of the order
in
which
the displacements are
made.
{b)
Addition
of secerat displacement vectors in a

plane.
53
that
we
trip by moving only east and north (represented

the figure). We know there are two particularly
Combination of vector displacements
Fig.
2-8
Seatar
2r
multiples of a given
veetor
r,
including
negative multiples.
IHnBBHBBHHBBHBB^HEHBHiBI
straightforward ways of doing this: (1) travel a certain distance
and then a certain distance
sz
due
su
due north, followed by
cast
su
due north, or
(2) travel
sx due east. The order in which we

component displacements does not matter; we
same point P 2 in either casc. Our representation of the
take these two
rcach the
veetor
yj
is
r in
sum
Eq. (2-2) as the
of the individual veetors xi and
an example of such a combination. This simple and familiar
property of linear displacements exemplifies an essential feature

of
all
those quantities
combinations
we
illustrate
head to
tail,
we
how
veetors
call
and
is
not confined to
Thus, for example, in Fig. 2-7(b)
at right anglcs.
three veetor displacements, A, B,
and C, placed
can be combined into a single veetor displacement S
drawn from the original starting point to the final end point.
This is what we mean by adding the veetors A, B, and C. The
order in which veetors are added is of no consequence; thus
successive displacements of an object can be
combined according
to the veetor addition law, without regard to the sequence in
which the displacements are made.

quantity, in general,
is
that
What we mean by
a veetor
a direeted quantity obeying the
it is
same laws of combination as positional displacements.

We shall often be concerned with forming a numerical
multiple of a given veetor.
we changc the
ing
is
its
means that
length of the veetor by the faetor n without chang-
The negative of a veetor (multiplication by 1)

mean a veetor of equal magnitude but in the opposite
direetion.
defined to
added to the
direetion, so that
negative multiplier,
tion
positive multiplier, n,
and changed
n, then
in length
original veetor
it
gives zero.
defines a veetor reversed in diree-
by the faetor
n.
These operations are
illustrated in Fig. 2-8.
Subtracting one veetor from another
is
accomplished by
noting that subtraetion basically involves the addition of a negative quantity.
we form
Thus
the veetor
A - B = A
54
if
veetor
B and
is
add
(-B)
to be subtraeted
it
to
A:
from veetor A,
Fig.
2-9
Addilion
and subtraction of
Iwo given vectors.
Note that the magnitude ofthe vector

difference
may be
{as
here) larger than the
In Fig. 2-9
we show both
We
veetors.
the
sum and
the difference of two given
have deliberately chosen the direetions of
to be such that the vector

this will help to
A B
emphasize the
is
longer than the vector
faet that vector
and
A +
B;
combination
is
something rather different from simple arithmetical combination.
The evaluation of the vector distance from a point P^ to a

point P 2 when originally the positions of these points are given
,
separately with respect to an origin
direct application of vector subtraction.

relative to
P\
is
r2
ri2
given by the vector
r 12
[see Fig.
The
(2-10)],
such that
is
to be read as
"one-two" and
is
notation in the deseription of two-particle systems.)
r,
Fig.
2-10
tion
of the
(i> 2 )
r2
P!
Clearlyr 2
P2
relative to
i
= r 12
is
Construc-
ofone
with re-
spect to another point

OPi).
55
common
Similarly,
given by the vector
relative
position vector
point
P2
ri
(The subseript "12"

the position of
is
position of
Combination of vector displacements
r2
Fig.
2-11
(a)
Com-
ponents of a given
vector in two different
rectangular coordi-
nate systems related
by an angular
dis-
placemenl 9 in the
xy plane.
(b)
Com-
ponents of a given
vector in a rectangular coordinate system
and
in
an obligue co-
ordinate system.
THE RESOLUTION OF VECTORS
In discussing the description of a given vector in terms of
components, we have indicated that

There
operated in either direction.

of the vector into
or there
is
its
components
this
is
is
its
a process that can be
the analysis (resolution)
in a given
coordinate system,
the synthesis (addition) of the vector components to
reconstitute the original vector. There
is,
however, an important
The vector sum of the

components is unique it is the particular vector that we are
considering but the process of resolving the vector into components can be done in an infinity of ways, depending on the
difference between thcse two operations.
choice of coordinate system.
we are using a coordinate system based on orthogonal

axes (whether Cartcsian or polar or anything else), the comIf
ponents of the vector are easily found by multiplying the length

of the vector by the cosine of the angle that the vector makes
with cach of the coordinate axes in turn. Thus, for example, if
we had
a vector
confined to the xy plane [see Fig. 2-1 l(a)]
its
components in the xy coordinate system are given by

A =
A x = Acosa
We know
that
separate angles
'U
is
hoped that
/3
/4cos<3
(tt/2)
>
but by introducing the two

that lends itself to being
we have a formalism
this seetion
may
be helpful in a general way, but the only

is the scalar produet of two arbi-
fcaturc that will be specifically needed later

trary veetors.
56
Space, (ime, and motion
extended to the case of three dimensions, making use of the three
and T that the vector makes with the three

more general case there is no simple connection
between the angles themselves, but we have the relationship
separate angles a, 0,
In this
axes.
cos
cos 2 /3
cos 27
Our two-dimensional case corresponds to putting 7 = w/2.

The total vector A in Fig. 2- 11 (a) can of course be written
A = AJ + A v\
=
{A cos d)\
(A cos
;8)j
A very convenient way of expressing such results is made possible

by introducing what
This
is
tween any two vectors,

is
called the scalar product of
two
vectors.
defined in general in the following way: If the angle be-
is
and B,
is 0,
then the scalar product, S,
equal to the product of the lengths of the two vectors and the
cosine of the angle
because
d.
This product
is
conventionally written as
it is
scalar product (S)
If for the vector
also called the dot product
B. Thus
we have
= A B = AB cos d
B we now choose
one or other of the unit vectors
of an orthogonal coordinate system, the scalar product of
with the unit vector
is
just the
component of A along
the direction
characterized by the unit vector:
Ax = A
Ay = A
Thus the vector A can be
A =
(A-i)i
written as follows:
(A-j)j
This result can, in fact, be developed directly from the basic
statement that
can be written as a vector sum of components
along x-and y:
A = Ax +
Ay\
Forming the
the unit vector
Now
(i
57
The
i,
= A x (i
i)
unit length
both sides of
scalar product of
this
equation with
we have
i)
and
A(i
i)
i)
(j
0,
and the values of
resolution of vectors
because these vectors are
are
and t/2,
respectively.
all
of
Thus
we have a more or
automatic procedure for selecting out
less
and evaluating each component

If
one were to take
in turn.
no
this
above development
further, the
would seem perhaps pointlessly complicated.
more apparent
if
is interested in relating
different coordinate
vector in
given
one
Its
value becomes
the components of a
Consider, for
systems.
example, the second set of axes (x\ y') shown in Fig. 2-1 1 (a)
they are obtained by a positive (counterclockwise) rotation from
The vector
the original (x,y) system.
then has two equally
valid representations:
AIf
AJL
we want
= AJV + A u '
Aj
to find
scalar product with

A,'
i')
i'
cos 6
terms of
A(i
at Fig. 2-1 l(a),
Looking
AS
in
A x and A v we just form

,
the
throughout. This gives us
i'
i'
i')
we
see the following relationships:
cos f
sin
Hence
A z = A z cos
'
sin
Similarly,
A y = AA-f)
'
+ AJl'f)
/*xCOs(;;
+B +
)
/*COS0
Therefore,
Ay =
'
-A x sin d + A y cos 6
This procedure avoids the need for tiresome and sometimes
awkward considerations of geometrical
projections of the vector
onto various axes of coordinates.
The same approach can be
useful
into nonorthogonal components.
if
a vector
is
to be resolved
Consider, for example, the
shown in Fig. 2-1 (b). The axes are the lines Osi and
Os 2 and the components of the vector A in this system are OE
and OF. If we denote unit veetors along the coordinate direetions
by ei and e 2 we havc
situation
58
Space, timc, and motion
A =
siei
we form
we havc
If
s\
S2*2
= A zi +
A\
the scalar product throughout with, let us say, ei,
J2(e2
ei)
= A x (i
ei)
/i(j
ci)
Given a knowledge of the angles between the various axes,

is a linear equation involving the two unknowns Si and s 2
this
.
second equation can be obtained by forming the scalar product

throughout with e 2 instead of ei, and it then becomes possible
to solve for Si
and
s 2 separately.
It is
to recognize that the base vectors e!
important, in this case,
and
thogonal, so that the scalar product (e,
e 2 are
no longer
or-
does not vanish.
e2 )
The use of oblique coordinate systems of this kind is, however,

rather special, and as a rule the resolution of a vector along the
three independent directions of an orthogonal coordinate system
is
the reasonable and useful thing to do.
VECTOR ADDITION AND THE PROPERTIES OF SPACE

You may
tion,
be tempted to think that the basic law of vector addi-
and the
fact that the final result
is
independent of the order
which the combining vectors are taken, is more or less obvious.

Let us therefore point out that it dcpends crucially on having
in
our space obey the rules of Euclidean geometry. If we are dealing

with displacements confined to a two-dimensional world as
represented by a surface,
This
it
is
essential that this surface be flat.
not just a pedantic consideration, because one of our
is
most important two-dimensional reference frames
surface
is
curved.
As
and
flat,
earth's
long as displacements are small compared
to the radius of the curvature, our surface
poses
the
is
for practical pur-
our observations conform to Euclidean plane geometry,
all is well.
But
if
the displacements along the surface are
sufliciently great, this idcalization
cannot be used. For cxample,
a displacement 1000 miles eastward from a point on the equator,
followed by a displacement 1000 miles northward, does nol

bring one to the same placc as two equivalent displacements
59
(i.e.,
again on grcat circles intersecting at right angles) taken in
This
scction can be omitted without loss of continuity.
Vector addition and the properties of space
Fig.
2-12
Successiue
displacements on a
sphere are not com-
mutative if the sizes
of the displacements
are not small compared to
the radius of
the sphere.
the opposite order;
This means, in
it
effect,
misses by about 40 miles!
(See Fig. 2-12.)
that the correctness of vector addition
matter for experiment and that
tests for
departures from
it
is
can
make deductions about the geometrical properties

space in which we operate. For example, we could take
be used to
of the
the results of sensitive measurements on the difference between

the two possible ways of
making two
successive displacements
on a sphere and use the data to deduce the radius of the sphere.
When we acknowledge that the space of our ordinary experience
is
really three-dimensional, then, of course,
we look
at
from a different point of view. We recogon the surface of a sphere can actually
be scen as displacements in a three-dimensional world that obeys
the foregoing analysis
nize that displacements
a merely two-dimensional
Euclidean geometry rather than
in
world that appears, within
to be non-Euclidean.
this point
itself,
a very intercsting speculation suggests
say that our space of three dimensions

Is it possible that the result
is
itself:
But at
Can we
rigorously Euclidean?
of adding displacements along the
three basic coordinate dircctions
is
dependent to some minute
on the order of addition? If this were discovered to be

the case, then we might proceed by analogy and introduce a
fourth spatial dimension, associated with some characteristic
extent
radius of curvature, such that our non-Euclidean space of three
dimensions could be described as Euclidean

of four dimensions.
60
Space,
tirae,
and motion
in
a "hyperspace"
Some
distinguishcd scientists, beginning with the great Kari
Friedrich Gauss ("the Prince of mathematicians")
'
have sought
by direct observation to test the validity of Euclidean geometry,

by measuring whether the angles of a closed triangle add up to
(For example, in the non-Euclidean space repre-
exactly 180.
sented by the surface of a sphere, the angles of a triangle add up

to more than 180.) No departure from a Euclidean character for
three-dimensional space has been detected through such observations. The concept that space may, however, be "curved," and
that this curvature might be revealed
if
one could only carry out
observations over sufficiently great distances, occupies an important place in thcoretical cosmology.
You may
have read about the curvature of space
another
in
connection Einstein's theory of gravitationwhich describes

local gravitational effects in terms of a modification of
geometry
the space surrounding a massive object such as the sun.
We
not pursue this topic here, although we shall touch on

briefly
at the end of our account of gravitation
(Chapter
in
it
in
shall
very
general
8).
TIME
In the preceding sections
of spatial displacements.
we have developed the basic analysis

To describe motion we must link such
displacements to the time intervals during which they occur.
Before considering this as a quantitative problem,
let
us very
supplement the remarks that we made at the beginning

of the chapter concerning the actual nature of time. This is, of
course, a hugc subject that has engaged the thoughts and speculabriefly
tions of
men philosophers,
scientists,
throughout history, and continues to do
and humanists alike
so.
We shall not presume
do more than to cxamine one or two aspects of the problem

from the standpoint of physical seienec.
The sense of the passage of time is deeply embedded in
to
every one of
us.
We know, in
some elemental
sense,
what time
is.
'Kari Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) was one of the outstanding mathemaIn the originality and range of his work he has never been
surpassed, and probably never equaled. He delved deeply into astronomy
ticians of all time.
and geodesy and was perhaps the first to recognize the possibility of a nonEuclidean geometry for space. See E. T. Bell's essay about him in The World
of Mathemalics (J. R. Newman, ed.), Simon and Schuster, New York, 1956.
61
Time

'
But can we say what it is? The distinguished Dutch physicist

H. A. Kramers once remarked: "My own pet notion is that in
human thought
the world of
particularly, the
those to which
To
gencrally,
most important and most
if
one
begin to see that

tion of time
may
in physical science
fruitful concepts are
impossible to attach a well-defined meaning."
it is
nothing, perhaps, does this apply
Nevertheless,
and
tries to
more cogently than
to time.
analyze the problem, one can perhaps
not entirely elusive. Even though a definihard

be
to come by, one can recognize that our
it is
concept of the passage of time
is
tied very directly to the fact
that things change. In particular
we
are aware of certain recurrent
events or situations
the
beats of our pulse, the daily passage
We
of the sun, the seasons, and so on.

treat these as
almost subconsciously
though they are markers on some continuous
line
But
that already exists rather like milestones along a road.

all
we have
the rest
is
in terms of direct
an
knowledge
intellectual construction.
is
the set of markers;
Thus, although
it
may
be valuable to have an abstract concept of time continuously

flowing, our first-hand experience
of a device called "a clock."
is
only the observed behavior
In order to assign a quantitative
measure to the duration of some process or the interval between

two events, we simply associatc the beginning and end points
with readings on a clock.
use of a recurrent
It is
phenomenon
not essential that the clock
devices such as water clocks and graduated candles, or

parallels such as continuously
but we do ask that
make
one need only consider ancient

modern
weakening radioactive sources
provide us with a means of marking off
it
some recognizable way, and most such

make use of repetitive phenomena of some
successive intervals in
devices do, in fact,

kind.
How
do we know
that the successive time intervals defined
by our chosen clock are

it
is
truly cqual?
ultimately a matter of faith.
The
No
fact is that
clock
is
we
don't;
perfect, but
we
have learned to recognize that some clocks are better than

others
better
in the
sense that the segments into which they
divide our experience are

his wristwatch
and
watch, however,
is
'Physical Sciences and

Press, Princeton,
62
N. J.,
tells
more nearly
equal.
us that our pulse
found to be
Human
is
doctor observes
irregular; the wrist-
itself irregular
when compared
Values (a symposium), Princeton University
1947.
more
critically
against a crystal-controlled oscillator; the oscil-
wandcrs noticeably when checked against a clock based on

atomic vibrations. Whether or not the uniform flow of time, as
lator
an ultimate abstraction, has any physical meaning,

fact
is
we approach
that
We
flow existed.
observing
its
the
the remarkable
measurement of time as
if this
consistency and reproducibility, so that
we can quote
its
steady
evaluate the behavior of any given clock by
measure of a time or a time
And
specified range of possible error.
in
using
it
interval with a
when we proceed
then,
from individual measurements to general equations involving
we introduce
time,
the symbol
and
treat
as a continuous
variable in the mathematical sense.
UNITS AND STANDARDS OF LENGTH AND TIME

Most of our
discussion of motion will be in terms of unspecified
positions and times, represented symbolically by

It
r,
/,
and so on.
should never be forgotten, however, that the description of
actual motions involves the numerical measures of such quan-
and the use of
tities
Our choice
universally accepted units
and standards.
of acceptable standards of both distance and time
is
the result of a continuing search for the highest degree of consistency
and reproducibility
and present
state
in
such measurements. The evolution
of this process
is
briefly
summarized below.
Length
The
current Standard of length
the
meter
was
introduced,
along with the rcst of the metric system, in the drive for
and cultural order that developed

of the 18th century.
sent
The meter was

-7
ten-millionth (10
in
France
scientific
in the latter half
originally intended to repre-
of the distance from pole to equator
of the earth along a meridian of longitude.
But
it
proved im-
possible to construct any sufficiently precise Standard

basis of this definition, and the meter
on
the
was then defined as the
length of a particular metal bar kept in Sevres, near Paris, and

finally as a multiple
most
line
of the wavelength of a charaeteristie spectral
recently (since 1960) as being a distance equal
to
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of orange-red light from the isotopc
krypton 86.
Although the use of the extremely small
63
Units and standards of length and time
units of length
represented by light waves means that the meter can be defined
with immense precision
to
part in 10
or better
there
is
the
disadvantage that an object as long as a meter cannot be directly
measured,
in
a one-step process, in terms of light waves from
ordinary sources.
on observing
if
is
that the
measurements depend
the distance in question becomes more than about
development of
lasers
of over 100 m.
some
It
wash out
1 ft.
The
has completely transformed this situation,
up
interference effects have been observed
and
at
The reason
optical interference effects that begin to
to path lengths
thus seems quite probable that the meter will
future date be defined in terms of an optical wavelength
obtainable from a laser source, perhaps one of the characteristic

spectral lines of neon in a helium-neon laser.
Time
The
process of defining a Standard of time involves a feature that
from the establishment of a Standard

of length. This is that, as Allen Astin has remarked: "We cannot
choose a particular sample of time and keep it on hand for
1
reference."
We depend upon identifying some recurring phesets
it
significantly apart
nomenon and
assumirrg that
it
always supplies us with time
same length.
The Standard of time the second
intervals of the
the
assumed constancy of the
was originally based on
earth's rotation.
as being equal to 1/86,400 of a
mean
solar day
It
was
first
i.e.,
the average,
defined
from noon to noon or midnight to midnight at a given placc on the earth's surfacc. This is an awkward
definition, because the length of the day, as measured from noon
over
year, ol the time
to noon,
is
not a constant;
it
varies because the earth's speed
and its distance from the sun are continuously changing during
one complete orbit. A logically more satisfaetory definition of
the second can be based
on the
sidereal
day the
time for any
given star to return to the same position overhead. If the earth's

rotation were truly uniform, the length of every sidereal
day
would be the same.

In faet,
it
has gradually
come
to be rccognized, thanks to
'Allen V. Astin, "Standards of Measurement," Sci. Am., 218 (6), 50 (1968).

people would, however, argue that even a solid, tangible bar as a length
Some
Standard
64
is
equally vulnerable on philosophical
and
logical grounds.
the extraordinary precision of astronomical raeasurements ex-
tended over thousands of years, that neither the length of the
on
solar year nor the earth's rate of rotation
its
axis is exactly
constant, the latter in particular being subject to minute but
The year has been found
abrupt variations.
to be lengthening
about sec per century, so that in 1956 the second

was redefined as being equal to 1/31,556,925.9747 of the tropical
at the rate of
(A
year 1900.
tropical year
is
defined as the interval of time
between two successive passages of the sun through the vernal
We
equinox.
"latehes
on"
poses.)
It
shall not attempt here to deseribe just

to a
how one
second of the year 1900 for calibration pur-
should be recognized that the variations being dis-
cussed here are fantastically small, as
implied by the ability
is
to define the year in terms of the second to 12 significant figures.

Finally, in 1967, the use of atomic vibrations to specify a
time Standard was adopted by international agreement
it
defines
the second as corresponding to 9,192,631,770 eyeles of vibration

in
an atomic clock controlled by one of the charaeteristie
fre-
quencies associated with atoms of the isotope cesium 133.
Quite apart from the practical challenge of defining units
and standards of time with the maximum attainable precision,

there are
some questions of fundamental
time as defined by
keep step at
all
celestial
motions, controlled by gravitation,
epochs with time as defined by atomic vibrations,
atom?
controlled by electric forees within the

in
Does
interest involved.
1938 by P. A.
M.
It
was suggested
Dirac that the constant of universal gravita-
with a "time constant"
tion might be slowly changing with time
on the order of the age of the universe
itself,
i.e.,
about 10 10
our astronomical and atomic standards
years.
If this
were
would,
in the
long run, be found to reveal diserepancies.
true,
This matter of units and standards
is
one that most of us
do not bother our heads with. We think we know well enough

what is meant by a meter and a second; and a ruler or a wateh
is
usually near at hand.
But perhaps the above diseussion may
help to suggest that the detailed story of

sures are defined, redefined,
is
how
these basic
and made more and more
a quitc faseinating business
especially,
mea-
precise
perhaps, for time, to
Dirac, a British theorelical physicist, was one of the leaders in the development of quantum thcory around 1926-1930. He was awarded the Nobel
prize for this work.
65
Units and standards of length and time
'
which astronomical observations over the centuries have contributed data of a refinement that almost passes belief.
SPACE-TIME GRAPHS
The primary data
the description of any motion will be a set
in
of associated measures of position and time.

for example, be a tabulation
single stroboscopic
Such data might,
an astronomer's logbook, or a
photograph such as
Fig.
21.
In general
the statement of position at any instant will require the use of

three coordinates, corresponding to the three independcnt di-
mensions of space.
may
many
circumstances, however, the motion
be confined to a planc, requiring two coordinates only, or
to a single line, so that a single positional coordinate sumces.
In this last case, and especially

line, it is often
Fig.
2-13
if
the motion
is
along a straight
extremely convenient to display the motion in
Example
of a space-lime graph
for a one-dimensional motion.
the
(From
PSSCfilm,
"Straight Line Kinematics," by E.
M.
Hafner, Edueation
Deiselopment Center
Film Studio, Newton,

Mass., 1959.)
Time
'For further reading see, for instance, An Introduction to the Physics of Mass,
Length and Time, by N. Fealher, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh,
1959. On the matler of time in parlicular, which probably holds the greatest
books and articles are recommended: J. T. Fraser (ed.),

The Voices ofTime, Gcorgc Braziller, New York, 1966; T. Gold and D. L.
Schumacher (eds.), The Nature of Time, Corncll University Press, Ithaca,
N. Y., 1967; G. M. Clemence, "Siandards ofTime and Frequency," Science,
123, 567 (1956); Lee Coe, "The Nature of Time," Am. J. Phys., 37, 810
(1969); Richard Schlegel, Time and the Physical World, Dover, New York,
interest, the following
1968.
66
'
terms of a space-time graph in which, as a
rule, thc
time
is re-
garded as an independent variable, plotted along the abscissa,
and the position

such a graph.
way
is
It
plotted along the ordinate. Figurc 2-13 shows
has the great merit that
it
conveys directly, in a
that a numerical table cannot, a complete picture of
One can immcdiately
motion.
minimum
from the
distance
identify points of
a given
maximum and
origin, regions of time in
which the
motion temporarily ccases altogether, and so on.
VELOCITY
The
central concept in the quantitative description of
that of velocity.
It is
The
vcctor.
motion
is
quantitative measure of
velocity, in the case of one-dimensional motion,
is
one of the
we can extract from a space-time

graph such as Fig. 2-13. Our way of designating velocities
miles per hour, meters per second, and so on
is a constant
first
pieces of information that
reminder of thc fact that velocity
is
these separatc mcasures of spacc
and
you that although physicists

of measurcment of
based on
Has it ever struck
have invcntcd names for the units
a deriued quantity,
time.
of physical quantitics, they have
all sorts
never introduced special names for units of velocity?
men have done
though, with their unit the knot, equal to
it,
nautical mile per hour.)
In nature
otherwise, for although
we have not
that
directly rccognizablc as a
is
length or time,
magnitude
c
It
we do
find a
itself,
things
seem to be quite
as yet idcntified anything
fundamental natural unit of
thc
fundamental unit of velocity
(c) of the velocity of light in
(2.997925
(Seafaring
0.000001)
has become customary in
empty space:
10 8 m/sec
high-energy partiele physics to
express velocities as fraetions of
c.
And
in connection with high-speed (light, the
in a
comparable way,
Mach number
is
used
to express the speed of an aireraft as a fraelion or multiple of

the speed of
sound
in air.
But
this
does not alter the fact that
'Such graphical representations of correlated quantities often provide a much

vivid insight into a situalion ihan do numerical tab-
more immediale and
ulations or algebraic formulas, and cven a rough graph, sketehed freehand,

can be a great aid to thinking aboul a situalion. A facility in drawing and
interpreling graphs as cxpressions of physical relalionships is well worth
devcloping.
67
Velocity
our basic description of velocities
is
in
terms of the number of
units of distance per unit of time.
The measurement of a
velocity requires at least
two measure-
ments of the position of an object and the two corresponding

measurements of timc. Let us denote these measurements by
and
(ri, Ij)
and
(r 2 ,
Using these we can deduce the magnitude
2 )-
of what we can
direction
loosely call the average velocity
between those points:
T2U
Vav
t%
However,
this
/l
average velocity
Sometimes we may
interesting quantity.
versus
linc,
(let
not, in
is
most
cases, a very
find that a
us assume a onc-dimensional motion)
graph of s
is
a straight
so that the value of v deduced from any two pairs of values
and
is
the same.
But there
is
What can we do about
problem:
much more
basic and general
defining and evaluating the
an arbitrary instant in a nonuniform motion such as

that represented by Fig. 2-13? The next section is devoted to this
question, which is of fundamental importance to the whole of the
velocity at
mathematical analysis of motion.
INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY
Richard
P.
Feynman
for speeding at
tells
the story of the lady
who
is
caught
60 miles per hour and says to the police ofncer:
"That's impossible,
sir,
was traveling
for only seven minutes."
The lady's objection does not convince us (or the police omcer);
we understand that what is at issue is not the persistence of a
uniform motion for a long time but the property of the motion
as measured over a time interval that might be arbitrarily short.
In order to talk about this in specific terms, imagine that alongside a straight section of a
point, P,
we have placed
road in each direction from a chosen

a set of equally spaced poles, say at
Feynman with entertaining and instructive

can be found in The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I (R. P.
Feynman, R. B. Leighton, and M. Sands, eds.), Addison-Wesley, Reading,
Mass., 1963. These lectures, of wonderful freshness and originality, range
over the whole of physics and provide rich and exciting fare for everyone,
whether a beginner or a veteran in the subject. Feynman, one of the most
outstanding physicists of our time, was awarded the Nobel prize in 1966 for
'This story, further embellished by
details,
his
68
fundamental contributions to quantum
field theory.
Fig.
2-14
Arrange-
menl for inferring the

instantaneous velocity
of a car as
it
passes
the point P.
5-meter intervals (see Fig. 2-14).
On
clock with a sweep second hand.
The
and run continuously.

pole, so as to
each pole
movie camera
is
an
electric
clocks are synchronized

is
placed opposite each
photograph the pole, the clock
face,
and the road.
A car comes along the road; the cameras are set running and
photographic records are developed.
of a race. Each film
the front
pole.
will
is
more or
For a given pair
let
m) and let the

Then the ratio As/A/
range of distance
Ax
and
after the central point P.
differcnce of time readings be

is
the average velocity over the
centered on P.
Now
motion of the car has been extraordinarily

be fitted by a
smooth curve
values of As.
We
=
is
We
the value of As/A/ at A/
(a)
Eual-
taneous velocity ds/dt
by extrapolation
to
of a graph of
against As.
{b) Evalualion of the
instantaneous velocity
ds/dt by extrapolation
WAt =
of a
graph ofAs/At
against At.
69
it
can
baekward, and the value of
could equally well plot the values of
intervals A/, as
ualion ofthe instan-
As m
As/At
erratic, the points
our measure of the instantaneous velocity
at the central point P.
2-15
Unless the
that flattens out for the smaller
extrapolate
As/A/ against the time
Fig.
construct a graph, as
2-1 5(a), of As/A/ as a funetion of As.
in Fig.
As/A/ for As
exactly in line with the
the separation in distance be called As (a
multiple of 10
shown
less
assemble the records. Take the data for the poles
in pairs, equal distances before
called A;.
the
the photofinish
contain one frame in which, let us say,
bumper of the car
We now
It is like
Instantaneous velocity
is
shown
in Fig.
2- 15 (b);
again the same, even though the
The "slope" of a graph ofone physica!
2-16
Fig.
guantity against another

is
is
not primarily geometrical;
defined by the ratio of the changes
measured in whatever
each
unils are appropriale.
looks somewhat different.

And here, in physical
what we mean by evaluating the limit of the average
when the range of position or time over which As/At is
graph
itself
terms,
is
velocity,
A Q and Aq,
evaluated
shrunk to zero.
is
The process described above corresponds
matical process of determining a derivative
displacement with respect to time.
Using the Standard calculus
the context of the above discussion almost
notation, which
in
speaks for
we write
itself,
to the mathe-
in this case, of
instantaneous velocity o
=
dt
lim
(2-5)
A-oA/
The
synonym
quantity ds/dl, a
for the limit of As/At,
is,
in
mathe-
matical parlance, the
first
geometrical terms,
reprcsents the slope of (a tangent to) the
graph of s versus
it
derivative of 5 with respect to
at a particular value of
In
t.
t.
[A note concerning the mcaning of the word "slope"

graphs of physical data
Fig.
2-16
is
in
is
order.
The graph
e. g.,
in
as in
a display of the numerical measure of one physical
quantity plotted against the numerical measure of another, using
and dictated by convenience

no physical significance to the
measured by a protractor. By "slope"
scales that are entirely arbitrary
Thus
alone.
there
is,
in general,
inclination of such a line as
we mean simply
the ratio of the change in the quantity repre-
sented on the ordinate to the corresponding change in the quantity
represented on the abscissa e.g.,
(Q 2
<2i)/(<72
<7i)-
In
numerator and denominator are each a pure number
this ratio,
times a unit, and the slope
then expressible as the quotient of
is
these numbers, labeled with
its
own
characteristic units
e.g.,
metcrs per second.]
same
If the
ideas as above are applied to changes with time
of the displacement in space,
we
arrive at a general definition
of instantaneous velocity as a veetor:

..
= hm
Ar
= dt
dt
In Fig. 2-17(a)
Clearly,
(2-6)
ArO Ar
if
wc
we
indicate
what the evaluation of Ar
as in Fig. 2-17(b), the instantaneous velocity veetor
70
entails.
display the path of an object as a continuous curve,
is
tangent
Fig.
2-17
diagram
(a) Vector
to define
small chaiige ofposition.
(b) Instan-
taneous velocity vector, tangent to the
path.
to this curvc; this
With
this
is
implicit in the definition.
departurc from straight-line notion, we shall draw
attention to the distinetion that
is
made
technically (but not
always faithfully observed) bctwcen the words velocity and speed.
The speed
thus,
by
is
the magnitude of the vector velocity v.
definition, a positive, scalar quantity.
The
The spced
is
o that figures
in our analysis of straight-line motion has, in faet, represented
the velocity;
it
may
which of course
direetion of
Even
if
is
motion
we
take on negative as well as positive values,

all
the information needed to specify the
in the
one-dimensional case.
are dealing with motion along a single straight
line,
the use of the vectorial deseription of position and velocity
will
be necessary
Fig.
2-18
if
displacements are referred to an origin not
(a) Vector positions in a straight-line motion,
referred to an origin not
on
the line.
diagram for a curvilinear path.
71
Instantancous velocity
(b)
Corresponding
on the
line itself.
because
in fact, a very instructive thing to consider
It is,
motion from
a straight-line
this
point of view [see Fig. 2-18(a)],
helps us to scc the one-dimensional situation in
it
We
larger context.
can become
displacement vcctor Ar
the position vcctor
in general, in
a different direction from
when the latter is referred to an arbitrary

makcs the transition from the description of
r,
This then
origin O.
is,
its
accustomed to the idea that the
a rectilinear path to the description of an arbitrary curved path
scem
[Fig. 2-18(b)]
although
may
it
less abrupt.
It
also emphasizes the fact that
be very convcnient,
in the
motion, to choose an origin on the line
may
necessary and
case of straight-line
itself, this is
certainly not
not always be possible.
RELATIVE VELOCITY AND RELATIVE MOTION

Sincc the vector velocity
the time derivative of the vector dis-
is
placement, the velocity of one object relative to another
is
just
Thus
if
one
the vector difference of the individual velocities.

object
is
from object
R =
The
and another object
at r!
r2
to object 2
Vm
at r 2 , the vector distance
given by
is
- n
rate of changc of
to object
is
then the velocity, V, of object 2 relative
is
and wc have
-
dt
dt
dt
i.e.,
V =
v2
~7)
(2
vi
This relative velocity
is
the velocity of object 2 in a frame of
reference attached to object
1.
In diseussing frames of reference earlier in this chapter,

we pointed out how the choice of some particular frame of
reference may be advantageous because it gives us the clearest
what is going on. Nothing could illustrate this better

than the practical problems of navigation and the avoidance of
collisions at sea or in the air. Imagine, for example, two ships
picture of
that at
some
instant arc in the situation
shown
in Fig. 2-19(a).
The veetors v, and v 2 represent their velocities (which we take to

be constant) with respect to the body of water in which they both
72
Fig.2-19
(a)Paths
of two ships moving

at consiam velocity
along courses that
intersect.
ship
(b)
Path of
relative to ship
A, showing that they
do not
collide even
lhough their paths

cross.
move.
The paths of
motion from the
the ships, extended along the directions of

points
initial
Will the ships collide, or
The answer
distance?
B, intersect at a point P.
to this question
ocean frame, but
stiek to the
A and
they pass one another at a safe
will
if
we
is
not at
all elear if
deseribe things
we
from the
standpoint of one of the two ships the analysis becomes very

straightforward. Let us imagine that
we
are standing on the deck
of the ship marked A Putting ourselves in that frame of reference

means giving ourselves the velocity Vi with respect to the water.
But from our standpoint it is as if the water, and everything else,
were given a velocity equal and opposite to vj. Thus to every
motion as observed in the ocean frame we add the veetor Vi,
as implied by Eq. (2-7). This automatically, and by definition,
.
brings
to rest, as
it
were, and shows us that the velocity of the
ship B, relative to A,
and V],
the ships
as
is
shown
is
obtained by combining the veetors v 2
in Fig.
can see the whole picture.

indicated
miss
by
A by
veetor distance between
So now we
line shown, as
follows the straight
several successive positions in the diagram.
the distance
to the line of V.
is
The
2-1 9(b).
unaffected by this change of viewpoint.
AN,
The time
equal to the distance
at
the perpendicular distance
which
BN divided
this elosest
It will
from A
approach oecurs
by the magnitude of V. Thus
seems to sweep aeross /4 's bow, more or less sideways. If you

have had oceasion to observe a elose encounter of this sort,
especially if it is out on the open water with no landmarks in
sight,
73
you
will
know
Relative velocity
that
and
it
can be a curious experience, quite
relative
motion
disturbing to the intuitions, because the observed motion of the
other ship seems to be unrelated to the direction in which
it is
pointing.
PLANETARY MOTIONS: PTOLEMY VERSUS COPERNICUS

Some
and
of the most fascinating problems in the study of motion,
in particular
of
its relative
character, have arisen in man's
attempts to elucidate the motions of the heavenly bodies, including our

the
first
own
earth, through space. Observational astronomy,
of the exact sciences, has yielded data of marvelous
accuracy for several thousand years. But the question has always
been
how
to interpret these data.
main features of the problem.

The first thing to recognize
Fig.
2-20
(a)
Palh
of Venus omong the

stars during a 6-
month period, showing

reoersed (retrograde)
motion at one stage.
(b) Similar set
ofob-
servalions on Mars.
{.Both
E.
M.
diagrams after
Rogers,
Physics for the Inquiring Mind,
Princeton Uniuersity
Press, Princeton,
N. J., 1960.)
IA
is
Let us consider some of the
that naked-eye
astronomy
is,
almost exclusively, the study of directions rather than distancei
These unaided observations reveal nothing about the distances

of the
The great Greek astronomers Aristarchus (third

and Hipparchus (~150b.c.) did make reasoned
stars.
century B.c.)
moon
estimates of the distances of sun and

successfully),
(the latter very
but the only direct clues to the distances of the
'
planets are through such quantitative evidence as changes of
apparent brightness with time, suggesting that whatever the

distances of the planets
from the earth may be, they undergo
systematic variations. Thus, as
the practice, the positions
is still
of astronomical objects are defined in the

of their directions only (this being
all
a telescope) and can be described as
first
we need
if
place in terms
they were points on the
surface of a sphere of large but arbitrary radius
with
sphere
its
own
In these terms the primary data
It is
the
celestial
center at the earth, and with a polar axis and an
equator defined by the earth's
are of the type
them with
to find
shown
axis of rotation
(cf.
Fig. 2-2).
on the motions of the planets
in Fig. 2-20.
already a tribute to the genius of the early astronomers
that they were able to visualize such strange-looking paths as
the projections,
on the
celestial sphere,
of orbital motions of
In particular, the belief took hold that the orbits
various kinds.
must be combinations of circular motions. This is not the place

to go into a detailed account of the problem; some outstandingly
2
Instead, we shall simply focuson
fine accounts exist elsewhere.
an idealized presentation of the two main models: an earthcentered
(geocentric)
or
sun-centered
(heliocentric)
solar
system.
The most
intuitively reasonable picture of the universe, in
terms of everyday experience,
is
undoubtedly one that places
the earth at the center of everything.
Not one
of us, without
benefit of hindsight, could interpret his first impressions in
any
other way, and the ancient descriptions, such as the biblical one
in Genesis, are entirely justifiable in these terms.
Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy (150 a.d.)

picture into
It
who
was the
built this
a quantitative model of planetary motions and
'See the problems at the end of this chapter,
and
also
Chapter
8.
M.
Rogers, Phyiics for the Inguiring Mind, Princeton

University Press, Princeton, N.J., 1960, Chaps. 12-18, or E. C. Kemble,
2
See, for example, E.
Physical Science,
lis
Structure and Developmenl,
Mass., 1966, Chaps. 1-5; or any of a
MIT
Press,
Cambridge,
number of excellent books on elementary
astronomy.
75
Fig.
2-21
in the
Apparent matian of a planet as explained
(a)
Ptolemaic syslem. The planet
epicycle whose center

the earth, E.
{b)
C follows a
P moues on
Copernican explanation ofobserved
The epicycle of (a) Is seen as being a

of the earth' s own motion around the sun.
motion.
described
earth's daily rotation, the
be
The motion of a
planet,
is
approximated by imagining that a point
closely
fairly
an approximately
year, around the earth, E, as
however, is compound. It can
motion of the sun
circular path, with a period of
Figure 2-21 (a)
Setting aside the effects of the
illustrates the essential features.
center.
reflection
work, the Almagest.
in his great
it
the
circular path around
around a circular path, and that the planet, P,

another circular path with respect to C as center. This
travels uniformly
travels in
extra circle
motions,
is
called an epicycle; the
combination of these two
they are in the same plane, gives rise to a complicated
if
path that can have backward loops as shown. Precisely the same
result
would be obtained
circles.
If
it
we
onto the
celestial
this
motion from the
earth,
and
sphere or to any other constant
obtain almost the kind of variation of angular posi-
We
can come even closer by

the plane of the epicycle out of the plane of the primary
tion that
path,
is
shown
which
in Fig. 2-20.
carries the
the celestial sphere,
76
the roles of the two
(Verify this.)
distance,
This
we interchanged
we now imagine viewing
projecting
tilting
if
is
sun eastward through the constellations around
known
as the ecliptic.
circle
little.
To
the motion of a particular planet
fit
it is
neces-
sary to choose appropriate values for the ratio of the radii of the
two
and also for the times to make one complete circuit

a noteworthy fact that in two cases (Mercury and
circles
of each.
It is
Venus) the period of the primary circle is exactly 1 sidereal year

(i.e., the period for one complete orbit of the sun around the
ecliptic),
and
in the
other three cases (Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn)
the period of the epicycle
is
Indeed, this can be
sidereal year.
taken as the crucial clue to what
we now regard
as the truer
picture.
Suppose that we now place the sun

Fig. 2-21 (b),
and make the earth
same radius
the
planet, P, travels
at the center, as in
around a
travel
circle that
has
Then
the
as the epicycle in Fig. 2-21 (a).
around another simple
circle,
if
of radius equal
to that of the primary circle in Fig. 2-21 (a), the relative positions
velocities of
and
We
before.
E and P
can be made precisely the same as
have drawn the positions of
and
in the
The reason
diagrams to display this exact correspondence.
the appearance of the sidereal year in one or other of the
two
for
two
component motions of a planet in the Ptolemaic model is now

very clear, and much of the arbitrariness of the whole description
disappears.
It is this
new, heliocentric, description with which we
name of Copernicus. He presented it in great detail

principal work, De Revolutionibus Orbiwn Celestium
associate the
in
his
("On
the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres") published in

Actually, the
1543, the year of his death.
the sun occupied the central position
years earlier by Aristarchus,

that the sun
was much
suggestion that
who from
other observations
knew
bigger than the earth (although he seri-
ously underestimated just
no
first
had been made about 1800
how huge and
distant
it
is).
There
is
was developed
interesting, by the
record, however, that the heliocentric theory
in quantitative detail
before Copernicus.
It is
way, to note his clear understanding of the relativity of motion.
Here
"For
is
a translation of
all
change
his
in position
own
which
statement of the principle:

is
seen
is
due to a motion
either of the observer or of the thing looked at, or to changes in
the position of both, provided that these are different.

things are
is
moved equally
same
things,
For when
no motion
perceived, as between the object seen and the observer."
'From Arthur
New
77
relatively to the
Berry,
Short History of Astronomy, Dover
Publications,
York, 1961.
Given the
persistent intrusion of the sidereal year into the
Ptolemaic scheme,
may seem
it
surprising that the heliocentric
much
picture did not prevail at a
when
earlier stage, especially
had been recognized by Aristarchus about 400 years
its possibility
before Ptolemy's day.
It
must be remembered, however, that
we have been
presenting a greatly oversimplified model of the
system,
and the ancient astronomers were legitimately
solar
worried over discrepancies between thcse idcalized models
numerous auxiliary
introduce
were driven to
nicus
and
Both Ptolcmy and Coper-
the precise, hard facts of observation.
circular
motions to obtain even approximate agreement between theory
and observation. The Copernican scheme, in the form in which

Copernicus himself developed it, was not in fact notably less
Not until the
arbitrary or less complex than the Ptolemaic.
theory could free
itself
of the
of
cirele as the basis
motion was a fundamental solution to be
all celestial
finally attained, al-
though the introduetion of dynamical considerations

of foree and the laws of motion
the
laws
transformed the context within
which the observations were interpreted.

these questions in Chaptcr 8 and,
more
We
shall
fully, in
come back
Chaptcr
to
13.
PROBLEMS
2-1
Slarting from a point that can be laken as the origin,
travels
30 miles northeast
a course that heads
in a
SSW
straight line,
a.
ship
and then 40 miles on
making a countcrclockwise
Find the x and
eastward, y northward) and its
direetion
(a
angle of 247^ with a reference linc drawn eastward).
y coordinates of
its final
posilion (x
distance from the slarting point.
2-2
The
scalar (dot) produet of
ABcosOah, where 6 mi
(a) By expressing
nents, show that
cos d a u
(b)
is
B,
is
equal to
the
relation
between rectangular and spherical
show
two points (R,
and (R,
6\, <p\)
cos0i2 = cos0i cos 62
compo-
A,B Z
polar coordinates [Eq. (2-4)],

radii to
veetors,
the veetors in terms of their Cartesian
A Z BX + AyBy
AB
By using
two
the angle between the veetors.
that the angle 0i2

02, <P2)
sin 0i sin
between the
on a sphere
$2 cos (^2
is
given by
<pi)
(Notc that the distance between the two points as measured along the
78
Space, timc, and motion
them is equal to Rd 12, where 0i2 is

This can be used, for example, to calculate
great circle that passes through
expressed in radians.
mileages between points on the earth's surface.)
2-3
New
Calculate the Cartesian coordinates of
(a)
N, 74 W) and Sydney, Australia
(41
(34 S, 151 E).
York, U.S.A.
Take an
origin
of coordinates at the earth's center, with a z axis through the north
x axis passing through the equator at

mean radius is 6370 km.
pole and an
The
earth's
the zero of longitude.
Find the distance along an imaginary straight tunnel bored
(b)
through the earth between
Compare
(c)
New York and
Sydney.
the result of (b) with the shortest practicable route
between these points by a great-circle
You
flight.
can either calculate
using the result of Problem 2-2(b), or measure
this,
directly
it
on a
globe with the help of a piece of string.
2-4
(a) Starting
from a point on the cquator of a sphere of radius R,
a partiele travels through an angle
a eastward and
then through an
angle /3 along a great circle toward the north pole. If the
of the point
is
that
coordinates are
its final
x2
Verify that
= R2
tiele if it first travels
of the same par-
final position
through an angle
a northward,
course by 90 and travels through an angle
/3
then changes
along a great
circle that
out eastward.
starts
Show
(c)
that
the straight-line distance
points of the displacements in (a) and (b)
As 2 = 2 2 (sin/3
sin
Using the above
(d)
(1)
is
As between
the
end
given by
a cos P) 2
result,
(p. 60) that there is a difference
of
position
Find the coordinates of the
(b)
initial
x R, y = 0, z = 0, show
R cos a cos /3, R sin a cos /3, and R sin 0.
taken to correspond to
check the statement
in
the text
of about 40 miles in the end points
a displacement of 1000 miles eastward on the earth along the
equator, followed by a displacement 1000 miles north, and (2) a dis-
placement of 1000 miles north, followed by a displacement of 1000

miles starting out eastward on another great circle.
The approximation
1000 miles.
cos 6 s 1
(Put
2
d /2
Ra = Rp =
will
be found
useful.)
2-5
If
you found yoursclf transported to an unfamiliar
planet,
what
methods could you suggest
To
To
(a)
(b)
2-6
The
verify that the planet is spherical?
find the value
of
radius of the earth
its
radius?
was found more than 2000 years ago by
Eratosthenes through a brilliant piece of analysis.

andria, at the
day at noon,
He
79
also
the Nile,
the sun's rays
knew
Problcms
mouth of
and observed
were at 7.2 to the
He
lived at Alex-
that on
midsummer
vertical (see the figure).
that the people living at a placc 500 miles south of
^-AleKandria
7.2
Equator
/
/
/ 500
milesi\
sun
Alexandria saw the sun as being directly overhead at the same date
and time. From
this
What was
the earth's radius.
2-7
It
information, Eratosthenes deduced the value of

his
answer?
has been suggested that a fundamental unit of length
is
repre-
a nucleon diameter, and that a

represented by the time it would take a
sented by a distance about equal to
fundamental unit of time

light signal
(i.e.,
Express the radius of the universe and the age
a nucleon diameter.
of the universe
2-8
in
particle
fiecting walls at
is
the fastest kind of signal achievable) to travel across
terms of these units, and ponder the
is
confined to motion along the x axis between re-
and x =
x =
Between these two
a.
freely at constant velocity. Construct a space-time

(a) If the walls
upon each
i>2
A particle that starts at x
collides with
an
v/2. Construct
and after collision
(a) For the case that
moves
upon reaching
the magnitude of the velocity
is
foi).
at
with velocity
identical particle that starts at
velocity
it
changes sign but not magnitude.
reflection
reduced by a factor/(i.e.,
2-9
limits
graph of its motion
are perfectly reflecting, so that
either wali the particle's velocity
(b) If
results.
x = xo
+v (along x)
= with
at /
a space-time graph of the motion before
the particles collide elastically, exchanging
velocities.
(b)
2-10
tion
is
r(f)
For the case that the
particle
given by
(a)
xi
moves along
x =
particles stick together
the curve
= Ax
upon impact.
such that
its
posi-
Bt.
Express the vector position of the particle in the form
+ yy
(b) Calculate the speed v
path at an arbitrary instant
2-11 The refraction of

considerations.
80
We
(=
ds/di) of the particle along this
/.
light
may be understood by
need to assume that
purely kinematic
light takes
the shortest
(timewise) path between two points (Fermat's principle of least time).
Referring to the figure,
medium
point
2,
it
medium
1 be vi and
go from point A
in
Minimize with respect to
x.
the speed of light in
let
Calculate the time
i?2-
takes light to
as a function of the variable x.
to
Given that
vi
where the
and
c/rti
n's are
V2
known
c/ri2
as indices of refraction, prove Snell's law of
refraction:
i sinfli
/2sin02
2-12 At 12:00 hours ship

port.
the
It is
is
10
km east and 20 km north
of a certain
steaming at 40 km/hr in a direction 30 east of north.
same time
ship
is
50
km east and
40
At
km north of the port, and
is
steaming at 20 km/hr in a direction 30 west of north.
Draw
(a)
a diagram of this situation,
and
find the velocity of
relative to A.
(b) If the ships continue to
is
their closest distance to
2-13 The distance from
the above velocities, what
to
is /.
plane
fiies
occur ?
it
a straight course
V relative
from
air.
Calculate the total time taken for this round trip
speed v
to
is
(a)
B and
move with
one another and when does
back again with a constant speed
if
to the
a wind of
blowing in the following directions:
Along
the line
from A
to B.
(b) Perpendicular to this line.

(c)
At an angle d
Show that the
to this line.
time of the round trip
is
always increased by the existence
of the wind.
2-14
ship
is
steaming parallel to a straight coastline, distance
offshore, at speed V.
A coastguard cutter, whose speed
out from a port to intcrcept the ship.
81
Problems
is
< V) sets
q^*
*
-o=
-f:
Port
(a)
Show
that the cutter
point a distance
D(V 2
must
start
out before the ship passes a
v 2 ) 1 ' 2 1o back along the coast.
(H ini: Draw
a vector diagram to show the vclocity of the cutter as seen from the
ship.)
(b) Tf the cutter starts
and when does
out at the
latest possible
moment, where
reach the ship ?
2-15 With respect to the "fixed
Bulge rotates
to keep pace
with
it
stars/' the earth rotates once
on
its
one sidereal day that is how the sidereal day is defined.

(a) The length of the year is about 366 sidereal days. By what
axis in
moon-
amount
sidereal
is
the
mean
solar day (from
day ?
(b)
The moon completes one
27.3 sidereal days.
That
is,
in this
orbit with respect to the stars in
time the line from earth to
turns through 360 with respect to the

Êarth's daily
responding high tides
on
is
longer than
moon. (The high
bulge at a fixed direetion with respect to the
Show
2-16
that the daily lag is elose to 50.5

(a)
The
orbital radii of
min
tide
moonsee
(60
min =
cor-
solar day
is
an ocean
the figure.)
solar day).
Venus and Mars are 0.72 and
the radius of the earth 's orbit.
moon
The time between
stars.
successive days
(24 hr) because of this motion of the
rotation
to noon) longer than the
noon
1.52 times
Their periods are about 0.62 and
.88
Using these data, construct diagrams by which

the apparent angular positions of Venus and Mars change
times the earth's year.

to find
how
with time as seen from the earth, assuming that the orbits of
planets
lie in
(b)
the
same
plane.
With respect to the
Compare your
ecliptic (the
orbit) the planes of the orbits of
all
three
results with Fig. 2-20.
plane of the earth's
Venus and Mars are
tilted
own
by about
and 2, respectively. Consider how the apparent paths of Venus

and Mars are affected by this additional feature.
3.5
2-17
(a)
What methods can you suggest for finding the distance from
moon (without using radar or space fiight) ?
the earth to the
Moon
82
(b)
The astronomer Hipparchus, more than 2000 years
ago,
found the distance of the moon as a multiple of the earth's radius by

observing the duration of a total eclipse of the
(see the figure).
The rays from
about 5, and the

(the
same
days to
hr.
moon
itself
Use
and
by the earth
subtends an angle of just about ^
as the sun within about
circle the earth,
moon
the sun have a spread of directions of
2%).
The moon
takes about 29
the duration of the total eclipse
these data to obtain the
moon's
is
about
distance.
2-18 The astronomer Aristarchus had the idea of comparing the

distances of the sun
Moon
and the moon from the earth by measuring the

when the moon was exactly half
angular separation 6 between them

full
(see the figure).
Using our present knowledge of what these
distances are, criticize the feasibility of the method. Aristarchus

6
87.
What
result
would
this
really is
on earth -
angle were uncertain by 0.1.
Problems
found
Calculate what the angle
and what error would be introduced
Observer
83
imply?
in the distance if this
At present
it is
the purpose of our Author merely to
investigate
and
to demonstrate
some of the properties of
accelerated motion (whatever the cause of this acceleration
may
be).
galileo, Dialogues Concerning
Two New
Sciences (1638)
Accelerated motions
ACCELERATION
from THn purely
of motion
descriptive point of view, the central feature
velocity
is
the
instantaneous rate of change of
But we must dig a
position with time.
deeper to get to the
little
quantity that proves to be the crucial one in relating motion per
motion as governed by forces (dynamics).
se (kinematics) to
This
is
acceleration, the rate of
Again we
change of velocity with time.
develop the basic ideas
shall
context of straight-line motion.
in
the
first
instance in the
If the instantaneous velocity
linear function of time, as in Fig. 3-1 (a), then
found to be a
conclude that the instantaneous acceleration
is
the
same
is
we
at all
times and equal to the slope of the graph as evaluated from any
two points on
it.
on the other hand, the values of the instan-
If,
taneous velocity define some sort of curve, as

then we must obtain
ticular value of
by
in Fig.
3-1 (b),
the instantaneous acceleration at a par-
a limiting process:
instantaneous acceleration a
dv
A?
a,_o
Ad
i-
lim
..
,.
(3-1)
di
Thus
the acceleration
'The units
in
which
is
the
first
derivative of the velocity with
this is expressed will
velocity divided by whatever unit of time
the acceleration of
a car
is
be defined by our chosen unit of

found convenient. For example,
is
expressed most effectively and vividly in m.p.h.
more analytical treatment of motions it is almost

essential to use the same time units throughout, e.g., expressing velocities
2
Otherwise, when we see a symbol
in m/sec and accelerations in m/sec
such as i/, we have to stop and ask ourselves which of the different units it is
measured in, and that makes for confusion and error.
per second.
But
in
the
85
3-1 (a) Oraph

ofv versus t for a
Fig.
uniformly acceleraled
motion. (b) Motion
with varying acceleration.
In the indicated
time interval Al ihe

acceleralion is
negative.
respect to time.
we
however,
If,
wish to
tie
our definition of
acceleration to a priinary record of position against time, then
wc can
write
it
as the second derivative of s with respect to
/:
(3-2)
In general,
we must be ready
to take into account a variation of
velocity in direction as well as magnitude.
This then requircs
us to considcr the acceleration explicitly as a vector quantity.

Just as
so
we previously considered
now we can show
vectorial changes of position,
the instantaneous velocity vectors at two
neighboring instants, as
in Fig. 3-2,
and can proceed
to a state-
ment of the instantaneous vector acceleration, a:

..
Av
dv
'-ôAt-di-dfi
As
reason
far as kinematics
why we should
by
itself is
stop here.
is no good
and evaluate
concerned, there
We could
define
the rate of change of acceleration, but in general this does not
represent information of any basic physical interest, and so our

discussion of mechanics
is
based almost exclusively on the three
and acceleration.
you have some prior
quantities displacement, velocity,
You may
fcel, cspccially
with calculus, that
v(/
if
we have gone
to excessive lengths in our dis-
A/)
86
Fig.
3-2
bot/i
magnitude and direction.
Small change of a
velocity that is changing in
Accclcratcd motions
familiarity
cussion of instantaneous velocity and acceleration.
mistake about
But make no
The notion
these are very subtle concepts.
it;
an object could both be at a certain point and moving past

was one that perplexed some of the best minds of
that
that point
antiquity. Indeed,
it is
the subject of one of the famous paradoxes
of the Greek philosopher, Zeno,
who contended
that
if
an object
l
was moving it could not be said to be anywhere.
If you want to test your own mastery of these ideas, try
explaining to someone how an object that is at a certain point
with zero velocity
move away from
(i. e.,
instantaneously at rest) can nonetheless
that point by virtue of having an acceleration.
It really isn't trivial.
THE ANALYSIS OF STRAIGHT-LINE MOTION

Given a detailed record of position versus time
motion, the procedures that
the associated
we have
shows an example of
in Fig. 3-3,
this.
The
and acceleration.
variations of velocity
sequence of diagrams
a straight-line
in
described enable us to find
going from top to bottom,
But how about the converse of
this
process: given the acceleration as a function of time, to infer the
graphs of velocity and displacement?

velocity
doing
The
basic definitions of
and acceleration suggest the appropriate procedure for
From Eq.
this.
(3-1)
we
see that the
change of velocity Av
in a short time At is given, at least approximately,
by the equation
Av = aAt
Of course, "approximately"
that the smaller we choose
is
not good enough, but we recognize
At to be, the
accurate statement of the change of
In Fig. 3-4(a)
graphical presentation.
celeration versus time
it
more nearly
we show
cuts aeross the curve of a versus
a graph of ac-
t.
From
strip, the
there
top of which
it is
a short step
to concluding that the over-all change of v between
tributions.
is
obtained by summing
(We
also negative.)
'On a
all
such rectangular con-
We
87
The
then imagine that the widths At are
object with arbitrarily high precision.
motion
made
quanlum mechanies
and the velocity of a
quite different basis, the uncertainty principle of
analysis of straight-line
is
and hence the change of v,
expresses our inability to measure both the position
moving
two given
must, of course, recognize that wherever a
negative, the area represented by a At,

is
Av an
then becomes apparent that a At can be
read as the area of a narrow rectangular
values of
is
Again we resort to a
v.
(a)
Fig.
3-3
Sel ofre-
lated graphs showing

the time dependence
of
(a) posilion,
(b) velocity,
and
(c) acceleralion.
vanishingly small so that the

this limit, with the area
This
is
u2
sum
of
all
the strips coincides, in
under the smooth curve of a versus
t.
then written mathematically as a definite integral:
01
wherc we write
sidered as a
(3-3)
aU) di
a(t) to
show
specific function
evaluated up to
some
that the acceleration
of time.
indefinite
time
zero of time at which the velocity
00
is
/,
Most
starting
.
is
to be con-
often this integral
is
from some choscn
Thus we put
(3-4)
fl(0 di
Notice, then, that our integral, starting from knowledge of the

acceleration as a function of time, gives us only the change of
velocity during the time
t
88
(or at
some
/.
Information about the value of v at
other specific time)
Accelcratcd motions
must be supplied sep-
(b)
(a)
Fig.
3-4
(a) Graphical integration
o/a graph of
acceleration versus time to find change ofvelocity.
of velocity-time graph
(b) Graphical integration
to find
displacement.
arately; v
requires
is
a typical example of a constant of integration that
some knowledge of
the initial conditions
or
of the
any one value of t.
specific value of v at
In like manner, given the curve such as that of Fig. 3-4(b)
of v against
(which
may
represent the initial data or
may
itself
have come from the above integration of the acceleration function)
we can proceed
to find the distance traveled.
It is
represented
by the area contained between the velocity-time curve, the
and
the ordinates at
S2
si
two given values of
axis,
t:
(3-5)
v(t) dt
up to
most usual to evaluate the integral from / =
an arbitrary time, and again a constant of integration the
must be supplied
position s o at t =
Again
it is
Very
Si)
(3-6)
v(t) dt
often, of course,
it
is
possible to choose Sq
0,
but one
should never forget that the area included under the velocitytime graph gives us only the change of position.
The
a
first
simplest applications of these kinematic equations, for
or a
constant, are undoubtedly familiar to you.
case the velocity-time graph
in Fig. 3-5(a).
89
The
If
is
the acceleration
analysis of straight-line
In the
simply a rectangle, as shown

is
constant (but not zero),
motion
Fig.
3-5
(a) Veloc-
ity-time graph for the

special case ofzero
acceleration.
(b)
Velocity-lime graph
for a constant
(positice) acceleration.
is
given by
is
The magnitude of
appropriate.
Fig. 3-5(b)
celeration
a = slope =
the constant ac-
do
This conforms to the definition of acceleration in Eq. (3-1).

If
we took
a as given, then
we would
obtain this same result by
integration, according to Eq. (3-4),
DO
The area
/ dt
Jo
(3-7)
at
in Fig. 3-5(b) that represents the distance traveled
can be thought of as made up of the two shaded regions as shown.
Hence
s
so
Combining
s
so
vot
the last
Dot
\{o
Uo)l
two equations, we
get
\at 2
result of evaluating the
which we can recognize also as the

integral in Eq. (3-6) with v(l)
so
(dq
+ at) dt
=
=
Dot
+
+
at:
(3-8)
%at
./o
It is
sometimes convenient to remove
the time, by
o2
90
combining Eqs. (3-7) and

2
2a(s
so)
Accelerated motions
all explicit
(3-8).
reference to
This gives us
(3-9)
For ease of reference, we repeat these equations below

(
lv
Kinematic
equations
(valid only for constant a){ s
=
=
=
+ at
vq
(3-10a)
+ 2a(s
+o +
useful,
it
(3-10b)
so)
\at 2
Although these mathematical expressions

motion are tidy and extremely
as a group:
for
(3-1 Oc)
accelerated
should be remembered
that a truly constant acceleration is never maintained indefinitely.

that everyone learns to solve
For example, the problems

fail
under gravity, using a constant acceleration
correspond to the
is
Later
there.
less
may
velocities the error
we
on
free
do not
because air resistance causes the ac-
facts,
become
celeration to
g, really
as the velocity increases.
For low
not be big enough to worry about, but
shall be dealing with situations in
it
which the
some mathematically well-defined way

Thus the emphasis will shift away from
Eq. (3-10) and toward the more general statements expressed in
acceleration
varies
in
with position or time.
Eqs. (3-4) and (3-6).

real
problems
in
Another very important factor in solving

Whether or
is the digital computer.
kinematics
not the acceleration
described by a mathematically convenient
function, the actual technique of getting numerical answers to
problems on motion
will
e.g.,
the path of a rocket or a satellite
be the summation of small but
finite contributions, corre-
sponding to the strips of Fig. 3-4. The program for solving

problems in motion is then represented not by mathematical
integrals,
but by equations such as the following:
+&t) =
v(t)
+a(/)Ar
s(/+A/) =
s(l)
+ v(t)At
v(t
s(t)
so
+!>(') A'
There are many problems in motion that can be handled as

one-dimensional problems, even though the space in which
dynamical processes go on
prime reason for
is
this is that
a space of three dimensions.

it
is
often feasible to resolve the
and acceleration into their components in a rectangular coordinate system and then proceed to
work with the separate components. Under these conditions, as
we have mentioned before, it is not necessary to make use of
vectors of position, velocity
vector notation as such, even though
91
The
anaiysis of straight-line
we know
motion
that
we
are dealing
with directional quantities.
becomes
It
sufficient to
axis of reference along the given line of the
choose an
motion and adopt a
convention that selects one direction along this axis as positive
and the opposite direction as

positive
made
we must
of a particular problem
Which we choose
negative.
arbitrary, but having
is
stick to
it.
Directed quantities
final coordinate, x, of a particle
e.g.,
the unstraight
always be taken as measured along the positive direc-
will
line
tion of the axis.
matically
of the
moving along a
that are to be found as a result of a calculation
known
as
a choice for the purpose
tells
In other words,
origin.
comes out
the answer
If
actually inadvisable, because
it
it is
negative, this auto-
on the negative side

not necessary (and may be
us that the final position
is
can lead to confusion) to
inject
preconceived ideas as to which sign or direction a quantity will
be found to have; the mathematics
Example.
10
will
particle starts out at
m with an initial velocity v

= 5 m/sec 2
= 8 sec.
at
acceleration a
and position
do
in the
=
x
it
15
for you.
= from the point

m/sec and a constant
Find
direction.
its
velocity
We have
=
=
o(0
d(8)
oo
+ at
15
= -25
(-5)(8)
m/sec
Also
x(t)
x(8)
Thus at
= x +
= 10 +
ial 2
(15)(8)
|(-5)(8) 2
8 sec the particle has passed back through the origin
to a point on the far side and
8 sec
much
is
shown
information
sees at once
t
sees
how
is
in
is
traveling in the direction of in-
The whole
creasingly negative x.
- -30 m
progress of the motion
provided at a glance
in these
the velocity falls to zero at
6 sec becomes equal and opposite to
how
the
maximum
its
diagrams.
3 sec and at
its initial
One
value.
its initial
and that the
sign,
original displacement (x
reached the negative of
how
One
value of x corresponds to the instant at
which u reaches zero and reverses

returns to
up to
Notice
the two graphs of Fig. 3-6.
at
6 sec
particle
when
has
value v Q so that the total area

,
under the velocity-time curve up to that instant is zero. Even

though this is a very simple and straightforward example, it dis-
92
Acceleratcd motions
m
Fig.
3-6
(a) Veloc-
40
30
ity-time graph for

specific values
tial velocily
of ini-
20
and con-
10>
sianl (negatiue)
acceleration.
(b) Posiiion versus
/-20
timefor the motion

represented in (a).
plays
many
features that are
various details
fit
worthy of note.
And
seeing
how
the
together will greatly strengthen one's grip of
basic kinematics.
A COMMENT ON EXTRANEOUS ROOTS

Occasionally, in turning the mathematical handle in the solution
of the kinematic equations, one cranks out extraneous roots that
are contrary to the physical situation.
How
docs one recognize
these "incorrect" answcrs and when can thcy be discarded?

Many of thcsc cxtraneous answers have their origin in the
problem we always state initial conditions

which specify the situation at the moment we first begin to follow
the motion of the particle at t = 0. Specifying the position and
fact that in solving a
velocity at
does not
tell
us anything whatsoever about the
past dynamical history of the particle.
sequence whatsoever
For example,
from
93
rest at
if
an
A comment
how
lndeed,
it
of no con-
the particle attained these initial values.
we think of the motion of a body
initial
is
falling freely
height h above the earth's surface,
on exlraneous roots
we have
O and
We may
h.
have held the body at
its initial
we may have thrown it

upward so that it rises to a maximum height h. The motion of the
particle subsequent to the instant of time (t = 0) when it was at
position and released
from
it
the height h with zero velocity
The most
i.e.,
for
Eq. (3-10c).
is
identical in
both
cases.
is
the equation
motion with constant acceleration
Mathematically, this
and must be solved
the time
is
frequent source of extraneous roots
relating displacement to time in
or
rest,
is
a quadratic equation
as such if the displacement
is
given and
to be found.
Because
conditions alone do not give us information
initial
about the earlier motion of the
particle (unless additional relevant
data are given), a root of this equation corresponding to a

negative value of
may
not be valid.
To
illustrate this, consider
Suppose we
the problem used as an example in the last section.
ask for the value of
x(t)
Putting
i
10
x =
6t
15?
we
0,
x =
0.
We have
get the following quadratic equation:
with the roots
at which
V 13
6.6 sec or
0.6 sec.
Figure
3-6(b) makes quite apparent the origin of these two roots and
shows how the negative root follows from an extrapolation of the

graph backward into the region of times prior to
may be
quite unjustified.
held the particle at

fired
it
10
off in the positive
We
might,
if
direction with
But that
"Oh
yes, I
and then
its initial
velocity of
15 m/sec." If that were the case, the solution

sec
0.
from the origin until
asked, say:
t
x = Oat* = 0.6
would be a complete fabrication; one would be forced to
recognize that
should
not,
it
simply did not correspond to
One
reality.
however, discard extraneous roots without
asking, in the
way we have
just done, whether there is
first
a clear
physical reason for doing so.
The matter
of extraneous roots has had an interesting con-
sequence in the history of physics.
In quantum mechanics,
developing a relativistically correct equation led to two values

for the total energy of
tive values
were
an electron
positive
and negative. Nega-
initially rejected outright as
having no physical
what meaning can one attach to a kinetic

energy less than zero? However, at a later time, P. A. M. Dirac
investigated more carefully the nature of these negative energy
significance.
94
After
all,
Accelerated motions
Fig.
3-7
Idealized
parabolic trajectory
for motion under gravity in the
absence of
air resistance.
states
and was
led to a highly successful theory of electrons
the existence
predicted
of positrons and
which
other "antimatter"
particles.
TRAJECTORY PROBLEMS
One
is
IN
TWO DIMENSIONS
of the most famous and widely studied problems in motion
that of free
near the earth's surface.
fail
It
provides an
illus-
tration of the fact that, in the rectangular-coordinate system
represented by horizontal and vertical directions, the two ortho-
gonal components of the motion are completely independent

(provided that air resistance is negligible see p. 225). The path
of an object
may be
treated as two, separate motions occurring
simultaneously, and each
not present.
Systems (1632),
We
initial
may be
first
recognized this
shall consider the
speed v
analyzed as
Galileo, in his Dialogue on the
at
an angle
fact.
if
the other were
Two Chief World
motion of an object hurled with

as shown in Fig. 3-7 from a height h
'The accomplishmenls of Galileo Galilei, born in Pisa in 1564, the year of

Shakespeare's birth and Michaelangelo's dealh, are often citetl as the beginning of modern science. Galileo's publication on astronomy, Dialogue
on The Two Chief World Sysiems, incorporated the Copernican model and
led to confiicts with church authorities. While technically a prisoner of the
Inquisition, Galileo turncd to the studies of mechanics and published (1638)
surreptitiously in Holland the results of his investigations "Discourses and
Mathematical Demonsirations Concerning Two New Sciences Pertaining
to Mechanics and Local Motion," commonly referred to as Two New Sciences
(translated, Dover Publications, New York). These books, written largely
in the form of imaginary conversations, have a surprisingly modern flavor,
and impress one with
Galileo's insight
and
intellectual sophistication.
are well worth reading.
95
Trajectory problems in two dimensions
They
above a
level plain.
motion
is
As you know, an approximation
to the actual
obtained by assuming that the horizontal component
of velocity, vz , remains constant and that the vertical component

of velocity, vv ,
g (=
9.8
subject to a constant acceleration of magnitude
is
m/sec 2 ) downward.
the motion
This approximate description of
works well provided that the
of air resistance
effects
are unimportant, which generally speaking requires compact

(dense) objects and fairly low velocities.
Later
we
cases in which the resistive effects are important

idealized picture of the
Let us
now
How
1.
long
What
What
2.
3.
We
see
shall
is
how
to answer the following questions:
the object in flight?
is
the range
is
the velocity
3-8
=
-
t'o
ground?
upward
(y)
we
shall take the positive coordinate
and to the
righl (x).
components are then as shown
The
values of the
components, and
in Fig. 3-8.
Anatysis oflhe motion o/ Fig. 3-7 in terms of
separale horizontal
pt
striking the
final coordinates, the initial velocity
the acceleration
Fig.
(the horizontal distance traveled)?
upon
choose our origin of coordinates at the starting
directions to be
and
and our present-
motion becomes seriously inadequate.
point of the particle, and
initial
shall consider
and
vertical components.
cos e
*-
wmm,
Horizontal
< ! ox
"l
Component
'o
COS
W,,
cos
Vertical
v sin o
e-0
u
H (unknown)
ai
(always)
Component
li
(minus because it is
below the origin of the
coordinate system
g (acceleration due to
gravity)
(a)
96
Accelerated motions
(b)
[A note about
to gravity
32 ft/sec
The
in order here.
g.
acceleration due
In this
book we
shall
denotes the positive quantity equal to 9.8 m/sec
is,
is
to represent the scalar magnitude of this vector.
use the symbol g
That
signs
represented by a vector,
is
This
After a coordinate system has been chosen, and
vector A.
or
convention in which
represents the positive scalar magnitude of any
the symbol
in accord with the usual
is
if
the
y com9.8 m/sec 2 ). In
positive, then the
upward vertical direction is taken to be

ponent of the vector g becomes g (i.e., a y =
some situations it may be convenient to choose the downward
In this case the
direction as positive.
set
We
equal to +g.
y component of g must be
must of course be consistent, within a given
about what we mean by the positive coordinate
calculation,
we
direction, but
are completely free to take whichever choice
please; the actual content of the final answers cannot
on
we
depend
this.]
We
Figs. 3-7
1.
now
return
to the trajectory problem, as depicted in
and 3-8:
How
long
We know
the object in flight?
is
the initial velocity, the initial and final values of
y, and the vertical acceleration. Therefore,
as applied to
motion
in the
except the time of flight
vo y t
+ \ay
direction,
if
we take Eq.
we know
(3-10c),
everything
i.e.,
-h =
We
(do sin 8
)t
solve this equation
\{-g)t 2
and take the positive root as the physically
relevant one.
2.
What
is
the range RP.
Apply Eq. (3-10c) to the horizontal-component problem:

x = v 0z t
ha **
i.e.,
R =
(do cos 0o)t
In this
culation
97
we
(do cos
0oV
substitute the specific value of
1.
Trajectory problems in two dimensions
obtained in cal-
What
3.
the velocity
is
The components of
the value of
Vz
vx
do cos Ba
Then from
may
striking the
=
vv =
oy
azt
4-
ground?
be found from Eq. (3-10b) using
obtained from calculation
upon
io
1.
Oyt
"o sin do
( g)'
components we have
these
Magnitude of
Direction of v
tan d
(v z
vu 2 ) l/2
ov
ox
(In this case tan
downward below
tion pointing
we can
calculate the
represents a direc-
be negative, because
will
the horizontal.)
magnitude of o 2
directly
Alternatively,
from Eq. (3-10b)
as follows:
=
=
o 2
vy 2
Or
v
oo 2 cos 2 0o
2a u y
sin 2 6
2(-*)(-A)
Therefore,
v2
The
oy
direction of v
sin d
2gh
can then be calculated from the relation
FREE FALL OF INDIVIDUAL ATOMS

Atoms moving
of
in
vacuum
cast sharp
traveling in straight lines.
On
shadows and give evidence

it must surely
the other hand,
be true that atoms and molecules, as samples of ordinary matter,

are subject to the usual free fail under gravity at the earth's
surface.
The effect is not very noticeable because evaporated
atoms have high average speedsabout the same as a rifle

bullet
but it is measurable. How far would a beam of atoms
(initially
moving horizontally)
traveling a horizontal distance

illustrates the
lem of the
problem.
last section,
It
fail vertically
under gravity while
at such speeds?
would be just
Figure 3-9(a)
like the trajectory
except that this time
we take
prob-
the horizontal
distance as given and then solvc for the vertical distance y. If an

origin is taken at the point O as shown, from which the atoms
98
Accelerated molions
^
.
*-
Fig.
3-9
tory
ofaloms
vacuum
with
(a)
(a) Trajec-
^^^^.
in
an
inisial
horizontal velocity.
The
vertical displace-
ment
is greatly
gerated.
exag-
{b) Para-
bolic trajectory
of
atoms in an atomic
(b)
>
beam ihat must pass

Ihrough the
and
slils
Lt
>3
Oven
to reach the
detector
lm- *j
D.
out horizontally with a speed
start
v,
lm
- D
we have
Horizontal component:
X =
GQ xt
%ax t 2
Therefore,
L =
vt
Vertical
y
y
=
=
component:
v 0y t
+ \ayt~
K-*)'
which upon substitution for

y =
gives us
-g L
Suppose that we apply
this result to
speed of about 500 m/sec.

1
beam of atoms with
In traveling a horizontal distance of
m, the time of flight would be 1/500
sec (2 msec)
and we should
have
The
2
2
\500/
10
-5
deviation from a straight-line path
is
thus extremely small,
it
has been studied with
only a few hundredths of a millimeter.
Despite the small size of the
99
Frcc
fali
effect,
of individual atoms
precision in an experiment by Estermann et
ment was
as
shown schematically
Fig.
in
al.
Their arrange-
Atoms of
3-9(b).
cesium or potassium were evaporated out of an "oven" at about

450K inside a vacuum system. Since the atoms emerge from the
oven
slits
a variety of directions, the
in
and
beam was
on the same horizontal
were about 0.02
mm
wide.
collimated by two
level, as
shown. The
The beam of atoms was
a horizontal hot-wire detector D, also about 0.02
slits
detected by
mm
across.
any atom that reaches the detector must

upward component velocity at A in order to
negotiate the slit system. However, from a point midway between A and B where the beam is horizontal, the trajectory is
just like that shown in Fig. 3-9(a).
The detector is moved vertically across the beam and the ion
current, produced by atoms that strike the wire, is recorded.
As
Fig. 3-9(b) shows,
have a small
initial
In the absence of any gravitational deflection, the intensity distribution across the
beam should be
trapezoidal as in Fig. 3-10(a)
because the central region would be bordered by "penumbra"

regions that are a consequence of the two-slit system.
Some
shown in Fig. 3-10(b).

obvious feature of these graphs is that they reveal
most
The
a wide spread of speeds in the atoms of a beam. Some atoms are
results are
moving so fast that they are scarcely deflected at all; others are
moving so slowly that their deflection is many times greater
than the most probable deflection (which corresponds to the
maximum of the intensity distribution). The complete curve
must reflect a characteristic distribution of speeds of the atoms
in the
oven at a particular temperature.
We
shall not consider the detailed
on the
shape of the intensity
deflection of the peak.
pattern but
will fix attention
comparison
of the graphs for cesium
obvious that potassium atoms (atomic
and potassium makes
mass =
39)
move on
it
the
Estermann, O. C. Simpson, and O. Stern, Phys. Reo., 71, 238 (1947).

same time on the free fail of
thermal neutrons see L. J. Rainwater and W. W. Havens. Phys. Rev., 70,
'I.
Similar experiments were reported at about the
136 (1946).
K. atom, striking the hot wire, becomes ionized by losing
nearby electrode at a negative potential with respect to the
wire will collect these positive ions and the resultant current flow can be
detected with a sensitive electrometer or galvanometer. If a thin straight wire
2
neutral
an electron.
Cs or
it acts as a detector of width equal to its own diameter. Some atoms

the halogens) tend to capture electrons and form negative ions; the
sign of the potential of the electrode can be adjusted accordingly.
is
used,
(e.g.,
100
Accelerated motions
Oven
* Detector current
Slit/f
Vertical line
Graph showing detector
along which
detector travels
response for various

positions along vertical axis
(a)
10 _
'E
.O
<0
"S
l/l
4)
*-
+-"
/\
c
*-,
'
Widthof
Width of
detector
\_;
>>!-_
03
0.4
Deflection,
mm
0.2
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
Def lection,
mm
(b)
IPflJPI^^H^^^JIP^flU^^^^^^H
F/g. 3-10
(a) Magnified detail of geometrical image
formed by atoms moving in siraiglu lines through Iwo
slits.
The intensity is proportional t o the area ofthe source
that can be "seen"
by the detector
in
any given
position.
on the deflection of beams ofcesium and

potassium atoms. [After 1. Estermann, O. C. Simpson,
(6) Actual data
and O. Stern, Phys. Rev., 71, 238 U947).]
average
much
faster
than cesium atoms (atomic mass
comparable temperatures. This
is
an expression of the
the molecules of different gases at the
equal average kinetic energies
further discussion at this point.
fact that
same temperature have
result that
As
133) at
we quote without
for the actual magnitude of
the thermal velocities, let us look at the peak of the cesium curve.
It is
displaced relative to the center of a gravitation-free
by about
101
Free
fail
0.11
mm.
Now
in
the arrangement
of individual atoms
shown
in
beam
Fig.
3-9(b),
A B = BC =
if
L, then an analysis of the trajectory will
show (see Problem 3-10) that atoms of speed v will be displaced

downward by a distance y given approximately by
y
v*
Hence
1/2
L'L = lm and y =
Substituting the values
for the approximatc speed, v
1.1
10~ 4 m we
get,
300 m/sec.
This very beautiful and delicate experiment was used as a

test
of the theoretical velocity distribution of atoms at a given
temperature.
'
We
cite
it
here as a nice illustration that atoms,
like baseballs or earth satellites, follow
action of gravitational forces.
vacuum
it is,
laws of free
moving through the

demonstrate
This
is
Since the motion takes place in a
more justifiable applicatibn of the idealized

than are the more usual problems of objects
in fact,
fail
curved paths under the
air.
You may wonder
if it is
possible to
the free fail of individual electrons in a similar
an immensely more
difficult
way.
problem, because whereas
atoms, being electrically neutral, experience only the gravitational

acceleration, electrons are exposed to stray electric forces that
completely
swamp
gravitational effects unless extraordinary
all
precautions are taken.
Nonetheless, some experiments have
been attempted on this problem, although the interpretation of

the results
is
a rather complicated
OTHER FEATURES OF MOTION
IN
affair.
FREE FALL
moving object
near the earth's surface, the horizontal component of velocity
always remains constant and the vertical acceleration always
has the same value, g (downward). It may be interesting to point
In the idealized description of motion of a freely
out that, under these assumptions, every trajectory associated

with the same value of the constant horizontal velocity, v 0x ,
forms part of a single parabola a kind of universal curve (see
on which one can mark in the beginning and end points

of any particular trajectory, as shown. There is nothing profound
Fig. 3-1
1)
'A similar experimenl, using velocity-selected atoms, has been reported by

J. C. Zorn, Am. J. Phys., 37, 554 (1969).
N. B. Johnson and
102
Accelerated motions
Fig.
3-11
"Universal
parabola" that embodies all possible

parabolic trajectories
for a gicen downward

acceleralion
and a
given horizontal
component of velocity.
The heavily marked

pari ofthe curve
beiween poinis
C and
D corresponds lo
the
atomic beam trajeclory ofFig. 3-9(b).
about
this,
but
it
can be useful
in helping
one to see any
in-
For example, it
between the two atomic-beam paths
dividual trajectory as part of a larger scheme.
makes very clear the

shown in Fig. 3-9.
relation
A closely related feature is the way in which the total velocity

vector changes during the course of the motion.
trated in Fig. 3-12.
Suppose that the
sented by the vector v
i.
is
Then the
obtained by adding to v
shown.
illus-
initial velocity is repre-
vertical
(downward) vector a At as
Similarly, every vector representing the instantaneous
motion has
a vertical line drawn from the end of W\.

the fact that the horizontal
same
is
velocity v 2 , at a time At later,
velocity at a subsequent stage in the
the
This
its
end point on
This result embodies
component of every such vector has
value.
Yet another aspect of this same free-fall problem is illusby the venerable demonstration of the hunter and the
trated
Fig,
3-12
Array of
successive velocity
vectors for a motion

in
which the accel-
eralion
is
constant
and vertically downward, as in free fail
under gravity
in the
absence of air resistance.
(This type
of diagram
is
known
as a hodograph.)
103
Other features of motion
in.
frce fail
aA/
Fig.
3-13
bullet
Ihe
placements in
monkey
lets
monkey.
from
The
Classic monkey-shooting demonsiration.
and
monkey undergo egual gravilational disegual limes and are doomed to meet if ihe
ihe
The hunter aims
directly at the
a limb (see Fig. 3-13).
makes no
gun fired.
go as soon as he sees
This
is
monkey
as
it
hangs
really a mistake, because
it
allowance for the fact that the bullet follows a parabolic
path as shown.
But the monkey makes a compensating mistake.

lets go of the limb as
Seeing the gun aimed directly at him, he
soon as he sees the
monkey
begin falling at
due to the time of
the same
it
It
and less justifiably
then follows that, in what-
takes for the bullet to travel the horizontal distance
from the gun to the

bullet
and the
bullet
instant (ignoring any delays
transit of the light flash
the reaction time of the monkey).

ever time
Thus the
flash of the gun.
and monkey
vertical line of the
receive the
monkey's descent, both
2
same contributions, \gt
to their
displacement as a result of the gravitational acceleration alone.
Thus
the bullet's trajectory crosses the line of the
monkey's
fail
same time by the

monkey with dirc consequences to himself. Note that this
result is indcpendent of both the speed of the bullet and the
at a point that
is
bound
to be reached at the
value of g;
it
requires only that the bullet would, in the absence
of gravity, go straight to the monkey's original position.

remarkable, on the face of
it,
of the basic analysis of accelerated motion.
104
Accelerated motions
Quite
yet easily understood in terms
Fig.
3-14
(a)
Small displacement CP1P2)
in
a uniform
(b) Velocily veciors at the beginning
circular motion.
and end of the shorl element ofpath.
(c)
Vector diagram
for the evaluation of the change ofvelocity, At.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION

Probably the most interesting direct application of the vector
definitions of velocity
motion
if
in a circular
and acceleration
path
the center of the circle
to the
is
some constant
at
is
speed.
chosen as an origin, the vector
always has the same length and simply changes
uniform
to
rate.
and
r,
its
The instantaneous
magnitude v
is
[Fig.
3-14(a)].
directions of r
A0 =
is
is
v A/,
velocity
constant.
is
its
from
From
to
Pz
The angle A0 between

therefore given by
direction at a
always at right angles

this
we can
For during a short time,
calculate the acceleration.
distance traveled
problem of
In this case,
readily
A/, the
along a circular arc
the
two corresponding
oAt
Imagine that the bisector of
drawn [Fig. 3-14(b)]

and consider the changes in velocity parallel and perpendicular
to this bisector. Initially the velocity has a component v sin(A 0/2)
away from O, and v cos(A0/2) transversely. Subsequently it has
a component v sin(A0/2) toward O, and again i; cos(A0/2) transversely in the same direction as before.
Thus the change of
velocity is of magnitude 2v sin(A0/2) toward O. Figure 3-14(c)
shows how this same result comes from considering a vector
105
Uniform
circular
this angle
motion
is
diagram
in
which Av
v(r), gives v(/
As A0
is
M).
vanishingly small, sin(A0/2) becomes in-
made
is
defined as that vector which, added to
A0/2
distinguishable from
itself (in
radian measure).
Thus we
'
can put
= 2usin(A0/2)-x;A0
|Av|
But &d
v M/r, so
|Av|
we have
M/r
o2
Hence the magnitude of the acceleration

(Uniform circular motion)
and
direction
its
circular path
This
is
given by
(3-12)
radially inward, regardless of whether the
is
being traced out clockwise or counterclockwise.

centripetal
the
called
is
|a|
is
acceleration
(literally,
"center-
seeking") asscciated with any circular motion. The need for a

dynamical means of supplying this acceleration to an object is an
essential feature of
any motion
that
is
not strictly straight, be-
cause any change in the direction of the path implies a

of Av perpendicular to v
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

The
IN
component
itself.
POLAR COORDINATES
result of the last section,
and other
results
of more general
application, are very nicely developed with the help of polar

coordinatcs in the plane. The use of this type of analysis is
particularly appropriate
of some
kind e.g., the
starting point
the origin represents
a center of force
sun, acting on an orbiting planet.
to writc the position vector r as the
is
the scalar distance r

r
if
and the
unit vector e r
(3-13)
re r
We now consider
a change of
The
product of
its
the change of r with time. This can arise from
length, or
from a change of
its
direction, or
from
approximation is equivalent to (sin 6)19 - 1 for

approximaiion often. For a diseussion of it,
Geometry, 3rd ed.,
sec, for example, G. B. Thomas Jr., Calculus and Analylic
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1960, p. 172.
Mathematically,
g-,0.
106
We
this
shall be using this
Accclcraled motions
Fig.
3-15
(a) Vector
change ofdisplacement, Ar, during a

short time At in
form
(b)
uni-
circular motion.
Changes
in the
unit vectors t,
and
during At, showing
how Ae,
et
is
and Ae
parallel to
is
parallel
{but opposite) to e,.
For the present we
a combination of both.
shall limit ourselves
to circular motion, in which the length of r remains constant.
change of
which
is
a short time At
r in
Ar
shown
in Fig. 3-1 5(b).
direction of this
Its
drawn
at
magnitude, as
is
Thus we can put
Fig. 3-15(a), is equal to r A0.
from
The
in the direction of the unit vector e$
is
right angles to e r as
The
then as shown in Fig. 3- 15 (a),
almost the same as Fig. 3-14(a).
change (Ar)
clear
is
rAdee
we then have
Dividing by A/, and letting At tend to zero,
the
result
(Circular motion)
If
we
= dB
dt
dt
(3-14a)
dt
designate dd/dt by the single symbol w, for angular velocity
(measured
in rad/sec),
we have
(Circular motion)
The derivation of the above

fact that the unit vector e r is
length
is
by
expression of
ce
(3-14b)
result
embodies the important
changing with time.
Although
its
definition constant, its direction changes in accord
with the direction of
with r
wree
its
r itself.
rate of
In fact,
we can
obtain the explicit
change as a special case of Eq. (3-14a),
d6
(3-15a)
ues
In an exactly similar way, as Fig. 3-15(b) shows, a change of 8
implies a change of the other unit vector,

positive, as
direction of
107
Velocity
shown,
r ; it
it
is
ej.
If the
change of
can be seen that the change of

given by the equation
and accclcration
in
is
e$ is in the
polar coordinates
-** =
| (e.)-
-we
(3-15b)
This possible time dependence of the unit vectors in a polarcoordinate system
is
a feature that has no counterpart
in rectan-
i, j, and k are defined

same directions for all values of the position vector r.
Once we have Eqs. (3-14a) and (3-14b) we can proceed to
gular coordinates, where the unit vectors

to have the
calculate the acceleration by taking the next time derivative.
we
If
limit ourselves to the case of uniform circular motion,
and
to
both
are constant, so we have
(Uniform circular
d (e)
,
a =
...
motion)
cor
= -co2 re r =
er
di
(3-16)
Thus the
by Eq. (3-12)
result expressed
together with
its
correct direction.
restricting ourselves to
label this acceleration
of magnitude a r we can put
specifically as a radial acceleration
If, still
out automatically,
falls
we
If
motion
in
circle,
we remove
the condition that the motion be uniform, then the acceleration
component
vector a has a transverse

(3-14b),
(Arbitrary circular
radial
circular
component of a
motion
do
dd
e o e
di
dt
motion)
The
Starting
also.
from Eq.
we have
the
is
(since dd/dt
by a transverse component,
same
a.
v/r
as
,.
,_
(3-17)
we obtained
), but
it
is
for uniform
now
joined
Thus we have
{_-r=r
ae
do
do)
di
dt
(where
co
=r d-6
(3-18)
dfi
dd/dt)
PROBLEMS
3-1
At
building.
an object
At the time
/o
is
released
a second
from
object
rest at the
is
top of a
tali
dropped from the same
point.
(a)
108
Ignoring air resistance, show that the time at which the
Accelerated motions
objects have a vertical separation
glo
/ is
given by
1T
do you interpret this result for / < *o ?

(b) The above formula implies that there is an optimum value
of f o so that the separation / reaches some specified value at the earliest
possible value of /. Calculate this optimum value of fo, and interpret
How
the result.
3-2
Below are some careful measurements taken on a stroboscopic
photograph of a particle undergoing accelerated motion. The distance

is
measured from the starting point, but the zero of time
first
is set
at the
position that could be separately identified:
Distance (cm)
Time
in
(in strobe flashes)
photo
0.56
0.84
1.17
1.57
2.00
2.53
3.08
3.71
4.39
Plot a straight-line graph, based

fitted
by the equation s
3-3
these data, to
to)
child's toy car rolling across
Taking
a constant acceleration.
the car
%a(t
on
at
is
(a)
x =
What
m at =
/
2
,
and
show
a sloping floor
is
x =
sec,
are the acceleration
that they are
find /o-
known
to have
at / = 0, it is observed
and at x = 4 m at / = 2 sec.
and
initial
that
velocity of the car?
to
(b) Plot the position of the car as a function of time up
/
4 sec.
(c)
When
is
the car at
x = 2
m?
an illegal water-filled
window. Having lightning reflexes, he
observes that the balloon took 0.15 sec to pass from top to bottom of
his window a distance of 2 m. Assuming that the balloon was re3-4
The
faculty resident of a dormitory sees
balloon fail vertically past his
leased from rest,
how
high above the bottom of his
window was
the
guilty party?
3-5
The graph on the
next page
versus time in a straight-line motion.
109
Problems
is
an actual record of distance
Find the values of the instantaneous velocity
(a)
and 65
(b)
Sketch a graph of
(c)
From
celeration
3-6
at
25, 45,
sec.
had
y as a function
of
for the
(b) estimate very roughly the times at
its
greatest positive
and negative
whole
trip.
which the ac-
values.
In 1965 the world records for women's sprint races over different
distances were as follows:
60
(a)
Make an
7.2 sec
100
yd
10.3 sec
100
11.2 sec
accurate graph of distance in meters versus time in
seconds.
(b)
The graph
will
show you
that the data
can be well
fitted
by
assuming that a sprinter has a certain accelcration a for a short time t
and then continues with a constant speed

distance x in terms of a, t, and /.
(c)
Find the numerical values of
scription given in (b).
l>,
If this description
Set
v.
a,
is
up
the equation for
and t that
what
correct,
fit
the de-
is
the dis-
tance in meters traveled by the sprinters before they reach their steady
velocity?
Two cars are traveling, one behind the other, on a straight road.
Each has a speed of 70 ft/sec (about 50 mph) and the distance between them is 90 ft. The driver of the rear car decides to overtake the
2
car ahead and does so by accelerating at 6 ft/sec up to 100 ft/sec
3-7
(about 70
110
mph)
after
which he continues
Acceleratcd motions
at this speed until
he
is
90
ft
ahead of the other
How
car.
far does the overtaking car travel along
the road between the bcginning
car were in sight,
coming in
and end of
this
operation?
If
a third
the opposite direction at 88 ft/sec (60 mph),
what would be the minimum
safe distance between the third car
and
the overtaking car at the beginning of the overtaking operation?
(If
you are a
3-8
how
note of
driver, take
In Paradise Lost,
Book
I,
large this distance
is.)
John Milton describes the
fail
of Vulcan
from Heaven to earth i n the following words:

.
To Noon
he
from Noon
fell,
to
M om
from
dewy Eve,
setting Sun
Summer's day and with the

Dropt from the Zenith like a falling Star ....
(It
was
this nasty fail that
gave Vulcan his limp, as a result of his
being thrown out of Heaven by Jove.)

in this trip, which was
we assume that the acceleration had
throughout, how high would Heaven be
(a) Clearly air resistance
mostly through outer space.

the value
(9.8
m/sec 2 )
according to Milton's data ?
can be ignored
If
What would
have been Vulcan's velocity
upon entering the top of the atmosphere?

(b) (Much harder) One really should take account of
the fact
that the acceleration varies inversely as the square of the distance
Obtain revised values for the altitude of
from the earth's center.
Heaven and
3-9
the atmospheric entry speed.
particle
moves
Below are values of
in a vertical
its
plane with constant acceleration.
(horizontal)
and y
(vertical) coordinates at
three successive instants of time:
/,
sec
x,
10- 2
10~ 2
y,
4.914
4.054
5.000
4.000
5.098
3.958
Using the basic definitions of velocity and acceleration
(u x
= Ax/At,
etc), calculate
(a)
The x and
the time intervals

(b)
The
components of the average velocity vector during

-2 sec and 2
10~ 2 to 4 X 10 -2 sec.
to 2
10
acceleration vector.
[similar to Fig. 3-9(b)] shows a parabolic atomicvacuum, passing through two narrow slits, a distance L apart on the same horizontal level, and traveling an addiVerify that the atoms
tional horizontal distance L to the detector.
3-10
beam
(a)
The figure
trajectory in
arrive at the detector at a vertical distance v
111
Problems
below the
first slit,
such
Oven
*.
L/
that
>>
gL 2/v 2 where u
is
(You can assume
the speed of the atoms.
L.)
beam of rubidium atoms (atomic weight 85) passes

at the same level, 1 m apart, and travels an additional
distance of 2 m to a detector. The maximum intensity is recorded
when the detector is 0.2 mm below the level of the other slits. What is
the speed of the atoms detected under these conditions? Compare
with the results for K and Cs shown in Fig. 3-10(b). What was the
(b)
through two
slits
component of velocity
initial vertical
3-11
maximum
over level ground
(1638), stated that
range of a projectile of given
obtained at a
is
first slit?
book Two New Sciences
(a) Galileo, in his
the theoretical
at the
initial
speed
of 45 to the horizontal,
firing angle
5 (where 5 can be
and furthermore that the ranges for angles 45
any angle < 45) are equal to one another. Verify these results if you
have not been through such calculations previously.

(to the horizontal)
(b) Show that for any angle of projection
the
maximum
at the
3-12
Wall
same
height reached by a projectile
instant
is
half
what
it
perfectly elastic ball
is
thrown against a house and bounces
back over the head of the thrower, as shown in the figure. When
above the ground and 4
leaves the thrower's hand, the ball is 2
from the
wali,
and has
i>ox
i>o
How
10 m/sec.
thrower does the ball hit the ground? (Assume that g
4m
3-13
A man
a with
at
on a smooth
stands
He
the horizontal.
hillside that
(a)
Show that,
down
2v
(b)
sin(0
if
air resistance
it
far
behind the
10 m/sec 2 .)
makes a constant angle
throws a pebble with an
an angle d above the horizontal (see the
at a distance j
initial
speed vo
figure).
can be ignored, the pebble lands
the slope, such that
+ a) cos 8
g cos 2 <x
Hence show
value of s
Tmn*
is
that, for given values of uo
obtained with
(Use calculus
112
would be
gravity were absent.
if
t-'o
(1
45
a/2 and
is
sina)
g COS2 *
if
you
likc, but
Accelerated motions
it is
not necessary.)
and
a, the biggest
given by
3-14
A baseball
out of the stadium and
is hit
observed to pass over
is
from home plate, at a height of 50 ft. The ball

leaves the bat at an angle of 45 to the horizontal, and is 4 ft above
the ground when struck. If air resistance can be ignored (which it
the stands, 400
ft
what magnitude of the ball's

numbers? (g = 32 ft/sec 2 .)
actually cannot),
implied by these
3-15
stopwatch has a hand of length 2.5
cm
initial
that
speed would be
makes one com-
plete revolution in 10 sec.
What
(a)
the vector displacement of the tip of the
is
tween the points marked 6 sec and 8 sec?
hand
be-
(Take an origin of rec-
tangular coordinates at the center of the watch-face, with a y axis
passing upward througjt
What
(b)
marked 4
the point
0.)
are the velocity
on the
sec
and
acceleration of the tip as
it
passes
dial ?
3-16 Calculate the following centripetal accelerations as fractions or
( 10 m/sec 2 ):
The acceleration toward
multiples of g
(a)
on
the earth's axis of a person standing
the earth at 45 latitude.
The
The
(b)
(c)
acceleration of an electron
on
acceleration of a point
of 26
in.
diameter, traveling at 25
3-17
particle
r cos
r sin
0,
(the
first
moves
in
the rim of a bicycle wheel
mph.
a plane;
position can be described by
its
rectangular coordinates (x, y) or by polar coordinates
x =
a proton at
Bohr atomic model).
The
(d)
the earth.
moving around
10 6 m/sec in an orbit of radius 0.5
a speed of about 2
orbit of the
moon toward
acceleration of the
and y = r
(r, 0),
where
sin 6,
and
Calculate a z and a y as the time derivatives of r cos
where both r and B are assumed to depend on /.
(a)
respectively,
(b) Verify that the acceleration
components
in polar
coordinates
are given by
ar = az cos
= ax sin
+
6
au
sin 6
a cos 6
Substitute the values of a z
and
0j,
from
(a)
and thus obtain the general
expressions for a r and a in polar coordinates.
3-18
x =
particle oscillates
0.05 sin(5/
tt/6),
along the x axis according to the equation
where x
(a)
What
are
(b)
Make
a drawing to
its
is
in meters
and
in sec.
and acceleration at t = 0?
show this motion as the projection of a
velocity
uniform circular motion.

(c)
Using
the position
through the
113
(b), find
how long it
is,
after the particle passes
through
x = 0.04 m with a negative velocity, before it passes again

same point, this time with positive velocity.
Problems
//
seems clear
to
me
that
no one ever does mean or ever
has meant by "force" rate ofchange of momentum.

C. D.
broad,
Scientific
Thought (1923)
as
we
said at the beginning of this book, Newton's great achieve-
ment, in creating the science of mechanics, was to develop

quantitative relationships between the forces acting
and the changes
in
More
the object's motion.
declared that the main task of mechanics

forces
from observed motions.
But
was
to learn about
does not
this
on an object
than that, he
alter the fact
that the idea of force exists independently of the quantitative
laws of motion and comes

periences
the muscular
We
puli.
shall
initially
effort involved in applying a
It
push or a
begin from this point of view, and rather than
plunge at once into dynamics,

in balance.
from very subjective ex-
we
shall first take a
look at forces
has become rather unfashionable to do this be-
you probably already know, the accepted units for the

absolute measurement of force are defined in terms of the motions
that unbalanced forces produce. We are bound to come to that,
cause, as
and
in
doing so we shall come to the heart of mechanics. Never-
theless, the quantitative
veloped
in
notion of force can be (and was) de-
the study of objects at
another context
equilibrium.
Indeed, our basic knowledge of the two most im-
portant forces in mechanics
Coulomb
rest, in static
the
gravitational force
force between electric charges
through laboratory observations of

using techniques that are
still
was
static
and the
obtained largely
equilibrium situations,
important and broadly applied.
In discussing forces in equilibrium,
we
shall
begin
with
experiences that are familiar and seemingly quite straightforward.

Later, after considering
some of the problems of motion, we
shall
recognize that tacit assumptions and unsuspected subtleties are
115
we
involved;
be equipped to return to the problem of
shall then
equilibrium with deeper insights and a broader view. But, as

said earlier, that kind
do not
of development
IN
we
we
but proceed by easy
try to handle everything at once,
stages to extend the range
FORCES
very good physics;
is
and sophistication of our
ideas.
STATIC EQUILIBRIUI
Let us consider a very simple physical system
In Fig. 4-1 (a)
and
straight
situation
shown
its
4-1 (b), and to hold
the
human,
in the
Fig.
4-1
A
(a)
resting stale.
What
an arrow
in the
conditions have to be satisfied to
shape shown
in Fig.
4-1 (b)?
Putting aside
subjective aspects of the situation, one can say that
force
is
But what does
are in balance.
not disembodied;
it
is
Schematic diagram of an archer's bow in

(b) Bowstring
drawn back
between the two segments of string.
(r)
at midpoint,
Arrow
in the pro-
cess ofbeing launched. (d) Forces applied at the center of

the bowstring in situation (6).
this
applied to something.
regu/ring applied force along the bisector ofthe angle
116
into the
back
it
straight condition, perhaps launching
bow
bow
must
the forces at the point
mean?
the
there, a force
process [Fig. 4-1 (c)].
hold the
state; the string is
that force and the bowstring snaps
in Fig.
Remove
an archer's bow.
bow in its resting

know that to bring
the
We
taut.
be supplied.
toward
we show
Fig.
4-2
(a)
Balanc-
ing of equal forces in
rangement. (b) Balaiicing
simple egual-arm ar-
S S ^>
S fe
l>
ofunequal
forces in accordance
with the law ofthe
(a)
lever.
(b)
One cannot imagine a
force in the absence of a physical object
on which
In this case the object in question
exerted.
it is
is
some
small part of the bowstring in the immediate neighborhood of

point C.
This
directions
CA
and
piece of string
little
CB
and
to a third force, supplied
ACB.
of angle
We
is
exposed to pulls along
from the adjoining portions of the
by the archer, along
can draw a separate diagram, as
4-1 (d), showing the piece of string at
C in
string,
the bisector
Fig.
in
equilibrium under the
a force F from the archer, and two
forces,
which by symmetry are of equal magnitude T, from the
string.
action of three forces
These
combine
latter
along the
line of
and opposite
to give a force, equal
to F,
symmetry. But how do we know that the equi-
librium requires that the bowstring supply a net force equal and
F? You might say
opposite to
back up
that this
is
obvious, but
this intuition with a real experiment.
It will
we can
involve one
assumption: that identical objects, equally deformed, supply

pulls or pushes of cqual size.
can remain at rest
if
For example, a small loop of string
pullcd in opposite directions by two identical
coiled springs extended
And
by equal amounts.
of equal and opposite forces
is
this balancing
the most elementary of
all
equi-
librium situations.
Problems such as that of the archer's

to you.
But
let
bow
will
not be
new
us point out that the analysis of them involves
our ability to assign numerical magnitudes to individual forces
compare one force with another. How can we do that?

Archimedes showed the way, when he discovered the law of the
lever over 2000 years ago. Equal forces balance when applied
and
to
at equal distances
on
either side of the pivot
Unequal forces balance
F2 h
is
satisfied.
suggest the
ment.
'
establish
117
not so.
Forces
we need
to have a
believed that he could obtain the

See Problem 4-5.
in static
but the second has to be based on experiit
Archimedes
is
[Fig. 4-2(a)].
Considerations of symmetry alone would
first result,
To
[Fig. 4-2(b)] if the condition F\l\
equilibrium
result
way of obtaining
by pure
logic,
but this
Fig.
4-3
Basic ar-
rangement of a
"steel-
yard" for weighing
an unknown (X) with

the help
of a Standard
weight (S) that can
be moved along the

horizontal arm.
multiples of a given force. One method would be to construct a

number of identical coiled springs. We could first verify that,
when stretched by equal amounts, they would balance one
another individually in an equal-arm arrangement. Then we
could attach several,

pivot,
same distance on one
the
all at
and balance them with a
single spring, or
multiple, at the appropriate distance
on the other
in Fig. 4-2(b).
(Note that such a procedure
tions about the
way
in
side of the
some
entails
way, we can use
it
to measure an
no assump-
Archimedes' time, at the very
and
unknown
justified
force in terms
The technique has been used
of an arbitrary Standard.
objects (see Fig. 4-3),
shown
which the force varies with extension for
an individual spring.) Once the law of the lever has been

in this
different
side, as
least, for the
since
purpose of weighing
basic principle, which allows us to
its
balance a small force against a large one, using suitably chosen

lever arms, is exploited in
many
familiar mechanical devices.
UN1TS OF FORCE
For the purposcs of
librium,
we do not
magnitudes of
force,
unit,
this introductory study
forces.
The
of forces
in
equi-
necd to worry about the absolute
strictly
introduction of an arbitrary unit of
and the specification of other

would really suffice. However,
forces as multiples of this

it
will often
be convenient
to express forces in terms of their customary measures, so before
going further we shall state what these measures are. (You have
probably met them
The
all before, in
unit of force that
and throughout the book,
118
we
is
any
shall
case.)
most frequently employ, here
the newton (N).
This
is
a force
of
such a size that

of
The
all
kg
it
it
can give an acceleration of
mass
to a
MKS
system.
detailed basis of this definition will be discussed in Chapter 6;
we need
that
for the
moment
is
the recognition that this does
The magnitude of
size.
such that the gravitational puli exerted on a mass of
is
near the earth's surface

is
m/sec 2
represents the basic unit of force in the
uniquely define a force of a certain

unit
is
represented by the earth's puli
most appropriate
about 9.8 N.
this
kg
force of about
on a medium-sized apple
may
result in view of the old tradition (which
well be true) that the fail of an apple provided the starting point
of Newton's profound thoughts about gravitation.
CGS
In the
force
is
the dyne (dyn), defined as the force that can give an
acceleration of
and
dyn
10
-3
cm/sec 2 to a mass of
(In saying this
we have
kg,
= 10- 5
lished, so that
(centimeter-gram-second) system, the unit of
Since
g.
cm =
10~ 2 m,
the relationship
we take
the relation
F = ma
as already estab-
changing m and a by given factors implies changing
The dyne
by the product of those factors.)
is
thus an ex-
ceedingly small force, about equal to the earth's gravitational

puli
on a mass of
mg as
represented, for example,
by roughly
a -in.-square piece of this page.
The only
is
other force that
the pound.
we
shall
have occasion to mention
Unlike the newton and the dyne, the pound
is
on the measure of the

earth's gravitational puli on a Standard object. As soon as one
recognizes that the gravitational puli on any given object changes
(or at least was, originally) based directly
from one place to another, this

has to be adjusted. However,
detail,
we can
still
definition loses its exactness
setting aside such difnculties of
pound
say that the
nitude to about 4.5 N.
weighed out on a spring
is
a force equal in mag-
Every time we buy something that

scale,
we
tional units of force such as the
practical implications
and
of that
in
is
are accepting the use of gravita-
pound.
more
We
shall considcr the
detail later
(Chapter
8).
EQUILIBRIUM CONDITIONS; FORCES AS VECTORS

The
static
equilibrium of a given object entails two distinct
conditions:
1
119.
The object
shall not be subject to
any net force tending to
Ecjuilibrium conditions; forccs as veclors
Fig.
4-4
(a)
An
ob-
ject in ekuilibrium
uuder the action of

three nonparailel
forces.
(6)
Two
equally acceptable
vector diagrams showing the eguilibrium
condition
2F =
0.
(b)
(a)
move
bodily;
it
The
2.
it is
to twist or rotate
The
in
what we
call translational equilibrium.
object shall not be subject to any net infiuence tending
first
what we
it; it is in
call rotational equilibrium.
condition involves, in general, the combination of
forces acting in different directions, as in our initial example
of the bowstring.
It
has been
known
since long before
Newton's
much more than
that they
time that forces are vectors. This says
have characteristic directions;

another
in the
same way
tional displacement.
over a vertical peg.
to
it
and
as the prototype vector quantity, posi-
Imagine, for example, a ring that
fit
nitudes
says that they combine with one
it
Suppose that
it
a loosc
that these strings are pulled by forces of relative
3,
and
4,
5,
as defined by corresponding
periment will show that the ring remains

the peg
is
removed,
if
mag-
numbers of
identical springs equally extended [see Fig. 4-4(a)].
when
is
has three strings attached
Then
in equilibrium,
ex-
even
the directions of the forces cor-
respond exactly to those of a 3-4-5 triangle. This means that the

forces, represented as vectors with lengths proportional to their
magnitudes, form a closed triangle, which can be drawn in two

different ways, as
shown
in Fig. 4-4(b).
that the three force vectors add
Fi
+F2 +
It is a basic
120
we say
property of vectors that the order of addition
forces applied to the
one
In formal terms,
to zero:
F3 =
immaterial (Chapter
addition in
up
many
2).
same
Thus,
object,
if
we have a
it is
different ways; Fig.
large
possible to represent their
4-5 gives an example. The

form
essential feature is that, in every case, the force vectors
is
number of
Fig.
4-5
(a) Seueral
forces acting at the
same poin:,
(b)
The
force veciorsform a
closed polygon, showing equilibrium.
(c) Equioalent veclor
diagram lo
(b).
a closed polygon
Since forces
may
(i.e.,
they add up to zero)
be applied
space, the force polygon
and the
is
in
any direction
if
in
equilibrium
not necessarily confined to a plane,
single statement that the force vectors
will in general
add up to zero
be analyzable into three separate statements per-
taining to three independently chosen directions
though
exists.
three-dimensional
usually,
al-
not necessarily, the mutually orfhogonal axes of a rec-
tangular coordinate system. Geometrically, one can think of this

as the projection of the closed vector polygon onto different
planes; regardless of the distortions of shape, the projected
polygon remains a closed
When
figure.
written out in algebraic
terms, the projection involves a statement of the analysis of an

individual force vector into components, or resolved parts, along
Thus the
the chosen directions.
condition of equilibrium
first
equilibrium with respect to bodily translation
can
be written
as follows:
Vector statement:
F = Fi
+F2 +
F3
(4-la)
Component statement:
Fz = FU + F2l + F 3l +
Fu = Fi + F2u + Fa, +
F = Fu + F2l + F3l +
z
It is
=
=
=
(4-1 b)
worth noticing the relationship between the process
of adding force vectors and the process of resolving an individual

force vector into
force F, in the
its
components.
xy plane, resolved
n Fig. 4-6(a) we show a
into the usual orthogonal
components:
F = Fj
121
+ Fj
Equiiibrium conditions; forces as vectors
Fig.
4-6
Re sol u t ion ofaforce
(a)
inlo orthogonal
com-
The components of F, added vectorially
ponents.
(b)
theforce
F,
giue zero.
(c) Resoluiion
of F
to
inlo
nonorthogonal components.
We represent F by a
stitute for F
triangle, in
F,
itself.
and its components by dashed lines,

components are a replacement a sub-
full line
to emphasize that the
In Fig. 4-6(b)
which the veetors
we show a
elosed veetor foree
Fx and F\, added to the foree veetor

\
represent an cquilibrium situation:
FA + Fvi + (-F) =
We
can then recognize that any other pair of veetors that give
when added to F are a complete

Thus we have at our disposal an infinite
zero
equivalent to
solving a given foree into components.
variety of ways of reFor example, the two
forees
Fm
>
and
Fv
>
in
Fig. 4-6(c) could represent the
itself.
way
of
analyzing F into components in an oblique coordinate system;

the faet that F,< may happen to be larger than F itself does not
invalidate this
way of resolving
In a similar vein,
as in Fig. 4-7(a),
Fig.
4-7
(a)
if
any
we can
The
F 2 and F 3
,
is
bal-
anced by the equil(b) The

same combination of
ibrantFB
forees Fi, F2, and F3
has the resultant
FK
122
combine to give
zero,
regard one of them (which we have
combination offorees
Fi,
the original foree.
set of forees
Forees and equilibrium
labeled here as
the others.
E)
as the equilibrant
force equal
completely equivalent to the vector

it is
their resuJtant,
shown as R
the balancer) of
(i.e.,
and opposite
to
sum of
FE
is
all
then a force
these other forces:
in Fig. 4-7(b).
familiarity
with these simple relationships can be a considerable help in

problems of combining or resolving forces and can strengthen
one*s understanding of equilibrium situations in general.
ACTION AND REACTION
IN
THE CONTACT OF OBJECTS
We
have already used a kind of principle of uniformity to prescribe a way of reproducing a force of a given magnitude or
making a known multiple of the

springs, stretched or
force.
We
assume that
identical
compressed by equal amounts, define equal
This assumption leads to consistent conclusions in the

Picture now a simple exanalysis of equilibrium situations.
do
with a pair of identical
periment that any two people can
forces.
They stand facing each other, and one of them, A,

agrees to be the active agent. His goal is to push (via the spring
that he holds) on the end of the spring held by B, the passive
partner, who tries to avoid pushing back. The size of the push
springs.
that each person exerts
spring
is
is
measured by the amount by which
his
compressed.
You know
the result of the experiment, of course.
Regard-
less of the maneuvers made by A and B, the compressions of the

two springs are always the same only the amount of both com;
pressions together can be varied.

direct
This displays, in a particularly
manner, the phenomenon that
is
expressed by the familiar
statement: Action and reaction are equal and opposite.

general form
In
its
this says that, regardless of the detailed form of the
contact or of the relative hardness or softness of the two objects

involved, the magnitudes of the forces that each object exerts
on the other are always exactly equal. Note particularly that,

from the very way they are defined, these two forces cannot both
act on the same object. This may seem a trivial and obvious
remark, but many calculations in elementary mechanics have
come to grief through a failure to recognize it.

The production of a force of reaction in response to an
applied force always involves deformation to some extent. You
push on a wali, for example, and that is a conscious muscular act;
but how does the wali know to push back? The answer is that it
123
Action and reaction in the contact of objects
yields,
however imperceptibly, and
it is
as a result of such elastic
deformations that a contact force exerted by the wali comes into
No
existence.
gives a
little
force until
matter
how
it
has done so.
There
what happens when we sit down

chair and what happens when we
But
in
may
rigid a surface
sefem,
it
always
under a push or a puli and cannot supply a contrary

is
no basic
in a
sit
difference between
comfortably upholstered
down on
the one case the springs are soft
a concrete ftoor.
and
yield visibly
by
distances of an inch or more, whereas in the other case the springs
atoms in a tightly packed solid

and a deformation by a small fraction of an atomic
diameter is enough to produce the support required.
are essentially the individual
structure,
ROTATIONAL EQUILIBRIUM; TORQUE
We
shall
now
consider the second condition for static equilib-
rium of an object, assuming that the

has been
will
satisfied.
Whether the object
now depend on whether
way
first
is,
condition,
in fact, in
as to produce a resultant twist.
on by two equal and opposite
Figure 4-8 illustrates the
forces.
If,
forces are along the line joining the points

forces are applied, the object
is
An
forces remain
tion
Fig.
4-8
is finally
bound
A and B
(a) Rota-
equal, opposite forces
applied at different
points of an extended
(b) Equal,
opposite forces ap-
plied in
a way
that
does not give rotational eouilibrium.

(c)
Iffree to rotate,
the object
mouesfrom
orientation (b) to
an
equilibrium orientation.
124
acted
at which the
truly in equilibrium;
to twist.
is
If
[e.g.,
as
it
has no
shown
in
the directions of the
unchanged as the object turns, equilibrium orientashown in Fig. 4-8(c). How do we con-
reached, as
tional equilibrium with
object.
object
as in Fig. 4-8(a), the
tendency to rotate. In any other circumstances

is
0,
or not the forces are applied in such
problem with the simplest possible example.
Fig. 4-8(b)] the object
F =
equilibrium
Forces and equilib.rium
4-9 Alt the forces acling
Fig.
on a pivoted bar (pf negligible

weight) in rolalional equilib-
F,+F,
rium with one force applied on

each side ofthe pivot.
knowledge a quantitative criterion for
struct out of such familiar
rotational equilibrium?
The law of the lever provides the clue. Look again at the
situations shown in Fig. 4-2. In particular, consider situation (b).
The balancing of the forces F and F 2 with respect to the pivot
The product of the
at O reauires the condition FJi = F 2 / 2
force and its lever arm describes its "leverage," or twisting
ability; the technical term for this is torque. The torques of F t
t
and
F2
with respect to
direction
that
F2
due to
Let us
counterclockwise.
are equal in magnitude but opposite in

is
call
clockwise and that due to F\
one negative; then the condition of balance can be expressed

another way: The total toraue
is
one of them positive and the other
is
in
equal to zero.
Although the situation as described above is extremely

simple, there is more to it than meets the eye, because a further
force
is
exerted on the bar at the position of the pivot
of magnitude F,
be
2 if
the
first
Now,
is
as
to be sure, this third force exerts
about the pivot point
itself.
consider the torques about,
let
it
must be
condition of equilibrium
Thus the complete array of forces
satisfied.
Fig. 4-9.
+F
However, what
if
is
to
shown in
no torque
we choose
to
us say, the left-hand end of the
some distance d to the left of the point of application of F x ?

Then clearly, with respect to this new origin, the force at O is
bar,
supplying a counterclockwise torque

is
but
it
turns out that this
by the sum of the torques due
exactly balanced
to
Fj and
F2
(both clockwise, notice, with respect to the new, hypothetical

pivot), provided that the condition F\l\
new
this result is
of
its
correctness.
to you, take a
What
it
says
is
= F2 / 2
momcnt
is satisfied.
If
to convince yourself
that, if the vector
sum of
the
on an object is zero, and if the sum of the torques about

any one point is zero, then the sum of the torques about any
forces
other point
So
far
is
also zero.
we have
of parallel forces.
that a force
125
is
limited ourselves to the balancing of torques
Now let us make things more general.
Suppose
applied at a point P, somewhere on or in an
Rotational equilibrium; torquc
K
l
sin
\Sf
COS
ip
(J*
'
/v
(
(a)
Rgi 4-/0
(a) Force
applied at a vector distance r
along and perpendicular lo
F by finding
effeclive lever
its
some other
(c)
r.
arm,
be
The
first
I.
Let the vector distance from
thing to notice
define a plane, which
diagram.
into components
point O, which might be the position of a real pivot,
or just an arbitrary point.

r.
Evaluation of lorgue of
Consider the torque produced by F about
object [Fig. 4-10(a)].
F would be
if
were indeed a
to be the plane of the
has become second
it
real pivot point, the effect
and F
It
lie.
therefore
makes
excellent
itself,
regarded
sense to associate this direction with the torque
torque?
We
to
to produce rotation about an axis perpendicular
to the plane in which r
as a vector of
and F between them
that r
is
we have chosen
Experience, so familiar that
nature, tells us that
of
sin^)
(b)
front a pivot point. (6) Resolution of
Z'
=r
some
Now, what about
sort.
the magnitude of the
can calculate this in two ways. The
between
If the angle
r.
indicated
components along and
in Fig. 4-10(b), is to resolve the force into
perpendicular to
first,
and F
is
<p,
these
components are Fcos<p and F sin v, respectively. The radial

component represents a force directed straight through O and
The transverse com-
hence contributes nothing to the torque.

ponent, perpendicular to
Another way of seeing
r,
gives a torque of
this result
is,
to recognize that the effective lever
arm
be formed by drawing the perpendicular

along which
Then
acts.
magnitude rFsin
of the total force
ON
the torque due to
from
is
F can
to the line
just the
same
as
were actually applied at the point W, at right angles to a
if it
lever
arm of
We
length
equal to r sin
shall introduce the single
'
<p.
symbol
M for the
Leonardo da Vinci envisaged the effeclive lever arm of

and called it "the spiritual distance of the force."
126
<?.
as suggested in Fig. 4-10(c),
magnitude
a force in this
way
Fig.
4-11
A and B.
and F.
{a)
(b)
Cross product. C, oftwo arbilrary vectors,
M, as the cross product oft
Torque vector,
(c) Silualion resulling in
a torque vecior opposile
in direclion to thal in (b).
Then we have
of the torque.
M = rF
(4-2a )
siri <p
This equation does not contain the necessary information about

the direclion of the torque, but a compact statement in vector
algebra, invented specifically for such purposes,
is
is
Given two vectors
A and
B, the cross product
to be a vector perpendicular to the plane of
This
at hand.
the so-called cross product or vector product of
two
vectors.
defined
is
and B and of
magnitude given by
C = AB sin
where
is
the Iesser of the two angles between
other being 2v
d).
There
are, of course,
A and B
(the
two opposite vector
normal to the plane of A and B. To establish a unique

convention we proceed as follows. Imagine rotating the vector A
directions
through the (smaller) angle

[see Fig.
4-1
fingers of the right

tion, keeping the
until
it lies
along the direction of
This establishes a sense of rotation.
l(a)].
hand are curled around in the sense of
thumb
extended (do
it!),
If the
rota-
the direction of the
along the direction of the pointing thumb. The

shorthand mathematical statement, which is understood to emcross product
body
all
is
these properties,
is
then written as
C = A XB
127
Rolational equilibrium; torque
carefuily that the order of the factors
Note
is
crucial; reversing
the order reverses the sign
B X A = -(A
Using
is
this vector notation, the
torque as a vector quantity
completely specified by the following equation:
XF
(4-2b)
Figure 4- 11 (b) and
of
B)
two
(c) illustrates this for
different values
in each case a right-handed rotation about the direction in
<p;
which
points represents, as you can verify, the direction in
which F would cause rotation

write
down
and
the
the vector
sum
of
second condition
Then,
to occur.
of cquilibrium
we can
finally,
the torques acting
all
on an
object,
equilibrium
with
respect to rotationcan be written as follows:
YM
ri
If the object
Fi
X F2 +
r2
on which a
as an ideal particle
(i.e.,
rotational equilibrium
set
r3
F3
(4-3)
of forces acts can be regarded
a point object), then the condition of
becomes superfiuous. Since
all
the forces
are applied at the same point, they cannot exert a net torque
about
this point;
and
if
the condition
is
also satisfied,
they cannot exert a net torque about any other point either.
If
one wants to put
the
same value of r
condition
r
this in
more formal
terms, one can say that
applies to every term in Eq. (4-3), so that the
reduces to the condition
(EF) =
and so embodies the condition
F =
o for translational equi-
librium; the equation for rotational equilibrium adds
no new
information.
FORCES WITHOUT CONTACT; WEIGHT

Figure 4-12 depicts a pair of situations that look so simple, and
embody
results that are so familiar, that
paused to
wonder about the
you may never have
relation between them.
In Fig.
4-1 2(a) an object is shown attached to two spring balances that

puli on it horizontally with equal and opposite forces a clear
case of static equilibrium. In Fig. 4-1 2(b) the same object hangs
128
Fig.
4-12
#E>^
in equi-
Objecl
(o)
librium under equal and
-~n=\
opposite horizontal forces
(from spring balances).

{b)
(g)
Objecl in eauilibrium under
ofa
the action
single uerlical
contaclforce (from a spring

balance) and an incisible influence (gracity).
(c)
The
reading on the spring balance in

(b) defines the
measured weight
(W) of the objecl. Byinference

the gravitational force F
equal and opposite
to
(C)
(b)
is
W.
single spring balance that pulls vertically
from a
Experience
us that this
tells
is
yet as far as visible connections are concerned,
How
an unbalanced situation.
This may seem like a trite or even
At
very profound one.
upward on
this time
do we
trivial
we
it is
quite clearly
dilemma?
resolve the
question. In fact,
examine
shall
it
has
much
it is
only from
it
the standpoint of our knowledge of static equilibrium.

shall see that
it.
also a case of static equilibriutn,
Later
we
wider ramifications.
coming to situation (b) of Fig. 4-12 for the

first time, with a background of experience in other kinds of
You have learned from this previous exstatic equilibrium.
Try
to imagine
always corresponds to having the
perience that equilibrium

vector
sum
of the applied forces equal to zero.
having tangible and

via strings, springs,
situation in
and so on.
which only one force
your confidence
You
are used to
visible evidence of these forces being applied,
Now
is
you
fuli
in the general validity
see
an equilibrium
view, so to speak. But
of the equilibrium con-
ditions is so strong that you say: "Even though there is no other

contact, there must be another force acting on the object, equal
and opposite to the force supplied by the spring." And so you
postulate the force of gravity, pulling downward on the object.
But your only measure of
it is
the reading
on the spring balance
that counteracts this gravitational force.

It is in
terms such as these that we have come to postulate
and accept the existence of a downward gravitational force

exerted on every object at or near the earth's surface. In order
to hold an object at rest relative to the earth, we must apply a
certain
upward force on
force, as
shall call
129
it.
The magnitude
of this equilibrating
measured for example on a spring balance, is what we

the weight of an object. This is an important definition;
Forces without contact; weight
we
shall restate
it
The weight of cm object
be defined as the
will
magnitude, W, of the upward force that must be applied to the

object to hold
of what
process that
in
an object as the gravitational force on
connection with the supporting spring
the object begins to
now
measurement
Notice especially that we are not
question.
defining the weight of

If the
an example
is
an operalional dcfinition; we describe the actual

to be followed to get a practical
is
of the quantity
is
This
at rest relative to the earth.
it
called
is
fail freely,
then by our definition the object
weightless, although there
is
no suggestion that the
tational force on the object has been changed in any
(We
process of breaking the connection.

lessness further in
we
If
Chapter
it.
broken, so that
is
way
graviin
the
shall diseuss weight-
8.)
return to the situation in which the object
held
is
stationary relative to the earth by the puli of the spring, then
our picture of the forees aeting on the object

Fig. 4-l2(c).
On
the assumption that this
equilibrium situation, then
we can say
is
as
is
shown
in
indeed a static
that the spring force
and the gravitational force F are equal and opposite, so that

the magnitude of
does provide, under these cireumstances,
a measure of the magnitude of F.

that, in
not synonymous.
much
But keep
it
firmly in
mind
our usc of the terms, weight and gravitational force are
By maintaining
this distinetion
better equipped to handle dynamical
we
shall be
problems involving
gravity later on.
PULLEYS AND STR1NGS

The use of
in it
pulleys
and
strings to transmit forees has
more physics
than one might think and contains some nice applications
of the principles of static equilibrium.
over a cireular pulley of radius
Consider a string passing
[Fig. 4-1 3(a)].
Let the string
be pulled by forees F i and F 2 as shown. If this is to be a situation

of static equilibrium, the pulley must be in both translational
and rotational cquilibrium. Let us consider the rotational equilibrium
first.
If the
pivot
is
effectivcly frictionless, the only
torques on the pulley are supplied by the forees Fi and
F2
Since both of these are applied tangcntially, they have equal

lever
arms of length
exactly at
its center).
magnitudes of Fj and
T, which
130
we can thus
(assuming that the pulley
is
pivoted
Therefore, to give zero net torque, the
F2
must both be equal to the same value,
the strength
call the tension in the string
Forees and eqiiilibrium
Fig.
4-13
(o)
Ten-
sions in the segments
of a string where it
meels a slationary
circular pulley must
be
in rotational equi-
librium.
(b)
Set of
three forces involced

in the static eguilib-
rium of a pulley. (c)

Pulley as a deuicefor
(O
(b)
(a)
applying a force of
gicen magnitude in
any desired direction.
of the puli that would be found to be exerted by the string at any

point along
its
The
length.
pulley thus enables us to change the
direction of an applied force without changing
its
magnitude.
However, to satisfy the condition of translational equilibrium,

the pivot must be able to supply a force F 3 equal and opposite
to the vector
sum
F2
of F, and
along the bisector of the angle
ments of the
2Tcos(6/2)
its
This force must therefore
lie
between the two straight seg-
magnitude must be equal to
[see Fig. 4-13(b)].
If the tension at
is
and
string,
one end of a string passing over a pulley
supplied by a suspended object, then a force
equal to the weight,
W,
librium [Fig. 4-13(c)].
of the object
is
of magnitude
needed to maintain equi-
This means that a pulley-string system
in any desired
can be used to supply a force of magnitude
direction. Figure 4-14 illustrates the typical kind of arrangement
that exploits these features in
a simple experiment
equilibrium of three concurrent forces.
To
to study the
the extent that the
pulleys can be treated as ideal, the magnitudes of the forces Fi,
Fig.
4-14
(a)
Simple
static equilibrium ar-
rangement involving
three nonparallel
forces (string tensions) applied at the
pomt
P.
(b) Vector
diagram showing the

equilibrium condition.
(a)
131
Pulleys
and
strings
(b)
F 2)
and F 3 are equal to the respective weights W\,
and
2,
of the suspended objects.
PROBLEMS
The ends of
4-1
two men who
a rope are held by
puli
on
it
with
equal and opposite forces of magnitude F. Construct a clear argument

to
show why
4-2
may
defined
F, not 2F.
is
a well-known fact that the total gravitational force
It is
object
the tension in the rope
on an
be represented as a single force acting through a uniquely
point the "center of gravity" regardless of the orientation
of the object.
(a)
For a uniform bar, the center of gravity (CG) coincides with
Use
the geometrical center.
this fact to
tional torque about the point
considered as arising from a single force

(a)
show
[see part (a)
two individual forces of magnitudes
that the total gravita-
of the figure]
may
be
W at the bar's center, or from
Wx/L and W(L
x)/L acting
at the midpoints of the two scgments defined by P.
l-
(b) If
at
H-. -I'
one end
a bar or rod has a weight W, and a small weight

[see part (b)
of the
is
hung
simpler of the above
figure], use the
two methods to show that the system balances on a fulcrum placed
atPif x =
(b)
4-3
LW/UW +
Diagram
v).
(a) represents
a rectangular board, of negligible weight,
with individual concentrated weights mounted at
corners.
its
H'.
H,
>
iy
w,
'W,
(b)
(a)
(a)
To
find the position of the
CG
of
system, one can
this
proceed as follows: Choose an origin at the corner O, and introduce
x and y axes
132
as shown.
Imagine the board to be pivoted about a
horizontal axis along y,
and
which an upward force
calculate the distance x
(= wi +K-2-f-H'3
from
w4)
this axis at
will
keep the
system
Next imagine the board
rotational equilibrium.
in
be
to
pivoted about a horizontal axis along x, and calculate the correspond-
Then the
ing distance y.
(b)
An
center of gravity, C,
board from two corners

that matter)
in
is
at the point (x. y).
experimental method of locating the

in succession (or
and mark the
To
each case.
CG
is
to
hang the
any other two points, for
direction of a plumbline across the board
verify that this
board to be suspended from
is
consistent with (a), imagine the
and
in a vertical plane [diagram (b)]
show by direct consideration of the balancing of torques due to W2,

h% and m>4 that the board hangs in such a way that the vertical line
from O passes through C (so that tan d = y /2).
4-4
You
have just finished a 20-page
boyfriend) and you

first
want
to mail
thing in the morning.
fortunately
it is
it
You
letter to
your
at once, so that
it
giri friend
will
(or
be collected
have a supply of stamps, but un-
2 a.m., the local post
office is closed,
and you haven't
and a
and you happen to have learned somewhere that the density
of nickel is about 9 g/cm 3 The ruler itsclf balances at its midpoint.
When the nickel is placed on the ruler at the 1-in. mark, the balance
point is at the 5-in. mark. When the letter is placed on the ruler,
centered at the 2-in. mark, the balance point is at Sîn. The postal
a
letter scale
of your own. However, you do have a
12-in. ruler
nickel,
rate
is
20 cents per half-ounce (international airmail).
postage should you put
You
on?
(This problem
is
How much
drawn from
real life.
might like to do a similar experiment for yourself, perhaps using
a differcnt coin as your Standard of weight.)
4-5
(a)
As mentioned
in
the text (p.
17),
Archimedes gave what he
believed to be a theoretical proof of the law of the lever. Starting

the necessity that equal forces, F, at equal distances,
/,
from
from a fulcrum
must balance (by symmetry), he argued that one of these forces could,
again by symmetry, be replaced by a force F/2 at the fulcrum and
another force F/2 at 21. Show that this argument depends on the
truth of
(b)
133
what
Problems
it is
less
purporting to prove.
vulnerable argument
is
based on the experimental
knowledge that forces combine as
Suppose that
vectors.
parallel
and F2 are applied to a bar as shown. Imagine that equal

and opposite forces of magnitude / are introduccd as shown. This
gives us two resultant force vectors that intersect at a point that
defines the line of action of their resultant (of magnitude Fi + F2).
forces F\
Show
that this resultant intersects the bar at the pivot point for which
Fili
4-6
Find the tensions in the ropes
F2/2.
The weight
4-7
(a)
way
0.5 kg
elothesline
that the sag
hung
is
at the
by 8 cm. What
is
is
tied
When
middle of the
line,
the midpoint
is
and a
tree that
away he then pushes
transversely on the rope at
midpoint of the rope
is
pushes with
on the car?
man
The
a,
down
pulled
were
(= 50 kg
suflicient to
to be 50 ft
midpoint.
its
ft
move
pushed the midpoint of the rope another 2
that
Instead, he ties
when
what force does
),
begin to
stranded
is
knows
happens
displaced transversely by 3
force of 500
If this
car
driver
not strong enough to puli the car out directly.
the rope tightly between the car

(b)
is
the tension in the elothesline?
in a diteh, but the driver has a length of rope.
he
apart, in such
a wet shirt with a mass of
(With acknowledgements to F. W. Sears.)
(b)
between two poles, 10
negligible.
is
two configurations shown.
in the
equilibrium in each case.
is in static
how
man
this exert
the car,
ft,
If the
the
and the
would
far
the car be shifted, assuming that the rope does not streteh any further?
seem
Does
this
4-8
Prove that
a practical method for dealing with the situation?
like
on an
three forces act
if
object in equilibrium, they
must be coplanar and their lines of action must meet at one point
(unless all three forces are parallel).
4-9
Painters sometimes
work on a plank supported
end of each rope

pulley the rope
is
attached to the plank.
is
such a plank, of weight 50
Keeping
(a)
side,
what
(b)
150
lb.
around
he
lets
4-10
is
the
On
the other side of the
in
mind
maximum
that he
must be able
to
move from
side to
tension in the ropes?
Suppose that he uses a rope that supports no more than

finds a firm nail on the wali and loops the rope
One day he
this instead
of around the hook on the plank.
go of the rope,
An
it
breaks and he
inn sign weighing 100 lb
is
is
falls
hung
as
But as soon as
to the ground.
shown
Why?
in the figure.
lb,
and
The
the
held by a guywire that should not be subjected to a tension
of more than 250
134
works on
painter weighing 175 lb
lb.
supporting arm, freely pivoted at the wali, weighs 50
system
by
One
loopcd around a hook on the plank, thus holding
the plank at any desired height.
at its ends
long ropes that pass over fixed pulleys, as shown in the figure.
lb.
Slr Isaac
Newton
(a)
poin t
What
(b)
What
the supporting
4-11
man
the
is
minimum
safe distance of the point
above
A?
A man
the magnitude
is
arm
at
A under
and
direction of the force exerted
begins to climb up a 12-ft ladder (see the figure).
weighs 180
lb,
on
these conditions?
the ladder 20
The
lb.
The
wali against which the ladder
smooth, which means that the tangential (vertical) component of force at the contact between ladder and wali is negligible.
The foot of the ladder is placed 6 ft from the wali. The ladder, with
rests is very
the man's weight on
will slip if the tangential (horizontal) force
it,
at the contact between ladder
and ground exceeds 80
the ladder can the
man
4-12 You want
hang a picture
to
only available nails are at points
at a certain place
1 ft
of the edges of the picture (see the
ift
How
lb.
up
far
safely climb?
to the left
figure).
You
on a wali, but the
and 2
ft
to the right
attach strings of the
appropriate lengths from these nails to the top corners of the picture,
2ft
2ft
as shown, but the picture will not
balancing weight of
some
(a) If the picture with its
possible balancing weight,

i
(b) In
straight unless
frame weighs 10
lb,
and where would you put
the point of intersection of the
hang
two tension forces
what
it
A
is
(a)
is
the least
(Hint: Find
the
discussion, be
yo-yo rests on a table (see the figure) and the free end of
its
gently pulled at an angle 6 to the horizontal as shown.
What
is
the critical value of 6 such that the yo-yo remains
stationary, even though
geometrically
if
with the table.)
135
how would
hang? (If you want to go beyond a qualitative

prepared for some rather messy trigonometry.)
string
in the strings.)
the absence of the balancing weight,
picture
4-13
you add
kind.
Problems
it
is
free to roli? (This
you consider
problem may be solved
the torques about P, the point of contact
What happens
(b)
a yo-yo, test
4-14
a
for greater or lesser values of 0? (If you have
your conclusions experimentally.)
simple and widely used chain hoist

pulley.
diffcrential
different diameter are rigidly
of rotation.
free pulley
An
is
based on what
is
callcd
In this arrangement two pulleys of slightly
connected with a
common,
endless chain passes over these pulleys
from which the load
is
suspended (see the
components of the ditferential pulley have

tively, what downward puli applied to one
radii
fixed axis
and around a
figure).
If the
a and 0.9a, respec-
side of the freely hanging
part of the chain will (ignoring friction) suffice to prevent the load
from descending
if
can be neglected?
(a) the weight of the chain itself
(b)
(more
realistic)
one takes account of the fact that the freely
hanging portion of the chain (PQR) has a
4-15
force
F with components
x = 0, y =
applied at the point
nitude
and
direction of the torque,
Fz
5
3N,
m, and
M,
of
Fy = AN, and Fz = is
= 4 m. Find the mag-
F about
the direction in terms of the direction cosines
angles that
the origin.
i.e.,
(Express
the cosines of the
M makes with the axes.)
4-16 Analyze
vertically
weight w?
total
in qualitative but careful
downward on the pedal of a
terms
how
the act of pushing
bicycle results in the production
of a horizontal force that can accelerate the bicycle forward.
(Clearly
the contact of the rear wheel with the ground plays an essential role
in this situation.)
136
Forees and equilibrium
And
thus Nature will be very conformable to herselfand
very simple, performing all the great Motions of the
heavenly Bodies by the attraction of gravity
almost
all the
attracting
and
and
small ones of their Particles by some other

repelling
Powers ....
The
various forces
of nature
THE BASIC TYPES OF FORCES
all forces arise from the interactions between difFerent objects.

Once upon a time it must have seemed that these interactions
were bewilderingly diverse, and one of the most remarkable
features in the development of modern science has been the
growing realization that only a very few basically distinct kinds
of interaction are at work.
we know of
that
The following
are the only forces
at present:
Gravitational forces, which arise between objects because
of their masses.
2.
in
Electromagnetic forces, due to electric charges at rest or
motion.
Nuclear forces, which dominate the interaction between

subatomic particles if they are separated by distances less than
3.
about 10
It
>An
-15
m.
may be
excellent
that evcn this degree of categorization will prove
background
to this topic
is
the
PSSC
film,
"Forces," by
J.
R.
Zacharias, produced by Education Development Center, Inc., Newton, Mass.,

1959. The title of this chapter is borrowed from that of a set of popular lectures delivered in London by the great scientist, Michael Faraday, just over
100 years ago and available in paperback (Viking,
make
easy
and
New
York, 1960). They
rather delightful reading.
139
to be unnecessarily great; the theoretical physicist's
dream
would allow us to recognize
find a unifying idea that
is
to
all these
one and the same thing. Albert Einstein

later years on this problem but to no avail,
forces as aspects of
spent most of his
and at the present time the assumption of several
different kinds
of forces seems meaningful as well as convenient.

In the following sections
we
shall
briefly
consider these
three primary types of forces, with examples of physical systems

in
which they are
significant.
standpoint of classical
classification
will
It
be useful, and from the
mechanics very important, to add to our
what we
"contact forces"
shall call
the
forces
Al-
manifested in the mechanical contact of ordinary objects.
though these forces are merely the gross, large-scale manifestation of the basic electromagnetic forces between large numbers
of atoms, they serve so well to describe most of the familiar
phenomena
interactions in mechanical
that they merit a category
of their own.
GRAVITATIONAL FORCES
Ali our experience suggests that a gravitational interaction be-
tween material objects
is
a universal phenomenon.
The
an attractive interaction.
It is
always
gravitational forces exerted
earth on different objects near
its
by the
surface can be compared,
by
using a spring balance for example, and these gravitational

attractions are proportional, in every case, to the property of the
attracted object that
we
call its
plications of this familiar
mass.
(The content and the im-
and seemingly simple statement
be a matter for detailed discussion in later chapters.)

The general law of gravitational interaction arrived
Newton
states that the force
any other
is
F with which any
will
at
by
particle attracts
proportional to the product of the masses of the
particles, inversely proportional to the square of thcir separation,
and directed along the
line separating the
found experimentally that
this
pendence on the velocity of the

magnitudo
of the force
Departures from
ihis
theory of relativity.
particle
It is
on which it acts. ' The

mass m 1 exerts on a
velocity indcpendence are analyzcd in the general
is
discernible only if the effect of quantities of

the speed of light) can be detected in the gravi-
tational interaction.
The various
particles.
measurable de-
3 that a particle of
They are
the order of o 2 /c 2 (where c
140
two
force has no
forces of natura
of
m2
can be written as
G^f
Fl2 =
where
mass
particle of
(5-1)
r l2 is the distance
and
is
from the center of
mi
to the center
a constant of proportionality called the universal
gravitational constant.
This law of force holds for point masses
and for uniform spheres of finite

2
G is 0.667 X 10- lo 3 /kg-sec
size.
The value of
the constant
Equation (5-1), and the preceding verbal expression of

is
the
first
example
of a physical law.
what
it
in this
It is
really says.
book
it,
of the quantitative expression
worth spending a few words to discuss
Every mathematical statement of experi-
no more than a statement of a

and m 2 we simply mean the
relationship between numbers.
and 2 in terms
numerical measures of the masses of particles
mental relationships in physics
is
By m
of some arbitrarily chosen unit. The concept of mass
has been developed to aid us
in
wise the concepts of force and distance.
numbers that we deal with.
is
one that
our description of nature like-
Thus
But
it
is
always the
the full verbal equivalent of
Eq. (5-1) would be:

The numerical measure of the force F with which any
particle at-
tracts any other is proportional to the product of the numerical
measures of their masses and inversely proportional to the square

of the numerical measure of their separation.
mind whenever you read the

mathematical statement of a physical relationship. They are
almost never included explicitly, yet without them there is a
Keep those
italicized phrases in
danger of reading more into such a statement than

tains.
Thus
it
really con-
the customary type of abbreviated colloquial state-
ment of the law of gravitation begins: "The force of gravitational

attraction between two particles is proportional to the product
." What, one may ask, is meant by the product
of their masses
of two masses? What sort of a physical quantity is that? Even
.
very good seientists have been drawn, at times, into almost
metaphysical arguments through the effort to read some special

significance into the "dimensions" of such combinations.
By
reminding oneself what an equation such as Eq. (5-1) actually

represents,
The
one can avoid any such confusion.

experiment to measure G was performed by
classic
the British physicist
141
Henry Cavendish
Gravitational forees
in 1798.
It
involved a
Fig.
Sehemat ic diagram of a gravity
5-1
lorsion-
balance experiment.
measurement of the gravitational foree between

of modest dimensions and
arrangement
solid lead spheres
made use of an ingenious mechanical
torsion balance
to
detect this tiny attractive
foree. Figure 5-1 shows the essential features of the arrangement.
Two
rod
to
small lead spheres are placed at the ends of a light rod.
suspended horizontally by a very thin metal
is
its
midpoint.
Two
The
fiber attached
larger lead spheres are positioned elose to
the smaller ones, in symmetrical fashion, so that the gravitational attraction
between these pairs of large and small masses
An
tends to rotate the rod in a horizontal plane.

orientation
is
reached
when
equilibrium
the twist of the supporting fiber
provides a restoring effect that just balances the gravitational

attraction.
A beam of light reflected from a small mirror attached
to the rod allows the tiny angular deflection to be amplified into
a substantial
movement of a spot formed by
the reflected light
a distant wali (the "optical lever" effect).
arrangement of
of the most
The
this type,
on
torsion-balance
incorporating an optical lever,
is
one
sensitive of all mechanical devices.
gravitational foree
is
astonishingly
weak under the
conditions of a laboratory cxperiment involving the interaetion
of relatively small objects, and the detection and measurement

of
it is
an extremely delicate operation.
version of the Cavendish apparatus
For example, a modern
uses two small suspended
kg each.
The center-to-center distance between a small sphere and a
lead spheres, each of 15-g mass,
and
Manufactured by the Leybold Co.
142
The
va-rious forees
of nature
large spheres of 1.5
Fig.
5-2
Globular
cluster ofstars held
together by graoitalionalforces (globular

cluster
M 13
in the
constellation Hercules).
from
(Photograph
the
Hale Obser-
vatories.)
one
large
is
about 5 cm.
these conditions the gravita-
Under
tional force of attraction is only
weight of a single
than
human
hair
is
about 6
10~ 10 N.
The
about 10,000 times greater
this!
Although the gravitational interaction is intrinsically so very

feeble, it plays the prime role in most astronomical systems,
because (1) the interacting objects are extremely massive and (2)
other forces are almost absent. An interesting example is pro-
These are collections of
vided by globular star clusters.
stars
more than 120 such

clusters have been identified in our galaxy. Figure 5-2 shows a
globular cluster containing perhaps more than a million stars.
One can infer from the symmetry of this system that there is
in a spherically symmetric distribution
probably no net rotational motion to the cluster as a whole

though individual stars undoubtedly travel in all directions.
Direct experimental evidence on the actual motions of individual
stars is very meager. If we consider a star "at rest" near the outer
edge of the
cluster, the net force
due to
(by symmetry) toward the center of the

accelerate, reaching its
maximum
all
other stars should be
cluster
and the
speed at the center.
star will
The
net
considerations) will ap-
on the star (again by symmetry

proach zero as the star reaches the center of the cluster. Having
gained considerable speed, the star will pass through the center
force
and gradually slow down due to the resultant force of attraction
143
Gravitational forces
Fig. 5-3
Schematic
diagram ofa group of

globular clusters associated with our
Galaxy.
of
all
the other stars (which at
toward the center of the
all
point diametrically opposite
its
times
The
cluster).
is
a net force directed
star will finally reach a
Thus a
starting position.
star
could perform oscillations along a diameter passing through the
Because the separation between
center of cluster.
much
any
greater than the diameter of
stellar collision is
is
chance of a
very small, even at the center of the cluster
(although the photograph would not suggest
Thcre
stars is so very
star, the
this).
clear astronomical evidence for other systems of a
on a much larger scale. Our Galaxy is surrounded

by a spherically symmetric "halo" of globular clusters (see the
sketch shown in Fig. 5-3). Since the individual clusters maintain
similar type but
compact identity, each can itself be considered a "mass

point," and together they form a sort of supercluster of globular
their
Direct observational evidence shows that clusters are
clusters.
traveling in all directions

single cluster
Galaxy
and there
is
no reason to doubt that a
can perform oscillations through the heart of our
(just as single stars
can oscillatc within a
cluster), again
with almost negligible chance of individual stars colliding with
each other.
These two similar examplcs

tional attraction
between masses
illustrate cases
is
where gravita-
the sole force that governs
the motion.
Usually gravitational forces are important only
where at
one body of astronomical
that
it is
exercises
least
solely because the earth
is
size is
involved
note
in this category that gravity
a major influence on our everyday
lives.
One can
think of certain exceptions to this general rule, as for example

the initial stages of the aggregation of neutral hydrogen
144
The various
forces of naturc
atoms
under
mutual gravitational attractions to form a proto-
their
galaxy.
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FORCES

The
on one another
The basic law of
forces that electrically charged particles exert
are of fundamental importance in nature.
by the nineteenth-century French

Like
physicist C. A. Coulomb, and known by his name.
Cavendish, Coulomb used a torsion balance for his measurements.
But whereas Cavendish simply measured the gravitaelectric
force
is
that found
tional constant, taking the basic
form of the force law as already
explored the actual form of the law of electric
known, Coulomb
force. Coulomb's law
charged particle at rest
states that a
will
attract or repel another charged particle at rest with a force
proportional to the product of the charges, inversely proportional to the square
of
their separation
the charges are unlike

If
and directed along the
The force is attractive when

and repulsive when they are alike in sign.
line separating the two particles.
one denotes by qi and q 2 the charges carried by the particles,

1 exerts on particle 2 is
the magnitude of the force that particle
given by
*-km
(5-2)
metric unit of electric charge

in
is
coulomb
more than
is
is
coulomb
the
Coulomb's law has the value 9
The
The constant k
form with the law of universal gravitation.
identical in
10
huge amount of
N-m 2 /C 2
electric
usually found in isolation in nature.
separated from a similar charge
a repulsive force of about
3500 N
charge
vastly
One coulomb
mile distant would experience
(approximately 800
an electrically neutral droplet of water |

nearly 1000
(C).
in. in
lb).
Yet
diameter contains
of positive charge in the nuclei of the hydrogen
and oxygen atoms, balanced by an equal amount of negatively

charged electrons. (Check this for yourself.)
'Their experiments were performed at almost the same time, but apparently
they acted quite independently of one another in their choice and development
of the torsion-balance technique.
2
Note
of"
145
that insertion,
is tacitly
Electric
where appropriate, of the phrase "numerical measure
assumed.
and magnetie forces
'
5-4
Fig.
Cakulaled
irajectories
ofprotons ofaboul 14 Gev kinetic

energy approaching the earth 'm
its
magnetic egualorial place and

deflected by
its
magnetic field.
(After D. J. X. Monlgomery,
Cosmic Ray Physics, Princeton

Unioersity Press, 1949.)
It is interesting
to
compare the
sizes of electrical forces with
those of gravity. Consider, for example, the gravitational torsion
balance mentioned
in
earlier.
If
only one out of every 10
electrons
each lead sphere were missing, the resultant imbalance of
electric
charge on the masses would produce an electrical force
force. Through such examples

immense
strength of the electrical force
one can appreciate the
comparable to the gravitational
compared to the gravitational force.

Although gravity is always present, the electrical force is
overwhelmingly the most significant agent in all chemical and
and
processes
biological
objects of everyday size
domain).
It
in
the interactions between physical
(i.e.,
below those of the astronomical
holds atoms together, provides the rigidity and
tensile strength of material objects,

in
and
is
the only force involved
chemical reactions.
We
have been
discussing
the
forces
electrical
between
Moving charged particles also exert

on each other. But an additional force arises in
this case which we call the magnetic force. It has the interesting
property that it depends on the velocity of the charges and always
acts on a given charged particle at right angles to the particle's
motion. We shall discuss these magnetic forces more precisely
stationary charged particles.
electrical forces
in
Chapter
An
7.
illustration
of the magnetic force
is
provided by the
trajectories of protons (positively charged) ejected
and approaching the
earth.
of protons approaching
146
The various
in
from the sun
Figure 5-4 shows possible paths
the equatorial plane,
forces of nature
when they pass
in the vicinity of the earth's
magnetic
It is
field.
confidently
believed that the earth's magnetic field itself arises as a result
of charged particles in motion inside the earth, so basically this

interaction between charges
is an example of the electromagnetic
in
motion.
Actually, from the standpoint of relativity theory, the magnetic force is not something new and different. Charges that are
moving with respect
to one observer can be stationary with
one accepts the basic idea of relativity, one may expect to be able to relate a magnetic force, as
observed in one reference frame, to a Coulomb force, as obThus,
respect to another.
if
For the detailed working out of this

example the volume Special Relativity in this series.
served in another frame.

idea, see for
NUCLEAR FORCES
Although
electric forces are responsible for
gether, they would, by
atomic
For we
nuclei.
electrically repelling
themselves,
know
all
holding atoms to-
prevent the existence of
that nuclei contain protons,
one another and not stabilized by a comBut nature has supplied another
pensating negative charge.

force,
as the sirong interaction, which binds together the
known
nucleons (protons and neutrons)

stronger than the
its
of
10
Coulomb
unknown
until recently because
For distances greater than about

nuclear force quickly becomes negligibly
extremely short range.
-13 cm (=
small,
Although much
force at sufficiently short distances,
properties were relatively

its
in a nucleus.
but
it
F) this
dominates over
nucleons at shorter distances.

of interaction, attractive
pulsive for
still
force that
is,
down
all
It is
other interactions between
an exceedingly complex type

F and strongly re-
to about 0.4
smaller separations.
It is, in part,
a noncentral
in contrast to the gravitational and
Coulomb
not directed along the line joining the centers

of the interacting particles. Somewhat analogously to the Coulomb force, which exists only between electrically charged
interactions,
it is
particles, the
strong nuclear interaction exists only
certain class of particles,
known
among
as hadrons (Gr. hadros: heavy,
bulky), which besides the nucleons themselves includes a number

of lighter particles (mesons) and heavier particles (baryons), all
-8
sec or less).
of which are unstable and very short-lived (10
interactions
nuclear
associated
with
force
type
of
Another
147
Nuclear forces
is
also
known
to exist but
is
not very well understood as
yet.
The range of this force is

It is called the "weak
even less than that of the strong interactions, and its strength is
-15
about 10
as great as the other. This
interaction."
estimated to be only
weak
interaction
is
important only for certain types of nuclear
process, such as radioactive beta decay.

It is instructive to
compare the magnitudes of the
types of forces exerted between
15
two protons 10~
different
m apart
i.e.,
separated by about one nucleon diameter:
Type of interaction
Gravitational
Coulomb
X 10-"
X 10 2
Nuclear (strong)
The magnitude
in
which
it is
of the
weak nuclear
effective, is
but even so
force,
Approximate magnitude of the force,
it is
10
interaction, within the range
1
of the order of 10~
of the electrical
23
by a factor of the order of 10 ,
greater,
than the calculated gravitational force at the same distance be-
tween two
particles.
The nuclear forces have really no place in a discussion of

Newtonian mechanics. Indeed, the very use of the word "force"
in connection with nuclear interactions
is
open to question, for
any statement about the force between two nuclear

at
best a remote inference.
We
cannot
cite
any
particles is
direct observa-
comparable to those of Cavendish and Coulomb for

Moreover, the subject of
and electrical forces.
tions
gravitational
nuclear forces, like everything else in subatomic physics, requires

the ideas and techniques of
quantum mechanics, which
is
theory that has almost no use for the concept of force as such.
Thus, when we talk of classical or Newtonian mechanics,

concerned with situations
really
in
we
are
which the only relevant kinds
of interactions are electromagnetic or gravitational.
FORCES BETWEEN NEUTRAL ATOMS

It is
tion,
fact
of profound importance that,
the electric
in contrast to gravita-
forces between individual particles
may be
repulsive as well as attractive, because of the existence of

different signs of electric charge.
possible the existence of mattcr that
148
The various
forces of nature
two
This duality of charge makes

is
clectrically neutral in
bulk and of atoms that are individually neutral by virtue of

1
having equal numbers of protons and electrons.
On
no
the face of
forces
it,
therefore,
on one another at
all
two neutral atoms would exert

when separated (if one excepts
the usually negligible gravitational force).
quite true.
It
would be the case
if
This, however,
not
is
and negative
point. We know,
the positive
charges in an atom were located at a single
however, that the electrons and the nucleus are separated by a

Also, the atom is not a rigid structure;
certain small amount.
and although the "center of gravity" of the negative charge

due to the electrons coincides with the positive
the atom is isolated, the approach of another
distribution
when
nucleus
particle
can disturb this situation.
characteristic force of attraction
named
after the great
force increases
Dutch
much more
proach one another or

different
manifestation of this
(to put
atoms a
between neutral
physicist
J.
van der Waals.
rapidly than l/r
message) the force
much more
One
it
force
This
two atoms ap-
as
way
that carries a subtly
off with
increasing distance
in a
falls
is
rapidly than the attraction between
two unbalanced
charges of opposite sign.
The
basis of the van der
Waals force
is still,
of course, the
inverse-square law of force between point charges, but
its
quantum
character cannot be calculated without the use of
mechanics.
neutral
The
varying as l/r
final result is a force
detailed
between
atoms of the same kind.
There
is,
however, another kind of force that comes into
play between neutral atoms
them together. This
is
when the attempt
is
made
to squash
a positive (repulsive) force that increases
with decreasing separation even more rapidly than the van der
The result is that the net force exerted by one

atom on another, as a function of the separation r between their centers, has the kind of variation shown in Fig. 5-5.
The force passes through zero at a certain value of r, and this
Waals
force.
neutral
value (r o) can be thought of as the

i.e.,
one atomic diameter
if
the
sum
of the two atomic radii
atoms are
identical.
The
repulsive
component of
below r
atoms behave to some approximation as hard
that
grows so sharply with further decrease of r
spheres; one manifestation of this
is
the highly incompressible
'J. G. King has shown by direct invesligation of the degree of neutrality of a

volume of gas that the basic units of positive and negative charge in ordinary
matter cannot differ by more than about 1 part in 10" (private communica-
tion).
149
Forces between neutral atoms
Fig.
5-5
Qualitative graph oflhe
force between two neutral aloms

as a function of the distance be-
The dashed
tween their centers.
nonphysical
line represents the
idealization
of aloms t hai act as
completely hard spheres Ihal
one anolher.
attract
The dashed
nature of condensed matter.
line in Fig.
5-5
in-
dicates the result of idealizing the interatomic force to correspond
to complete impenetrability for r

attraction for r
>
<
and the van der Waals
This model can be used quite effectively
to analyze the deviations of an actual gas
Since almost
all
the objects
we
from the
ideal gas laws.
deal with in classical me-
chanics are electrically neutral, this basic atomic interaction

the electric force
importance, as
we
between neutral particles
is
of fundamental
shall discuss next.
CONTACT FORCES
Many
we
of the physical systems
shall deal with are the
objects of everyday experience, acted

friction, the
strings
we
and
push and
cables,
upon by such
ordinary
forces as
and beams, the tension of

Each of these forces involves what
puli of struts
and so
on.
naively call physical "contact" with the object under ob-
servation.
Consider, for example, a book resting on a horizontal table.
The book
is
supported by the
sum
total of countless electro-
magnetic interactions between atoms

layers of the
book and the
these interactions
purposes, however,
all
table.
would be
we can
in
the adjacent surface
A submicroscopic analysis of
prohibitively complex.
For most
lump
ignore this complexity and can
these interactions together into a single force that
call
we
shall
category but a
a contact force. This is a rather artificial

Broadly speaking, all the familiar forces of a me-
useful one.
chanical nature, including the force that a liquid or a gas exerts
on a
surface, are contact forces in this sense.
the previous section
150
The various
makes
it
Our
discussion in
clear that they are electric forces
forces of nature
Fig.
5-6
(a)
Two charged
conlact.
the electrical repulsion.
apparently in conlact.
this
spheres, obciously not in
The weight of the upper sphere

(b)
Two
is
balanced by
uncharged spheres,
Oli a sufficiently magnified scale,
appearance ofa conlact ofsharp geometrical bound-
aries
would disappear.
exerted between electrically neutral objects.

of such forces when one smooth, hard object
The development
is
pressed against
another comes about through a distortion of the distributions

of positive and negative electric charges.
It is characteristic
of
such forces that their variation with the distance between the
objects
is
much more
rapid than the inverse-square dependence
that holds for objects carrying a net charge.
Thus the contact
forces are, in effect, forces of very short range; they fail to
when objects are more than about one atomic

diameter apart. The fact, however, that they do have a systematic dependence on the distance of separation means that the
notion of what we ultimately mean by "contact" is not clear-cut.
negligible size
no fundamental distinction between the situation represented by two charged spheres, visibly held apart by their electrical repulsion, and the same two spheres, uncharged, apparently
There
is
in contact, as
assumes a
trical
shown
force on
separation
in Fig. 5-6.
final position
it
it
just balances
(a) Quali-
tatwe graph offorce

versus separation for
the
charged spheres
ofFig. 5-6{a).
conlact
i. e.,
is
if
in Fig. 5-7,
For any smaller
we display these variations

we see a drastic difference.
In the case of uncharged objects, the transition from negligible

force to very large force
is
so abrupt that
it
supports our im-
pression of a completely rigid object with a geometrically sharp
The
"soft"
the difference be-
tween
F and
slowly with
(b)
weight.
its
exceeds the weight. But
of force with distance, as

5-7
Fig.
In each case the upper sphere
of equilibrium in which the net elec-
W varies
r.
Comparable graph
for the uncharged

spheres ofFig. 5-5(6).
The conlact
is
"hard"
the near equality of

F and
W occurs only
Separation of centers, r
over an extremely
narrow range of
(a)
values of r.
151
Contact forces
Separation of centers.
(b)
Do
boundary and no interaction outside that boundary.
an
and that
not
forget,
however, that this
refined
measurements would always reveal a continuous variation
is
idealization,
sufficiently
of force with separation.
FRICTIONAL CONTACT FORCES

The
discussion
the previous section has concentrated on
in
contact forces called into play by the simple pushing together
of two objects. Such forces are then at right angles to the surface
we
of contact
of that word.
call
But
them normal
forces in the geometrical sense
much importance and
interest attaches to the
tangential forces of friction that appear
when
the attempt
is
made
to drag an object sidcways along a surface. Figure 5-8(a)

depicts a block resting on a horizontal surface; its weight is
supported by a normal contact force N.
We now
apply a hori-
Suppose that the magnitude of P is gradually

increased from zero. At first nothing seems to happen the block
remains still. We know, from our analysis of equilibrium situations, that this means that a force equal and opposite to P is
zontal force P.
being supplied via the contact between the block and the surface.
This
is
the frictional force, S.
balance P, just
crease if
rection,
we
It
automatically adjusts
as the normal force
deliberately pushed
on the top of the block.
minute deformations of the
down
we can imagine
charge distributions along
the interface, sufficient to develop the requisite forces.
(a)
Block
on a rough horizontal
table, subjected to
its
maximum
limiting value,
certain value, the frictional force
it
may
horizontal puli, P.
{b) Qualitative
graph
of the frictional force,

S, as afunclion ofP.
The condiiion
can be
S = P
satisfied
up to
the point at which
S =
nN. After
the eguilibrium
bound
that,
is
to be broken.
152
But then,
S
when P is
broken
is no longer ablc to keep step with it. The equilibrium is
down, and motion ensues. A graph of S against the applied
force P might look like Fig. 5-8(b). Once S has been brought to
increased beyond a
Fig.5-8
in-
harder, in a vertical di-
In both cases
electric
to
itself
would automatically
The various
forces of naturc
even drop at
first
as
is
F
v
(i')/
Fig.
5-9
(a) Force
on a sphere in a
flowing fluid.
(b) Total force o
fluidfriction is
1
mtr-i
r^
)
Av
-
mode
P ofseparate terms
that are respectively

linear
and quadratic
in the
relativeflow
celocity, v.
further increased, although
and
to motion,
it
tends to remain at a fairly constant
However, the whole regime
value thereafter.
ff
may depend
uniquely defined region
which we can put
JF
is
in detail
on the
P >
P, as represented by the 45 line on the
fact that the limiting value of
(n)
The only
velocity.
that of static equilibrium, throughout
graph of Fig. 5-8(b). The other feature of interest
normal force N, so that
S corresponds
F is
is
the empirical
roughly proportional to the
the
their quotient
coefficient
of friction
a property of the two surfaces in contact:
is
11N
(5-3)
The above
discussion applies to the contact of two solid
surfaces.
If the contact is lubricated, the behavior is very dif-
One
ferent.
is
then dealing, in effect, with the properties of the
contact between a fluid (liquid or gas) and a solid.
The
basic
properties of so-called fluid friction can be studied by measuring

the force exerted on a fixed solid object as a stream of fluid
driven past
it
range of values of u, this
fluid frictional resistance
is
is
Over a wide
at a given speed d [see Fig. 5-9(a)].
well described
by the following formula:

R(v)
where
The
first
second
is
= Ao + Bv 2
and
are constants for a given object in a given fluid.
term depends on the viscosity of the
153
fluid,
and the
associated with the production of turbulence.
the ratio of the second term to the
knows
(5-4)
first is
proportional to
that at sufficiently high speeds the fluid friction
Frictional contaci forces
is
Since
v,
one
domi-
nated by turbulence, however small the ratio B/'A may be. The
same consideration guarantees that at sufficiently low speeds the
resistance will be
dominated by the viscous term,
directly propor-
tional to o [see Fig. 5-9(b)].
CONCLUDING REMARKS
In this chapter
given a brief account of the three major
we have
types of physical interactions and have indicated the general
To
areas in which they are dominant.
recapitulate:
Nuclear
forces are significant only for nuclear distances, the gravitational
force
is
important only
if
objects of astronomical scale are in-
volved, and nearly everything else ultimately depends on electro-
magnetic interactions.
The study of
physics
is
attempt to understand these interactions and

sequences.
In mechanics
we
essentially the
their
con-
have, for the most part, the
more
all
modest goal of taking the forces as given and considering various

dynamical situations in which they enter. We shall, however, be
discussing two classic cases gravitation and alpha-particle
which Newtonian mechanics provided the key to

the basic laws of force. The present chapter has provided a kind
of preview, because it summarizes the state of our current knowlscattering
in
edge without entering into any detailed discussion of

have come to know it. The real work lies ahead!
how we
PROBLEMS
At what distance from the earth, on the line from the earth to
the sun, do the gravitational forces exerted on a mass by the earth
and the sun become equal and opposite? Compare the result with
5-1
the radius of the moon's orbit around the earth.
5-2
By what
of
normal
its
angle, in seconds of are, will a plumbline be pulled out

vertical direetion
10-ton truck that parks 20
ft
by the gravitational attraction of a
Do you
away?
think that this effect
could be detected ?
5-3
In a Cavendish-type apparatus (see the figure) the large spheres

g. The length of the arm con-
are each 2 kg, the small spheres each 20

necting the small spheres
is
20 cm, and the distance between the centers

The torsion
it is 5 cm.
of a small sphere and the big sphere elose to

constant of the suspending fiber
is 5
deflection of the suspended system
154
The various
is
forces of naturc
-8
m-N/rad. The angular

deduced from the displacement
10
Scale
^20 g
change in direction of the
which the mirror

It is
is
(Remember
that the
through
turned.)
when
observed that
effect
Deduce
the value of
shifted
is
their initial
other side (dashed lines) the
on the
position of the spot of light

(a)
moved from
the large spheres are
positions to equivalent positions
mean
m away.
reflected light is twice the angle
of a reflected spot of light on a scale 5
by 8 cm.
according to these data, ignoring the
on each small sphere of the
force due to the
more
distant of the
larger spheres.
on
(b) Estimate the percentage correction
quired to allow for the effect of the
The
5-4
more
the result of (a) re-
distant spheres.
Cavendish experiment was done with a large-size
original
one wants to make the gravitational forces

and torques as big as possible. However, this requires a strong, stiff
wire to support the suspended masses. Much later (1895) C. V. Boys
apparatus, as
is
natural
apparatus, using thin fibers of fused quartz for the
made a miniature
suspensions.
sensitivity
if
It is
an interesting exercise to see how the attainable

its size. Imagine two versions
of the apparatus depends on
of the Cavendish apparatus,

in
which the
radii
A and
and separations of
B, both using solid lead spheres,

the masses in B, together with
all
down by
maximum
the length of the torsion fiber, are scaled
with respect to A.
We
then design for
a certain factor
each
sensitivity in
apparatus by using the thinnest possible torsion fiber that will take
Now for a
the weight of the suspended masses without breaking.
torsion fiber of given material
mum
and
supportable load
its
Using
is
torsion constant
this
and of circular cross
proportional to
is
two
section, the
where d
is its
proportional to d* /I, where
information, compare the
obtainable with the
d2
different sizes
maximum
maxi-
diameter,
/ is its
length.
angular deflections
of apparatus.
(Remember, the
lengths of the torsion fibers also differ by the scaling factor L.)
5-5
155
The
radius of the hydrogen
Problems
atom according
to the original
Bohr
'
is
0.5 A.
(a)
What
theory
is
the
Coulomb force between the proton and

What is the gravitational force?
the
electron at this distance?
How
(b)
Coulomb
far apart
must the proton and electron be for the
force to be equal to the value that the gravitational attrac-
tion has at 0.5
A? What
familiar astronomical distance
is this
com-
parable to?
5-6
Suppose electrons could be added to earth and moon until the

repulsion thus devcloped was of just the size to balance the
Coulomb
gravitational attraction.
electrons that
5-7
What would be
would achieve
For a person
the smallest total
mass of
this?
living at 45 latitude,
what
fractional difference, during
the day,
minimum
due to the moon
gravitational forces
is
the approximate
between the
maximum and
the change resulting
from the fact that the earth's rotation causes the person's distance
from the moon to vary ? What is a manifestation of this kind of force
effect in
5-8
nature?
You know
that the
Coulomb
both obey an inverse-square law.
force
and the
Suppose that
that the origin of the gravitational force
is
gravitational force
it
were put to you
a minute difference be-
tween the natural unit of positive charge, as carried by a proton, and
Thus
the natural unit of negative charge, as carried by an electron.
"neutral" matter, containing equal numbers of protons and electrons,
would not be
quite neutral in fact.
What
(a)
fractional difference between the positive
and negative
elementary charges would lead to "gravitational" forces of the right
How
magnitudo between lumps of ordinary "neutral" matter ?
could
such a difference be looked for by laboratory experiments?

(b) Is the theory tenable?
5-9
The
(a)
text (p. 148) quotes a valuc of the nuclear force for
two
nucleons close together but also suggests that to describe the nuclear
interactions in terms of forces
any way
in
(b)
is
not very practical.
According to one of the
earliest
and simplest
descriptions of the nuclear interaction (by H.

attraction between
F( ,)
Can you
suggest
which a nuclear force as such could be measured?
two nucleons
Yukawa)
at large separation
theoretical
the force of
would be given by
_d e -'"o
15
m and the constant A is about
where the distance r o is about 10~
10" 1 N-m. At about what separation between a proton and a neutron
would the nuclear force be equal to the gravitational force between
these
two
particlcs?
5-10 Can you think of any systems or processes in which gravita-
156
The yarious
forces of nature
tional, electromagnetic,
5-11
As mentioned
and nuclear forces
all
play an important role?
of the
in the text, the attractive (long-range) part
force between neutral molecules varies as l/r
For a number of
molecules, the order of magnitude of this van der Waals force
well
is
represented by the equation

76 7
Fvw (r)~ -10- A
FV w
where
newtons and r
is in
Compare the magnitude of

Coulomb force between two ele-
in meters.
the van der Waals force with the
C]:
mentary charges [Eq. (5-2), with<?i = ?2 = e = 1.6 X 10~
=
about
equal
to
the
diameter
is
a
distance
r
4
A.
(This
(a) For
of a molecule of oxygen or nitrogen and hence barely exceeding the
closest
approach of the centers of two such molecules
in a collision.)
For a value of r corresponding to the mean distance between

molecules in a gas at STP.
(b)
5-12 One of the seemingly weakest forms of contact force

surface tension of a liquid film.
One
the
is
of the seemingly strongest
is
the
However, when expressed in

terms of a force between individual atoms in contact, they do not
look so different. Use the following data to evaluate them in these
of a stretched metal wire.
tensile force
terms:
(a) If
-3in.-
3 in. wide,
a water film
and a
the weight of about
Waterfilm
is
formed between a rectangular wire frame,
freely sliding transverse wire (see the figure),

1
contractile force can be ascribed to the contact of the
within a monomolecular layer along each side of the
that the molecules are 3
lg
it
g to prevent the film from contracting.
across
and
film.
atoms
takes
This
lying
Supposing
closely packed, calculate the
force per molecule.

(b)
copper wire of 0.025-in. diameter was found to break
when a weight of about 10 kg was hung from
its
lower end.
First,
calculate this breaking force in tons per square inch. If the fracture
is
assumed to involve the rupturing of the contacts between the atoms
on
the upper
and lower
sides
of a horizontal section right across the
wire, calculate the force per atom, assuming an atomic diameter of
about
5-13
A.
time-honored trick method for approximately locating the
midpoint of a long uniform rod or bar
is
to support
it
horizontally
any two arbitrary points on one's index fingers and then move the
fingers together.
(Of course, just finding its balance point on one
finger alone works very well, too!) Explain the workings of the trick
method, using your knowledge of the basic principles of static equilibrium and a property of frictional forces: that they have a maximum
at
value equal to a constant
/x
(the coefficient of friction) times the
com-
ponent of force normal to the surface of contact between two objects.
157
Problems
5-14
A string in tension
(a)
is
in
contact with a circular rod (radius
A0
over an arc subtending a small angle
the force with which the string presses radially inward
(and hence the normal force

string)
on
r)
that
the pulley
which the pulley pushes on the
equal to TA9.
is
Hence show
(b)
This
to T/r.
AN with
Show
(see the figure).
is
that the
normal force per unit length
is
equal
a sort of pressure which, for a given value of T, gets
bigger as r decreases.
when a
(This helps to explain why,
string is
around a package, it cuts into the package most deeply

passes around corners, where r is least.)
tightly tied
as
it
the contact
(c) If
not perfectly smooth, the values of the
is
amount AF
AN, where n is
Deduce from this
tension at the two ends of the arc can differ by a certain
before slipping occurs.
The
AT is
value of
the coeffkient of friction between string
equal to
and
rod.
y.
the exponential relation

T(6)
= T
ep
where To is the tension applied at one end of an arbitrary arc (0) of

and T(6) is the tension at the other end.
(d) The above result expresses the possibility of withstanding a
large tension T in a rope by wrapping the rope around a cylinder, a
phenomenon that has been exploited since time immemorial by sailors.
Suppose, for example, that the value of n in the contact between a rope
string
a dock
and a bollard on
of
T corresponding
7"
For
is 0,2.
100
lb, calculate the
values
and four complete turns of rope
to one, two, three
around the bollard.

(It is interesting to
note that
proportional to To-
is
This allows
by having a rope passing

around a continuously rotating motor-driven drum. The arrangement
sailors to
produce a big puli or not, at
can be described as a force
will,
amplifier.)
5-15 In a very dclicate torsion-balance experiment, such as the

Cavendish experiment, the stray forces due to the fluid friction of slow
air currents pushing on the suspended system may be quite significant.
To make
this quantitative, consider the gravity torsion-balance ex-
For suspended spheres of the
periment described in Problem 5-3.

size stated
(r
0.8 cm), the force
due to a flow of
air
of speed v
is
given approximately by the formula [Eg. (5-4)]
(newtons)
where u
due to
is in
2.5
10- 6 <;
10
-s,,2
equaled the gravitational force exerted on the

(i.e.,
the force exerted on a 20-g sphere by a
2-kg sphere with their centcrs 5
The
m/sec. Calculate the value of v that would cause a force
air currents that
sphere in this experiment
158
cm
apart).
various forces of nature
(Hint:
Do
not bother to
solve a quadratic equation for
v.
Just find the values of d for which
the contributions to R, taken separately,

force.
The smaller of the two
enough to
159
spoil the experiment.)
Probiems
would equal the gravitational
values of u so obtained
is
clearly already
To
tell
us that every species of things
occult specific quality
by which
effects, is to tell us nothing.
it
But
acts
is
endowed with an
and produces manifest
to derive
two or three
general principles of motion from phenomena, and afterwards

to tell us
how
the properties
and actions of all corporeal
things follow from those manifest principles,
very great step
in
would be a
Philosophy, t/wugh the causes of those
principles were not yet discovered.
THE PRINCIPLE OF INERTIA

the preceding chapters have treated matter, motion, and force
Now we come to the central problem of
as separate topics.
Newtonian dynamics:
affected
We
by forces?
on the face of
it,
How
really began.
We
saw
much
What can we
simpler:
is
Chapter 4
in
how
will
in the
the study of static cquilibrium
is
zero.
What
For an object
this, to
net force
conclude that
undoubtedly have solved
following diseussion
in
if
is
superfluous.
on
not,
on
and, as a kind
order to keep an object
many problems
Do
the net force
at rest
must bc maintained. After
laws before rcading this chapter.
at rest, the
could be more natural than to
zero, the object must remain
of corollary to
>You
was
turn this statement around and infer that,
moving a
It
problem by Galileo that the science of dynamics
net force aeting
is
is,
say about the
subjected to no forces?
situations leads us to a basic principle:
an object
objects
shall preface this with a question that
motion of an object that

analysis of this
are motions of material
all,
our experience
of Newton's
assume that the
in the use
that account,
wish to get
down
to business
and using them is very sound. The quantitative use of a

physical theory is an essential part of the game; physics is not a spectator
Where do the equations
sport. But to gain real insight and understanding
come from? What do they really say? one must also examine the basic
assumptions and phenomena. And some of the greatest advances in physics
writing equations
have come about in just this way. Einstein arrived at special relativity by
thinking deeply about the nature of time. And Newton, when asked once
about how he gained his insight into the problems of nature, replied "By
constantly thinking unto them."
161
'
Limitalions on in-
Fig. 6-1
molion at the earth's
ertial
surface.
An
object starling oul
horizontally in a Iruly straight

line at
mighl end up on a
In the process
hilttop at B.
would be bound
to slow
it
down.
shows that moving objects on the earth's surface do come to

and a continuing
rest if left to themselves,
effort
does have to
be applied to keep an object moving steadily. But, as Galileo was

the first to realize, an extrapolation beyond the range of ordinary
experience
possible;
is
in
is
expressed in his principle of inertia.
simply asserted that an object would,
Initially, this
resistive forces,
plane.
it
free of all
if
continue with unchanging speed on a horizontal
Galileo himself recognized that this assertion
For a
a limited sense.
truly
flat
to the earth's surface; therefore,
if
is
horizontal plane
true only
is
extended far enough,
tangent
it
must
be seen as going perceptibly up hill (Fig. 6-1), and objects

traveling outward along it must ultimately slow down.
Subsequently Isaac Newton stated the principle of inertia in
a generalized
form
the Principia: "Every
uniform motion
law" of motion as presented
in his "first
body perseveres
in
its
in a right line, unless it is
that state by forces impressed
which we probably
upon
all learn
shows a
say? The
chanics, and Fig. 6-2
in
it."
our
It is
first
state of rest,
in
or of
compelled to change
a familiar statement,
encounter with me-
practical illustration of
it.
But
first thing we must recognize is

what does it really
that, as discussed in Chapter 2, every statement about the motion
of a given object involves a physical frame of reference; we can
only measure displacements and velocities with respect to other
Thus
objects.
the principle of inertia
is
not just a clear-cut
much
around and make a
statement about the behavior of individual objects;

deeper than that.
We
can, in faet, turn
it
it
goes
statement that goes roughly as follows:

There exist certain frames of reference with respect to which the
motion of an object, free of all external forces, is a motion in a
straight line at constant velocity (including zero).
For
Galileo's
Two New
tions,
162
own
diseussion of these matters, see his Dialogues Concerning

Crew and A. de Salvio, translators), Dover Publica-
Sciences (H.
New
York.
Fig.
6-2
motion al conslanl velocity a bullet

photographed strobo-
traveling at about 1,500 J1 /sec,
scopically at 30,000 flashes/sec.
(Photograph by Prof.
Harold E. Edgerton, M. I. T.)
reference frame in which the law of inertia holds
good
frame, and the question as to whether a

is called
given frame of reference is inertial then becomes a matter for
an
inertial
observation and experiment.
Most
observations
made
within
the confines of a laboratory on the earth's surface suggest that a
frame of reference attached to that laboratory

all, it
was on
is
After
suitable.
the strength of observations within such a frame
that Galileo arrived at the principle of inertia in the
first
place!
A more critical seruti ny shows that this is not quite good enough,
but we shall do that later.

to look further afield
For the moment we shall limit ourselves to introducing the main
principle, which is not affected by the later refinements.
Sir Arthur Eddington, who had a flair for making comments
and we need
that were both penetrating and witty, offered his
own
of the principle of inertia: "Every body continues

of rest or uniform motion in a straight
it
doesn't."
In other words, he regarded
'A. S. Eddington, The Nalure o/ the Physical
University of Michigan Press,
163
The
Ann
principle of inertia
line,
it
version
in its state
except insofar as
as being, in the last
World (Ann Arbor Paperbacks),
Arbor, Mich., 1958.
an expendable proposition. (He was paving the way for

a discussion of general relativity and gravitation.) This remark
of Eddington's nevertheless draws attention, in a colorful way,
analysis,
to
what
the very foundation of
is
No
Newtonian mechanics: Any
is
taken to imply the existence
no force and vice versa. It must be

recognized that we cannot "prove" the principle of inertia by
an experimental test, because we can never be sure that the object
of a force.
under
test
is
deviation,
truly free of all external interactions, such as those
due to extremely massive objects at very large distances. Moreover, there is the far from trivial question of defining a straight
line in a real physical sense:
nor
is
it is
certainly not intuitively obvious,
an abstract mathematical question.
it
(How would you

can be
define a straight line for this purpose?)
Nevertheless,
claimed that the principle of inertia
a valid generalization
is
it
from experience; it is a possible interpretation of observed

motions, and our belief in its validity grows with the number
of phenomena one can correlate successfully with its help.
FORCE AND INERTIAL MASS: NEWTON'S LAW

The law of
of an object
inertia implies that the

is
"natural" state of motion
a state of constant velocity.
Closely linked to
the recognition that the effect of an interaction between
this is
an object and an external physical system is to change the state

of motion. For example, we havc no doubt that the motion of a
tennis ball is affected by the racket, that the motion of a compass
needle
is
affected
by
magnet, and that the motion of the earth
by the sun. "Inertial mass" is the technical phrase

for that property which determines how difficult it is for a given
applied force to change the state of motion of an object. Let us
consider how this description of things can be made quantitative.
is
affected
"Force"
ciate
it
is
an abstract term, but we have seen how to assocompressing springs,
with practical operations such as
and so on. We can readily study the

effect of pushing or pulling on an object by such means, using
The observations become parforces of definite magnitude.
stretching rubber bands,
ticularly clear-cut if
otherwise
move
we apply
a force to an object that would
with constant velocity.
very close approxima-
tion to this ideal can be obtained by supporting a flat-bottomed

object on a cushion of gas for example by placing the object on
164
(a)
6-3
Fig.
(a) Strobo-
scopic pholograpli of
a uniformly accel-
The
eraled molion.
time interval between
Hght flashes was

sec.
Acceleratior
(From PSSC
2 springs
Physics, D. C. Heath,
Lexington, Massa-
chuselts, 1960.)
(b)
Simple dynamical
experimenls ihat can
Acceleration
be used as a basis for

1
block
block
deoeloping Newton'
second law.
spring
(b)
a horizontal table pierced with holes through which air is blown

from below. It is then possible to puli horizontally on the object
and make such observations as the following

1.
spring, stretched
(see also Fig. 6-3):
by a constant amount, causes the
velocity of the object to change linearly with time

tion
produced
2. If a
in
a given object by a given force
second spring, identical with the
by the same amount,

celeration
force,
is
doubled.
is
the accelera-
is
constant.
first
used side by side with the
That
is,
if
we
take a
known
and
stretch-
first,
the ac-
multiple of a
according to our criteria for comparing forccs in static
equilibrium (see Chapter 4), then the acceleration produced in a

given object
It
is
directly proportional to the total force.
thus becomes possible to write
expressing the relation betwccn forces
165
Force and
ineriial
down
F and
simple equations
accelerations a:
mass: Newton's law
= kF
a
or
F=
k'a
k' describc thc inertial properties of the particular
where k and
Which of
object.
We
convenient?
3.
If
we
the above two statements of the results

find the
place
on
the
answer
first
is
more
in another simple experiment:
object a second, identical object,
by given arrangements of the springs are rcduced to half of what was obtained
with one object alone. We can express this most easily by choos-
it is
observed that
all
accelerations produced
ing the second of the above equations, so that the inertial property
is
additive
the inertial constants k' of
i.e.,
two
different objects
can be simply added together, and the acceleration of the combined system under a given force
F=
(Ar'i
k'2 )a
is
immediately given by
l+2
i.e.,
1+2
fci
It is
is
+ JG
by such steps that one can be led to the equation that

known as "Newton's (second) law":
universally
F = ma =
m
di
(6-1
where the proportionality factor m (identical with k' as defined

above) is called the inertial mass of the object and F is the net
force acting on it. Embodied in this basic statement of Newton's
law
is
tities
the feature that force and acceleration are vector quan-
and
is
always
in the
same
direction as
the net force.
An
interesting
historical
fact,
often
overlooked,
is
that
Newton's own statement of the basic law of mechanics was nol

in the form of Eq. (6-1); the equation F = ma appears nowhere
Newton spoke of the change

"motion" (by which he meant momentum) and related this
in
the Principia.
the value of force
Instead,
time.
In other words,
of
to
Newton's version
of the second law of motion was essentially the following:
FAt =
166
mAo
(6-2)
We
Chapter 9 that Newton's way of formulating the
shall see in
law grew, by inference, out of the particular kind of evidence

available to him: the consequences of collision processes.
Direct
experiments of the kind illustrated in Fig. 6-3 were not possible

with the limited techniques of Newton's day.
(The only type
of uniformly accelerated motion easily accessible to Newton was

that of motion under gravity, but this, of course, did not allow
any independent control over the value of F applied to a given

object unless the use of an inclined plane, giving a driving force
mg sin
regarded as
6, is
fulfilling this
purpose.)
SOME COMMENTS ON NEWTON'S LAW

and familiar as Eq. (6-1) is, it nevertheless contains an
enormous wealth of physical concepts indeed, almost the whole
First comes the assumption that
basis of classical dynamics.
Sitnple
quantitative measurements of displacements and time intervals
lead us to a unique value of the acceleration of an object at a
we remind
If
given instant.
ourselves that displacements can
only be measured with respect
that this, like the principle of inertia,
the choice of reference frame.
frame
in
In fact,
which the acceleration
is
measured
For the kinds of basic experiments

earth
fills
celeration vector
an important
the direction of the net force vector.
result;
it
is
an expression of the
This
fact that the
combine
in a linear
Suppose, for example, that an object has two springs
way.
attached to
it
[see Fig. 6-4(a)].
force Fi in the
acceleration
y.
F /m
t
direction.
along
Acting alone
direction.
that
the
acting together
is
just
vectors Fi and
F2
to
is
it
acceleration caused
not
by
F2
n the
predictable by
the
two springs
what one would calculate by adding the

form a resultant force F [Fig. 6-4(b)] and
mass
[Fig. 6-4(c)].
The observed
equal to F/m. This result provides the dynamical
basis for the "independence of motions" that
purely kinematic effect

It tells
on the object a
would produce an
would produce an acceleration F-i/m
applying this single force to the

acceleration a
exerts
Spring 2 exerts a force
x.
it
Spring
Acting alone
then a matter of experiment
It is
pure logic
167
inertial frame.
the feature, already emphasized, that the acis in
accelerative effects of several different forces
along
an
is
illustrated in Fig. 6-3, the
this role.
Next comes
is
we see
cannot be separated from
we tacitly assume that the
to other physical objects,
in
the trajectory
we
discusscd as a
problem of Chapter
us that the instantaneous acceleration of an object
Some comments on Newton's law
is
3.
the
'
Fig.
6-4
(a)
Object pulled by two springs in perpendic-
ular directions.
(b) Resultan! force calculated according

(c)
Obserced acceleralion
ofthe objecl agrees With lhal due
lo the net force cector
to Ihe laws ofveclor addUion.
as found in (b).
consequence of a linear superposilion of the applied forces or of

the accelerations that they
would individually produce.
If this
resiilt did not hold, the prediction and analysis of motions as

produced by forces would become vastly more complicated and
difficult.
The
Let us add a word of explanation and caution here.

linear superposition
of instantaneous components
does not mean that
we can always
of acceleration
automatically proceed to
whole course of development of the y

component of an object's motion without reference to what is
happening in the x direction. To take an example that we shall
calculate, let us say, the
consider
in
magnetic
more
detail later, if a
field, the
charged particle
component of
is
moving
in a
force in a given direction de-
pends on the component of velocity perpendicular to that direction. In such a case, we have to keep traek of the way in which
that perpendicular velocity
component changes
as time goes on.
one may
In the case of an object subjected to a single force,
be tempted to think that

celeration
is
in the
same
it
is
intuitively
obvious that the ac-
direction as the force.
pointing out, therefore, that this

velocity particles are involved
is
sufficiently
modified kinematies and dynamics of special

Finally
comes the
It
may
be worth
not in general true
if
high-
fast to require
the
relativity.
assertion that a given force, applied to a
particular object, causes the velocity of that object to change
at a certain rate
a,
the magnitude of which depends only on the
See, for example, the volume Special Relatioity
168
in this series.
Fig.
6-5
inertial
Increase of
mass with
speed, as revealed in
experiments on high-
speed electrons.
Based on data of
(open circles) Kauf-
mann
(1910), (filled
circles)
Bucherer
(1909),
and
(crosses)
Guye and Lauanchy

(1915). (AflerR.S.
Shankland, Atomic
and Nuclear Physics,
Macmillan,
New
York, 1961.)
magnitude and direction of F and on a

characteristic of the object
remarkable result;
Newton's law
let
ment,
or
is
No!
it
its inertial
us consider
it
single scalar quantity
mass m.
is
all
a very
further.
by any
example by a stretched spring, has the

Thus, according to
conditions.
does not matter whether the object
traveling at high speed. Is this alvvays,

It
This
asserts that the acceleration produced
constarit force, as for
same value under
is initially
this state-
stationary
and universally true?
speeds that
the acceleration
turns out that for extremely high speeds
are a significant fraction of the speed of light
produced by a given force on a given object does depend on v.

Under these high-speed conditions Newton's mechanics gives
way
The
to Einstein's, as described by the special theory of relativity:

inertia of a given object increases systematically with speed
according to the formula

m(o)
(6-3)
- oVc2)" 2
(1
shown in Fig. 6-5, with experimental data that

substantiate it. The quantity m Q which is called the "rest mass"
of the object, represents what we can simply call the inertial mass
This relation
is
in all situations to
for
any v
which
classical
c the value of
preciably different
from
mechanics applies, because
according to Eq. (6-3)
is
inap-
Another implication of Newton's law, as expressed by Eq.

(6-1), is that the basic dynamics of an object subjected to a
2
2
given force does not depend on d v/dt or on any of the higher
time derivatives of the velocity.
169
The absence of any such com-
Some comments on Newton's law
plication
is
in itself a
remarkable
result,
which as
far as
we know
continues to hold good even in the "relativistic" region of very
high
velocities.
has, however, been pointed out that
It
if
one
considers physiological effects, not just the basic physics, the
d 2 o/dt 2 (= da/dt) can be important.

good feeling of a "smooth acceleration" in a
existence and magnitude of
We
all
car,
and what we mean by
know
the
close to being constant.
that phrase
to
an acceleration that
is
rapid rate of change of acceleration
produces great discomfort, and

unit of da/dt
is
it
has even been suggested that a
be called a "jerk"
should
be introduced as
a quantitative measure of such effects!
The conclusion
is
that
we can draw from the above
that Newton's law, although
ultimately limited in
discussion
applica-
its
does express with insignificantly small error the relation

between the acceleration of an object and the force acting on it
for almost everything outside the realm of high-speed atomic
tion,
particles.
SCALES OF MASS AND FORCE

Granted that a given force produces a unique acceleration of a
given object, we can then apply this same force to different
Such observations can be used to establish quantitative
scales for measuring both inertial masses and forces. In taking
this step, we adopt Newton's law as the central feature of meobjects.
Although we have hitherto used static situations to

compare forces with one another, we now turn to dynamics for
defining the absolute magnitudes of forces in terms of the motions
chanics.
This also means that instead of relying on static

measurements to give us prior knowledge of the magnitude of a
force, we accept the idea that Newton's law can be used as an
they produce.
from the observed acceleration that it produces. Because the measures of force and
inertial mass are linked in the single equation F = ma, there is
danger of circularity in our definitions. But we shall not delve
into the subtleties of this problem; we shall simply present a
analytical tool for deducing the force
pragmatic method of establishing scales of measures for these

quantities.
Our observations permit

given spring
is
us to assume that every time a
stretched to the
same magnitude of force on an
170
same elongation,
it
object attached to
exerts the
for
it
we
We can then
observe a reproducible acceleration.
of different objects, labeled

with the same force
...
1, 2, 3,
a x a 2 a3
F=
can use these experimental results to define an
scale because
number
at a time
our spring stretched to the same elon-
(i.e.,
gation) and measure the individual accelerations
We
take a
them one
puli
mass
inertial
we can put
m\a\
12^2
W!l
fl3
W3<33
Therefore,
m\
One
fl2
particular object (e.g.,
Standard unit mass

of
all
m,) can be chosen
called a "kilogram."
(arbitrarily) as
quantitative measure
other inertial masses can then be obtained in terms of the

Originally, the kilogram
Standard object.
was defined
to be the
3
mass of 1000 cm of water at its temperature of maximum
density (about 4C), but it is now the mass of a particular cylinder
of platinum-iridium alloy, kept at the International Bureau of
Weights and Measures
France.
in Sevres,
tended to be exactly equivalent to the

small discrepancy
was discovered
it
liter
of water, but when a
was decided
metal Standard as being generally superior

reproducibility,
(This object was in-
in
to switch to the
terms of durability,
and convenience.)
If the inertial
mass
truly a property of the object alone,
is
then the ratios (6-4) must be independent of the particular force
Repeating the procedure with a spring extended by a
used.
amount and hence with
different
finds experimentally that the
The
mass
different accelerations,
ratios are the
fact that these experimentally
same as
determined mass ratios are
independent of the magnitude of the force establishes the
mass as a
Our
one
before.
inertial
characteristic property of the object.
quantitative scale for forces likewise stems from
ton's law once the scale of
so that in the
MKS
inertial
system, as
New-
masses has been established,
we mentioned
in
our
first dis-
cussion of forces in Chapter 4, the unit force (the newtori)

defined as the force that imparts to
1
m/sec 2
1
kg an
is
acceleration of
kg-m/sec 2
Dynamical units of force
171
Scales of
mass and
in other systems of
force
measurement can
an exactly similar way, A newton, as we noted in

about equal to the gravitational force on an apple,
on a mass of a few ounces.
be defined
Chapter
i.e.,
in
4, is
In describing the kinds of simple experiments on which the
formulation of
F = ma
might be based, we introduced the result
that the inertial property represented by
may
be tempted to
experimental
As
test.
commonsense
feel that this is
is,
it is
sum of
to the
a shade
But
sound.
just to
question here,
we
let
them come
mass of the
the masses of the electron
and proton?
Why?
less.
is
the inertial masses of a proton
and
that
together to form a hydrogen atom.
No;
You
Is the inertial
electron, separately,
atom equal
additive.
in principle, a legitimate
we have measured
imagine that
and an
is
far as ordinary objects are concerned, this
reaction to the problem
recognize that there
mass
obvious and not worthy of an
then
Because in the formation of the
atom, with the binding together of the proton and electron, the
amount of mass escapes in the form of

Conversely, if an object is made up of various parts
equivalent of a tiny
radiation.
held together by cohesive forces, so that effort has to be supplied

to separate
into those parts, then the
it
individual parts
For ordinary
in
is
objects the difference
atomic and nuclear systems
it
sum of
the masses of the
mass of the original object.

is immeasurably small, but
greater than the
can become a significant feature
of the total mass, and provides the basis of calculations on the

energy of nuclear reactions,
etc.
Returning now to the observed additivity of

for macroscopic
justifies the
objects,
we can
inertial
masses
see that this property fully
procedure of making a set of Standard masses by
constructing blocks of a given material with their volumes in
simple numerical ratios

ality
e. g.,
This proportion-
:2:5: 10 ....
of mass to volume was taken by Newton himself as basic,
embodying the concept of a constant density
for
The very
in fact, a definition
first
sentence in the Principia
is,
a given material.
a definition that
of mass as the product of density and volume

has drawn heavy
"How," they
say,
fire,
because some
critics
regard
it
as circular.
"can one define density except as the quotient
of mass and volume?" But
Newton had
a picture of solid matter
as built up of small particles packed together in a uniform
manner, and
it
probably seemed to him more logical to take
inner structure as primary.
The
calculation of the
this
mass of a
lump of matter would then be in essence a matter of counting

the number of particles that it contained and multiplying by the
mass of a single particle.
172
THE EFFECT OF A CONTINUING FORCE

Our main concern
stantaneous
effect
in this chapter
of a
and the next
is
with the in-
Let us, however, take a
force.
look
first
at a question that will be the subject of very extensive analysis

later in the
book. This question
is:
What
is
the effect of a force
You
is applied to an object and maintained for a while?
no doubt aware that the answer to this question can be given
in more than one way, depending on whether we consider the
time or the distance over which the force is applied. To take the
that
are
simplest possible case,
let
us suppose that a constant force
applied to an object of mass
F=
we have
motion
that
at rest at time zero.
is
is
Then
ma, defining a constant acceleration. The resulting
thus deseribed by the most elementary versions of the
is
kinematic equations:
d
at
x =
At time
the object has traveled a total distance x,
caleulate
Ft
\ttfi
two possible measures
of the total effect
and we can
of F:
= mat = mv
2
Fx = (ma)$at 2 ) = %mv
two primary dynamical properties that we

associate with a moving object: its momentum and its kinetic
Thus we
arrive at the
energy.
The
effect
of
as
measured by the produet Ft
is
called
its
of F as measured by the produet Fx is of course

work. The quantitative measures of Ft and Fx are
impulse; the effect
what we
call
newton-seconds and newton-meters.
The former, which
defines
our measure of momentum, does not have a special unit named

The latter, however, is expressed in terms of the
in its honor.
work or energy
basic unit of
in the
MKS
system
the
joule.
Thus we have
impulse
work
* momentum in
>
= kg-m/sec
N-m = joules
N-sec
kinelic energy in
THE INVARIANCE OF NEWTON'S LAW; RELATIVITY

We have emphasized how the experimental basis of Newton's
law involves the observation of motions with respect to an inertial
173
The invariance
o\'
Newton's law;
relativity
Fig.
6-6
a particle
to
Molion of
P referred
iwoframes
that
have a relatiue
uelocity v.
The
frame of reference.
actual appearance of a given motion
from one such frame to another.
will vary
therefore,
how
It is
worth
seeing,
the dynamical conclusions are independent of the
particular choice of frame
which
means that Newton's me-
chanics embodies a principle of relativity.
The
one
inertial
forces
S',
first
point to establish
frame,
(i.e.,
moves uniformly
is
that, if
we have
having a constant velocity relative to the
instantaneous velocity u in S, and

is v,
given (see Chapter 2) by
Thus
if
any other frame,

also an inertial
an object has the
first is
frame. This follows directly from the fact that
any
a frame in which an object under no
in a straight line), then
is
identified
if
the velocity of S' relative to
then the instantaneous velocity of the object relative to S'
if
u and v are constant velocities, so also
is
and the
u',
object will obey the law of inertia as observed in S'.
To
up rectangular
discuss the problem further, let us set
coordinate systems in both frames, with their x axcs along the

direction of the velocity v (see Fig. 6-6).
Let the origins
O' of the two systems be chosen to coincide
y and
instant, also, the
moved a
the coordinates of
ing equations.
work
in
law of
0, at
and
which
at a later time,
/,
when the
Then
axis of S.
two systems are related by the follow-
appropriate, in view of Galileo's pioneer
kinematics and especially of his clear statement of the

inertia,
that
they should have become
Galilean transformations.)
174
distance vt along the
in the
(It is
z axes of S' coincide with those of S.
Let a moving object be at the point

origin O' has
at
Force, inertia, and molion
known
as the
x'
(Galilean transformalion:
moves
S'
relative to
a constant speed u
L'
with
in the
The
last
r'
- - vt
(o
const.)
=y
=
=
z'
-\-x direction)
= X
(6-5)
z
r
of these equations expresses the Newtonian assumption
of a universal, absolute flow of time, but it also embodies the

specific convention that the zero of time is taken to be the same
instant in both frames of reference, so that all the clocks in both
frames agree with one another.
We
can then proceed to obtain relationships between the
components of an instantaneous velocity as measured

frames. Thus for the x components we have
,
**
dx'
= x
Putting x'
u'z
d
=
,
(x
two
dx
-d7
in the
'
'di
and
vi,
vt)
u,
dt'
dt,
we have
dt
The transformations of
all
three
components of
velocity are as
follows:
u'x
u'y
's
= ux
= u
(6-6)
"z
Finally, diflferentiating these velocity
we have
time,
(for
components with respect to
const.) three equalities involving the
components of acceleration:
du'x
du x
dUy
dUy
du'z
du z
dt'
dt
dt'
dt
dt'
dt
Thus the measure of any

a'
acceleration
is
the
same
in
both frames:
(6-7)
Since this identity holds for any two inertial frames, whatever
their relative velocity,
we say
in classical mechanics.
relativity in
This result
is
Newtonian dynamics (and
it
175
The
illustrate
an invariant
ceases to hold good in
the description of motion according to special
To
is
the central feature of
relativity).
the application of these ideas, consider the
invariancc of Ncwton's law: relativity
Fig.
6-7
Two
ferent views
trajectory
after
it
dif-
of the
of an object
has been
released from rest

i
with respect to a
moving frame.
ide released
from rest
n .V frame
S'.
Frame S
Frame S'
BI
simple and familiar example of a particle falling freely under
Suppose that at
gravity.
0,
when
the axes of the systems
and S' are coincident, an experimenter
from
The
rest in this frame.
drops a particle
in S'
trajectories of the particle, as seen
in
is
observed to follow the expected trajectory according to the
and
5', are plotted in Fig. 6-7.
In each frame the particle
kinematic equations with a vertical acceleration g.

frame, the particle has an
it
In the
horizontal velocity and therefore
initial
follows a parabolic path, whereas in S' the particle, under the
aetion of gravity,
different frames
falls
down.
straight
Observers in these two
would agree that the equation F
ma, where
they use the same F, accounts properly for the trajectories for
any
particle
launehed
in
any manner
in either frame.
The frames
are thus equivalent as far as dynamical experiments are con-
cerned
frame
either
in
frame
may
be assumed stationary and the other
motion, with the same laws of mechanies providing
correct explanations
from the observed motions. This
example of the invariance of Newton's law
INVARIANCE WITH SPECIFIC FORCE LAWS

In this seetion
we
a simple
is
itself.
shall consider a little
more
carefully
what
is
involved in a transformation of Newton's second law of motion.

What do we mean by a transformation of this law? Unless we
have an
explicit
F = ma can be regarded as only

F from the observed motions. So let
law of foree,
a preseription for deducing
us consider the foree provided by the interaetion between two

objects.
Suppose, for simplicity, that the interaetion
by something
like a stretehed
is
provided
rubber band, so that the foree
a funetion only of the distance r between the objects;
can put
F = f (r).
For further
simplicity, let us
'This seetion can be omitted without loss of continuity.
176
Foree, inertia. and motion
i.e.,
is
we
assume that the
motion
object 2
by object
F12
=/(*2-
as measured in
F 12 =
f(x?
x\)
now
shall
X2
S,
can be written
(6-8)
then stated as follows in
2, is
(6-9)
/M2fl2
rewrite this equation so that
entirely in terms of
Eq. (6-5)
frame
*i)
Newton's law, as applied to object

terms of measurements in S alone:
We
Then the force exerted on
confined to the x axis.
is
measurements made
in the
it is
frame
expressed
S'.
From
we have
Xi
(X2
X[)
vl)
(x[
+ ot) =
x2
x\
Thus
Fl2
f(X2
but according to
f(x'2
x[)
is
the
terms of measurements
Fl2
assumed law of
precisely the specification
force,
function
the
of the force
F i2
in
Hence we can put
in S'.
F\2
Turning now to the right-hand side of Eq. (6-9), the Galilean

transformations give us a
inertial
mass
F[ 2
We
motion
inertial
is
a constant:
= f(x 2 -
x\)
a';
and
m2 =
m'i.
Newtonian dynamics the
Thus we are able
= m'2a 2
how
the Newtonian law of
invariant with respect to the particular choice of
frame, provided that the Galilean transformations cor-
rectly describe the transformations
between one frame and another.

as long as
of displacements and times
more complicated
invariance.
force law,
involved only the relative positions and velocities
it
same property of
on
absolute positions
however, the force depended
e.g., if the force law were of the form
of two interacting objects, would possess
and
to write
(6-10)
see here in explicit terms

is
in
If,
this
velocities
F12
= f(xl -
x?)
then the form of the equation of motion would cease to be the
same
in all inertial frames.
Nothing in our experience has
vealed such a situation, which would
177
make
Invariance with Specific force laws
re-
the laws of physics
appear different
in
a laboratory and in a train or plane moving

physical laws were different for
If the
at constant velocity.
might be a clue to the uniqueness of
different observers, this
certain frames of reference.
was, indeed, believed for a long
It
time that a unique reference frame must
medium, pervading space,
how
exist, in the
which the waves of
in
form of a
light
could be
could light travel from the stars to the
carried.
(Otherwise,
earth?)
But Einstein showed how the equivalence of
frames and the invariance of
all
all inertial
physical laws could be pre-
served, provided that the kinematics of Galileo
and the dynamics
of Newton were replaced by ncw formulations that merged into

the old ones in the region of moderate or small velocities.
NEWTON'S LAW AND TIME REVERSAL

The
subject of this section might be
less accurately, stated
more
dramatically, although
as a question: Is time reversible?
Look
two stroboscopic photographs in Fig. 6-8. The first shows

an individual object moving vertically under gravity. Is it falling
down or "falling up"? The second shows a collision between
at the
two
objects.
Which were
the paths of the objects before collision?
In both cases the answer must be
"We
don't know."
motion
two sequences of events could be run backward

would be impossible for the viewer to detect any violation
picture of these
and it
of Newton's
laws.
The reason
is
that all velocities of a collection
of particles can be reversed without violating Newton's law of
motion.
time-reoersal operation (replacing
acceleration
the
unchanged.
downward
(Gravity,
This
direction.)
is
by
kinematical equations) changes every u to -v, but

for example,
it
in
the
leaves the
remains in
because acceleration involves
Thus any conclusions

about forces that we reach as a result of watching a dynamical
process in reverse sequcnce are identical with what we would
the second derivative with respect to time.
conclude from the process
itself.
We
do not
see attractions
apparently turn into repulsions, or anything like that.
And
it
yet,
when we
see
an ordinary motion picture
in reverse,
quickly becomes apparent from the behavior of inanimate
leaving
objects
aside the ludicrous effects of reversing
human
that
actions, which appear strange for quite different reasons
Imagine,
for
direction.
most physical actions havc a well-defined
example, a sequence
in
which a glass
shatters into small fragments on the floor.
178
Force, inertia,
and motion
from a table and

If wc saw a motion
falls
V-/
(b)
(a)
Fig.
6-8
(a) Strohoscopic
photograph ofan object
moving vertically under gravily. Which way is it moving

up, or
down?
collision.
lis
(b) Slroboscopic
time sequence
completely reversible.
is
photograph ofan
lo all intents
and purposes
(From PSSC Physics, D. C.
Heath, Lexinglon, Massachusells, 1965.)
179
elaslic
Ncwton's law and time reversal
picture in which the fragments gathered themselves together into
a whole glass, which then
jumped up onto
would
the table, this
unbelievable nature doesn't act like
clearly be
Yet a
"micromovie" of the individual atomic encounters at every stage
that.
of the process ought to be perfectly time-reversible.
Thus we
are faced with a puzzle: Newton's law implies that
the fundamental dynamical behavior of an individual particle
when one takes a system of very
reversible in time, but
numbers of
apparently the behavior ceases to be time-
particlcs,
The
reversible.
resolution of this mystery
statistical analysis
in the detailed
the subject known
As long
we
as
do not
associated with time rcvcrsal
we
are dealing, as
be here, with systems of only a few
them
found
is
of many-particle systems
as statistical mechanics.
sider
is
large
shall
particles,
the problems
and we
shall not con-
arise
further.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It will
probably have become apparent to you during the course
of this chapter that the
foundation of classical mechanics, as
represented by Newton's second law,

respects subtle matter.
The
is
complex and
law
precise content of the
matter for debate, nearly three centuries after

the
first
version of
it.
in
many
is
still
Newton
stated
"The Origin
In a fine diseussion entitled
and Nature of Newton's Laws of Motion," one author (Brian

Ellis) says:
is
"But what of Newton's second law of motion? What
the logical status of this law?
mass? Or
is it
acceleration?"
Consider
fields
it is
to define
Is it
a definition of foree?
Of
an empirical proposition relating foree, mass, and

1
Ellis
argucs that
how Newton's
it
is
something of
second law
is
all
of these:
actually used.
In
unqueslionably truc that Newton's second law
a seale of foree.
How
else, for
example, can
sure interplanetary gravitational forees?
But
questionably true that Newton's second law

to define a scale
is
it
is
some
is
used
we meaalso
un-
sometimes used
of mass. Consider, for example, the use of the
mass spectrograph. And
in yet
other
fields,
where
foree, mass,
and independently measurable,
and
Newton's second law of motion funetions as an empirical coracceleration are
all
easily
relation between these three quantities.
Consider, for example,
'Published in a colleclion of essays, Beyond the Edge ofCeriainly (Robert G.

ed.), Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1965.
Colodny,
180
Foree, inertia, and motion
Newton 's second law in ballistics and rockTo suppose that Newton's second law of motion, or
any law for that matter, must have a unique role that we can
the application of
etry
describe generally and call the logical status
and
an unfounded
is
unjustifiable supposition.
Since forcc and mass are both abstract concepts and not
objective realities,
we might conceive of a
description of nature
which we dispensed with both of them. But, as one physicist

(D. H. Frisch) has remarked, "Whatever we think about ultimate
in
reality
convenient to follow Newton and
it is
of our observations into
'forces,'
the description
which are what make masses
and 'masses,' which are what forces make
accelerate,
This would be just tautology were
nomena can
on the sameset of masses."

more detail
Now
accelerate.
not that the observed phe-
it
best be classified as the result of different forces
acting
in
split
there are, in fact,
Ellis spells
many and
out
this
same idea
various procedures by which
the magnitudes of the individual forces acting on a given system

may be determined electrostatic forces by charge and distance
by measurement of strain, magnetic

and distance determinations, gravitational
forces by mass and distance measurements, and so on. And it is
an empirical fact that when all such foree measurements are
measurements,
elastic forces
forces by current
made and
the magnitude of the resultant foree determined, then
the rate of change of

tion
is
momentum
of the system under considera-
found to be proportional to the magnitude of
this re-
sultant foree.
And
so
it is
that
we obtain an immensely
fruitful
and accurate
description of a very large part of our whole experience of

objects in motion, through the simple
and compaet statement
of Newton's second law.
PROBLEMS
6-1
Make
a graphical analysis of the data represented by the strobo-
scopic photograph of Fig. 6-2(a) to test whether this
is
indeed ac-
celeration under a constant foree.
For further diseussion of these questions, the American Journal of Physics

a perennial source. See, for example, the following artieles: L. Eisenbud,
"On the Ciassical Laws of Motion," Am. J. P/iys., 26, 144 (1958); N. Austern,
"Presentation of Newtonian Mechanics," Am. J. Phys., 29, 617 (1961);
R. Weinstock, "Laws of Ciassical Motion: What's F? What's ml What's
a?", Am. J. Phys., 29, 698 (1961).
J
is
181
Problem-,
6-2
cabin cruiser of mass 15 metric tons drifts in toward a dock
at a speed of 0.3
is
10
:i
kg.)
m/scc
A man
from the dock, and

try to stop
6-3
a
it.
its
engines have been cut. (A metric ton

able to touch the boat
is
thereafter he pushes
Can he
A man
(a)
window
after
on the dock
on
bring the boat to rest before
of mass 80 kg jumps
ledge only 0.5
down
is
about 2 cm. With what average force does

(b) If
the man jumps from a ledge
bends
it
is 1
it
N to
touches the dock?
to a concrete patio from
He
above the ground.
knees on landing, so that his motion
his
when
with a force of 700
it
neglects to bend
arrested in a distance of
this jar his
1.5
bone structure ?
above the ground but
knees so that his centcr of gravity descends an additional
his
distance h after
his feet
average force exerted
touch the ground, what must h be so that the
on him by
ground
the
is
only three times his
normal weight ?
6-4
An
object of
mass 2 kg
tion of forces in the
20
N at 8 =
tion.
47r/3.
is
xy plane:
The
acled upon by the following combina5
direction 6
at 6
0,
10
at 6
corresponds to the
At t = the object is at the point j;=-6m and y =

components v x = 2 m/sec and vy = 4 m/sec.
velocity
object's velocity
and position at
jt/4,
+x
and
direc-
m and
has
Find the
2 sec.
The graphs shown give information regarding the motion in the

xy plane of three different particles. In diagrams (a) and (b) the small
6-5
Note!
Parabolic
(a)
(Vertical lines
equally spaced)
Direction
,of
motion
(b)
/
=
(c)
182
dots indicate the positions at equal intervals of time.

write equations that describe the force
An
6-6
observer
first
10~ 2 m/sec and
to be
components
For each
Fx and
case,
F.
measures the velocity of an approaching object

10 -2 m/sec. No
then, 1 sec later, to be 2
intermediate readings are possible because the observer's instruments
second to determine a velocity.
full
of 5
what conclusions can the observer make about
g,
The size of the force that had been aeting?

The impulse supplicd by the force?
The work donc by the force?
(a)
(b)
(c)
6-7
has a mass
If the object
take a
partiele of
mass 2 kg
along the x axis according to
oscillates
the equation
x =
where x
0.2 sin
is in
(b)
6-8
-!)
meters and
What
What
(a)
5/
in
seconds.
is
the force aeting
is
the
maximum
car of mass 10 3
kg
is
on the
partiele at
on
force that acts
traveling at 28
= 0?
the partiele?
m/sec
(a
over
little
60 mph) along a horizontal straight road when the driver suddenly

sees a fallen tree blocking the road 100
The
ahead.
the brakes as soon as his reaetion time (0.75 sec) allows

rest 9
and comes
to
m short of the trec.

Assuming constant deceleration caused by the brakes, what
(a)
is
driver applies
What
the decelerating force?
(take g
fraetion
is it
of the weight of the car
9.8 m/sec 2 )?
-1
with
had been on a downward grade of sin
the brakes supplying the same decelerating force as before, with what
speed would the car have hit the tree ?
^)
(b) If the car
6-9
partiele
of mass
follows a path in the
xy plane
that
is
de-
seribed by the following equations:
x = A(at sin a*)

y = A(l cos at)
(a)
Sketch
(b)
Find the time-dependent force veetor that causes
Can you
6-70
suggest a
if
183
is
way
the circle
maximum
is
Pro b lem s
/,
which can support a
used to whirl a partiele of mass
is
the
this
motion.
of producing such a situation in praclice?
piece of string of Iength
tension T,
What
this path.
speed with which the partiele
(a) horizontal; (b) vertical?
maximum
in a cireular path.
may be
whirled
Part II
Classical
mechanics
at
work
Does
the engineer ever predict the acceleration
of a given
bodyfrom a knowledge of its mass and of the forces acting

upon
it
Of course. Does
the chemist ever measure the
mass of an atom by measuring

field offorce?
Yes.
strength of a field
mass
in
Does
its
acceleration in a given
the physicist ever determine the
by measuring
ha t field? Certainly.
the acceleration of a
Why
then, should
known
any one
of these roles be singled out as the role of Newton's second

law ofmotion? Thefact
is
brian
that
it
ellis,
has a variety of roles.
The Origin and Nature
of Newton's Laws of Motion (1961)
Using Newton's law
rr is
worth
used
in
reemphasizing the fact that Newton's law
two primary ways:

Given a knowledge of
1.
we can
calculate
its
forces acting on a body,
all the
motion.
Given a knowledge of the motion, we can
2.
may be
infer
what
force or forces must be acting.
may seem
This
like a very obvious
and quite
trivial
separa-
The first category represents a purely deductive

activity
using known laws of force and making clearly defined
predictions therefrom.
The second category includes the induclive, exploratory use of mechanics
making use of observed
motions to learn about hitherto unknown features of the intertion, but
it is
not.
actions between objects.
law
in
is
Skill in the
deductive use of Newton's
of course basi c to successful analytical and design work
physics and
satisfaction.
engineering and can
bring great intellectual
But, for the physicist, the real
thrill
comes from the
inductive process of probing the forces of nature through the
study of motions.
It
was
in this
way
that
Newton discovered
the law of universal gravitation, that Rutherford discovered the
atomic nucleus, and that the particle physicists explore the structure of nucleons (although, to be sure, this last fleld requires
analysis in terms of
quantum mechanics
rather than
Newtonian
mechanics).
If the law of force is also known, this can be used to obtain information
about an unknown mass. The quotation opposite treats this as a third
category.
187
SOME INTRODUCTORY EXAMPLES

we shall have something to say about the way in
which Newton arrived at his insight into gravitational forces
from the study of planetary motions. But first we shall discuss
how onc goes about calculating motions from given forces.
There will be a certain lack of glamour about some of this initial
work but that is an inescapable aspect of science, as of everyIn Chapter 8
thing
will
else.
And some
pay rich dividends
systematic groundwork at the beginning
We
later.
shall restrict ourselves at first
Thus we
to cases in which the forces are constant.
shall be able
to use the kinematic equations for constant acceleration [Eq.
(3-10)].
For convenience, we quote the equations again
=
=
=
Kinemalic
equations
>
d2
(Constant acceleration only)
do
so
+ eot +
do
here:
at
2a(s
In any given problem our procedure will be
(7-1)
so)
first
to identify
from Fnct = ma, to calcan then use the kinematic
the forces acting on an object and,
all
culate the resultant acceleration.
We
equations to describe the subsequent motion.

latter step is
merely an exercise
of the situation
Do
lies in
in
mathematics; the real "physics"
the analysis of what forces are present.
not be misled by the apparently
Taken
troductory problems.
Generally, this
trivial
nature of these
uninteresting and inconsequential.
But the method of analysis
of salient importance exactly the same approach
more
We
sophisticated problems.
in-
at face value, they are, indeed,
is
is
used in far
purposely begin by choosing
rather elementary systems to clarify the procedure, so the prob-
lems are
trite.
Examp!e
we mean one
to
itself.
this to
No
But keep your eye on the

1: Block
that
is
on a smooth
table.
method it is powerful.
By a "smooth" surface
incapable of exerting any force tangential
such surface exists but some come close enough for
be a useful idealization.
Consider a block of mass

frictionless surface.
Wc
first
Question:
What
pulled horizontally along a

is
the motion of the block?
must dctcrmine what forces act on the block. To

mentally "isolate the block" with an imag-
assist the analysis,
In
this
and succeeding cxamplcs we make the assumption that an object
rest rclative to the earth's
surface has zero acceleration. This
mately truesee Chapter 12 for a
188
Usine Newton's law
full
diseussion.
is
at
only approxi-
Fig. 7-1
(a)
BIock
pulled horizontally on
a perfeclly smooth
surface.
(b)
Same
block with a slring

puli in g in
an arbitrary
direction.
inary boundary surface [see Fig. 7-1 (a)] and
showing
all
draw a sketch
the forces that act from outside through this surface
on the block.
They are
=
T =
force of gravity
contact force the table exerts on the block; this force
tension in the string (a contact force)
normal to the surface, hence our choice of the
We
is
letter
have introduced vector symbols here because clearly forces

more than one direction are involved. The complete
acting in
statement of Newton's law for this case

Since we assume
ma.
we conclude
vertical direction,
is
that the block has
that
thus
+N+
no acceleration
in the
and F are equal and
opposite vectors; n other words,

i
N+
Expressing this a
of F
is
way, we can say that the magnitude
diflferent
equal to the magnitude A' of N, because the mag-
nitude of a vector, without regard to

positive quantity.
The
along y can then be stated
sum of
the forces
on
its
direction,
is
defined as a
condition of zero net force component
the
in
the equation
0.
The
blockthe "net" forceis thus (by

and hence we have T = ma (with
vector addition) equal to T,
both
'We
with
189
and a horizontal).
shall, in these
all
Some
examples, treat each object as
if it
were a point
forces accordingly acting through a single point.
introductory cxamples
particle,
The problem becomes somewhat more

suppose that the puli of the string
The
initial
components now gives us
N+
Vertically
Tsind
N
(The
Tcosf?
equation
of the samc form
and horizontal
=
= ma
us the magnitude of
tells
is
into vertical
the following equations:
Horizontally
first
it
we
substantial if
not horizontal [Fig. 7-1 (b)].
vector statement of Newton's law
as before, but the analysis of
The
is
N'.
= Fg - Tsmd
component of
vertical
the tension in the string hclps to
support the block, and so A' becomes

equation
less
than
Fg
.)
The second
us directly the magnitude of the horizontal ac-
tells
ccleration.
We notice
that there
is
on
a physical limitation
this analysis.
Unless the table can puli downward on the block, as well as

being able to push upward on
is
necessarily upward, as
is
necessarily positive.
it
Thus,
if
in the
Tsin
Example 2: Block on a rough

suppose that the block
and we
is
shall, for simplicity,
Fig. 7-2).
Although
cannot say what
we can put 5
The value of
equal to
<
nmg.
A'
The
7-2
<
the
satisfy
table.
As
Example
in
1,
we
take the puli to be horizontal (see
frictional force 3\
Fa
/* is
If
it
is
"dry
fric-
the coefficient of friction.
in this case,
and
so, writing
gravitational acceleration g,
FB
as
we have
inequality expresses the ability of the frictional
itself,
up to a
Block
pulled horizontally
on a rough surface.
190
we cannot
F,
pulled by a string with a force T,
where
fiN,
cqual to
times
force to adjust
Fig.
is
>
certainly
is
about the properties of the

tion,"
not a difficult problem, we

happen unless we have some information
this
will
its
What happens then?
the assumed conditions.
shall
weight, the force
diagram, and the scalar
to support
shown
Using Newton's law
certain limit, to balance the force T.
Thus the equation
T+
T<
If T >
If
We
nmg:
nmg:
JF
ma, which defines the horizontal
two separate statements:
acceleration, leads to
ff
=
=
(and hence a
T nmg = ma
[and hence a
shall not consider in detail
0)
(T/m)
fig]
what would happen if T were

But one can see that this
applied at an angle to the horizontal.

will
of
modify the value of
You
5F.
and hence,
in turn,
the limiting value
should analyze this case for yourself.
Example 3: Block on a smooth

the block (Fig. 7-3): the force
surface and the gravitational force F.
bound
directions, they are
to
We
Two
incline.
normal
forces act
on
to the (frictionless)
These are
in different
have a nonzero resultant, and the
we wished, introduce horizontal and vertical coordinates x and y and write equations for
F = ma that would define the components az and a y of the
block must accelerate.
could,
if
vector acceleration a
Ncosd
N
It is clear,
= ma
= ma x
siri
however, that a
in this case to
is
parallel to the slope,
introduce the coordinate
and
it is
representing distance
downward direction. Resolving

along and perpendicular to 5, we have
along the slope
in
F sin 6
N-
cos 6
the
we
times the gravitational acceleration g, the
write the magnitude of the gravitational force as equal to
tions gives us
= g sin
Fig. 7-3
Forces acting on a
block on a perfectly smooth

incline.
191
the forces
= ma
=
If
simpler
Some
introductory examples
first
of these equa-
Fig. 7-4
BIock at
respect to
resi with
an accelerating elevator;
the spring scale records its
apparent weight.
Example
A block sits on a
4: BIock in an elevator.
scale (a spring scale!) in
package
an elevator (Fig. 7-4). Question: What
does the scale read as the elevator moves up and
down?
Mentally isolating the block, we recognize that only two

forces act on
it.
They
are:
Va =
the force of gravity (downward)
N =
the contact force (upward) exerted by the scale on the block
The package
scale records the
magnitude of N, because, by the
equality of action and reaction for objects in contact, the force

exerted on the scale
conditions,
is
is
what we
N. The
value of this reading, under any
shall call the
measwed
weight
{W) of
the
block.
If the elevator
acceleration a,
la
(and the block and scale with
it)
has an
upward, then Newton's
measured as positive
w requires
Thus,
if
velocity
the elevator
upward
is
stationary or
on
the block.
positive acceleration (upward), then
m(g
moving with constant
or downward, the reading of the scale
the gravitational force
N=
is
But
if
is
equal to
the elevator has a
we have
a)
In this case the weight of the block, as measured by the scale,

is
192
greater than the gravitational force
Using Newton's Iaw
on
it.
One
will
often
on the
notice this effect personally, as an increased force
of the
feet,
the elevator
is
picking up speed, going upward, and (b)
is
slowing down, going downward. Both of these involve
acceleration
Similarly,
soles
riding an elevator in two situations: (a)
when
the elevator
if
is
slowing
when
when it
upward
down
in its
upward motion or just beginning its downward motion, a is

downward, so that the measured weight is less than F. (Incidentally, the internal discomfort that one sometimes feels in an
elevator can be linked directly to Newton's law.
positive
acquires
(upward) acceleration,
stomach must literally sink a

extra forces from the surrounding
little
If the elevator
heart
onc's
and
before they experience
tissues to
supply the accelera-
tion called for.
Example 5 : Two connected masses. Here
is
a simple example
designed to illustrate the important point that one

isolate, in one's imagination,
apply
F = ma
to
it
alone.
is
free to
any part of a complete system, and

Figure 7-5 shows two masses con-
nected by a light (massless) string on a smooth (frictionless)
surface.
horizontal force, P, pulls at the right-hand mass.
What can we deduce about
the situation?
we can imagine an isolation boundary drawn around

both m, and m 2 and the string that connects them. The only
First,
P,
and the
common
to both
external horizontal force applied to this system

total
mass
P =
is rtii
(mi
plus
m2
Hence we have
+ mi)a
This at once
tells
us the acceleration that
we can imagine an
masses. Next,
the connecting string alone.
T! and T 2 with which

equality of aetion and
Ti
and
isolation
In Fig. 7-5
the string pulls
Two
applied to
its
ends.
con-
nected blocks pulled

horizontal/y on a perfectly smooth surface.
Newton's law must

apply to any part of
the system that one
chooses to consider.
193
Some
is
boundary surrounding
we
indicate the forces
on the masses; by the
reaetion, the string has forces equal to
equal the mass of the string times

Fig. 7-5
is
introduetory examples
The sum of
its
must
Assuming
these forces
acceleration
a.
mass of the string to be negligible, this means that T] and T 2

would have the same magnitude, T, which we call the tension in
the
(This idealized result
the string.
what
is
worth noting
of course, rather obvious;
is,
any
that, in
is
would
real situation, there
have to be enough differencc of tcnsions
at the
ends of the string
to supply the requisitc accelerative force to the mass of the

string itself.)
Finally,
and
m2
we can imagine drawing

separately,
isolation boundaries
around
and applying Newton's law to the hori-
zontal motion of each:
T = m\a
P T = mza
Adding
these equations,
we
arrive at the equation of
But
the total system once again.
if
we take
motion of
either equation alone,
substitution of the already determined value of a will give the
value of the tension
Once again
these problems.
T in
P and the masses.

acknowledge the simple character of
terms of
we
shall
But
if
they are studied in the spirit in which they
are offered not for their
own
sake, but for the
they exemplify the systematic use of Newton's law
way
in
which
they will be
found to suggest a sound approach to almost any problem that

involves a direct application of
MOTION
IN
F = mz.
TWO DIMENSIONS
Ali the examples in the last section dealt with motion along one
dimension only. This
is
not a serious limitation because, thanks
to the "independence of motions,"
any given instant
situation at
force
and acccleration along separate coordinate
simplest case of this

vector.
itself
we can always analyze a
terms of the components of
in
It is
occurs when
directions.
the acceleration a
is
The
a constant
then very convenient to choose the direction of a
as one coordinate; along any direction perpendicular to

component is, by definition, zero, and the
this the acceleration
velocity
component must be constant. Probably
example of
this
procedure
is
the most familiar
the analysis of motion under gravity
can be ignorcd. We considered this as a purely kinematic problem in Chapter 3. Another

example, with the additional feature that we have control over
in the idealization that air resistance
194
Using Newton's law
'
Accelerating
Vertical
Fluorescent
deflectins
screen
plates
anode
(a)
Controlgrid-
Focusing anode
Horizontal
deflecting
Glasswallof tube
plates
Vertical deflection
Fluorescent
plates (simplified)
screen
Resultant
deflection
from central
axis
(b)
Fig.
7-6
Diagram of
(a)
cathode-ray tube.
the
main features ofa simple

diagram ofelectrical
(b) Simplified
connections and electron trajectory.
the applied force,
is
the motion of an electron
Let us consider
ray tube.
this as a
beam
in a cathode-
dynamical problem.
Figure 7-6(a) shows a sketch of a cathode-ray tube, and

Fig. 7-6(b)
a schematic diagram of
is
well-focused
beam
strike
beam
principal features.
from an electron gun passes between two
pairs of deflection plates which,

deflect the
some
transversely
if
appropriately charged, will
away from
the central axis so as to
any particular point on the fluorescent screen.
We
shall
call the central axis the z direetion, so that the direetions of
transverse deflection,
perpendicular to z and to one another,
can be called x and y, just as
The
'We
shall
electron
make
gun
in a real oscilloscope.
accelerates the electrons through a po-
use of certain results concerning the effects of electric forees.

familiar to you, see, for example, PSSC, Physics
If these are not already
(2nd
195
ed.),
Part IV, Heath, Boston, 1965.
Motion
in
two dimensions
tential difference
eV
(where e
This gives to each electron a kinetic energy
the elementary charge) so that
is
gitudinal velocity
it
acquires a lon-
component v 2 given by
= eVo
jn?,fi
(7-2)
Therefore,
After leaving the gun, the electron
not subjected to further
is
acceleration or decelcration along the z direction, so
ordinate continues to change at the rate vz
We
shall
suppose that a potential difference
between the upper and lower ^-deflection

if
an electron were
it
would acquire an energy eV
on
to travel all the
by the transverse
it
in
its z
co-
applied
is
plates.
This means that
way from one
plate to another,
consequence of the work done
electric force
Fy
If
we suppose
the plates
and spaced by a distance d that is small compared

length, the force Fv would have the same value at all
to be parallel
to their
points between the plates, so that the gain of energy would also
Fv d.
be given by
Hence we have
=^d
Given
Fv
this value of
between the
plates,
md
How
the electron will, throughout
far vertically will the electron
depend on the amount of time

If the horizontal extent
plates.
zontal
component of
value v z , the time
passage
its
have an upward acceleration given by
it
be deflected?
This will
spends between the deflection
of the plates
is
/,
and the
hori-
the electron's velocity has the constant
given simply by
is
]_
Vz
From Eq.
we
determine the transverse displacement y

that occurs during the time this upward force acts:
196
(7-1)
sy
vov t
+ \a
2
cari
yt
md\vj
Using Newton's law
But from Eq.
(7-2),
mvz 2 /e
is
2V
just
so
we
obtain
IL
(7-3)
This expression gives the transverse displacement of the electron

as
it
emerges from the deflection
plates.
The
resultant displace-
ment away from the central axis of the spot on the fluorescent
screen may bc found from trigonometric considerations. The z and
y components of the displacement of the electron while between
the plates are given
z
by
o,
from these equations shows that y is proportional

and the trajectory is therefore a parabola.
to z
Once the electron leaves the region between the plates, there
Eliminating
is
no further force on
it
and
it
travcls in a straight line at
angle equal to arctan (o/o,), where v u
component upon leaving the

vy
= aj =
plates.
is its
an
transverse velocity
Now we
have
Y as the
electron travels the
eV
%
i
eVI
VI
vz
mdo?
IVad
The additional transverse deflection

distance D from the deflector plates
to the screen
is
thus given by
r-*?-g
2Vod
(7-4)
v,
If
/,
as
is
usually the case in practice, most of the total
transverse deflection is contained in Y, and

to
estimate the approximate
[sensitivity
AU
we can
use Eq. (7-4)
of an actual oscilloscope
(spot deflection)/(deflection voltage).]
We may note
(7-4).
sensitivity
in
passing a striking feature of Eqs. (7-3) and
distinguishing characteristics of the particle as an
electron have disappeared.
Any
any charge or any mass, could
negatively charged particle, with

in
principle pass through the
system and end up at the same spot on the screen.

In a real oscilloscope, as Fig. 7-6(a) indicates, the deflector
plates are not flat

strictly apply.
It
and
parallel; thus Eqs. (7-3)
remains
true,
and (7-4) do not
however, that these equations
which the deflection depends on the accelerating and deflecting voltages, and also, in a less specific way,
197
indicate the
way
Molion
two dimensions
in
in
on the characteristic dimensions of the tube.
MOTION
IN
A CIRCLE
The problem of
circular
motion
is
often presented as though
it
were separate from the kinds of applications of Newton's law

that we have discussed so far. It may therefore be worth emphasizing that
F =
it
involves a completely straightforward use of
wa. The only special feature
of the acceleration
is
that the radial
is
component
uniquely related to the radius of the path
and the instantaneous speed.

Consider
we suppose that
around a circle of radius r at a
Such a motion can be set up, for
the simplest case, in which
first
an object of mass
is
traveling
constant speed v (Fig. 7-7).
example, by tethering a puck, by means of a taut string, to a
peg on a very smooth horizontal surface (e.g., an air table)

and giving the puck an arbitrary velocity at right angles to the
string.
Then, as wc saw in Chapter 3, the acceleration of the
fixed
object
nitude
purely toward the center of the circle and
is
We know
o' /r.
is
of mag-
that the production of this "centripetal"
acceleration necessitates the existencc of a corresponding force:
F = ma =
(7-5)
In the hypothetical case that
we have
have to be supplied by the tension

if
the string
magnitude,
7-7
the tethering string.
And
not strong enough to supply a force of the required
it
will
break and the object, being

of the motion),
Basic dynamical situa-
tion for a parlicle traveling in a

circle at constant speed.
198
T in
would
is
(at least in the plane
Fig.
described, this force
Using Newton's law
now
will fly off
free of forces
along a tangent.
S*
>
n*
u e
To center
of curve
~^j
/
/
/
/
/r
F.
(b)
Rjf.
7-5
(a)
View ofa curve in a road, as seenfrom

Car on the banked curve, as seen
vertically ocerhead. (b)
front directly behind or
m front.
The motion ofa car on a banked curve

problem of
practical
this type.
presents an important
Suppose that a road has a radius
of curvature r (measured in a horizontal plane), as indicated in

Fig. 7-8(a)
and
is
banked
at
an angle a
as
shown
in Fig. 7-8(b).
car, traveling into or out of the plane of the latter
with speed
v,
has a centripetal acceleration v
of banking
is
to
make
it
/r.
diagram
The purpose
some
possible for the car, traveling at
reasonable speed, to be held in this curved path by a force exerted
on
it
purely normal to the road surface
tangential force, as there
were horizontal.
(And
i.e.,
would have to be
thcre
if
would be no
the road surface
the inability of the road-tire contact to
supply such a tangential force would rcsult in skidding.)

Consider, then, the ideal case as shown in Fig. 7-8(b).
Resolving the forces vertically and horizontally, and applying
F = wa, we have
Nsina =
r
(7-6)
Ncosa Replacing
tana
Fa
=
by mg, and solving
for a,
we
find that
(7-7)
gr
which defines the correct angle of banking for given values of v
199
Motion
in
a circlc
and r. Altematively, given r and a, Eq. (7-7) defines the speed

at which the curve should be taken. The situations that arise if
greater or lesser values of v are used will require the introduction
of a frictional force
nitude
ij.N)
perpendicular to
(and of limiting mag-
acting inward or outward along the slope of the
banked surface
(see
Problem 7-17).
CURVILINEAR MOTION WITH CHANGING SPEED

If a particle
changes
its
speed as
travels
it
along a circular path,
has, in addition to the centripetal acceleration toward the
it
center of the curvature, a
the path.
component of
acceleration tangent to
This tangential acceleration component represents the
rate of change of the magnitude of the vclocity vector. (This
is
in
contrast to the centripetal acceleration component, which de-
pends upon the rate of change of the direction of the velocity

vector.) We derivcd the relevant results in Chapter 3 [Eq. (3-18)].
The situation is most

components separately:
radial
easily
handled by considering the two
component of
acceleration (at right
a,
angles to the path)
(r is the radius
of
curvature)
transverse acceleration)
}
a$
(tangent to the path)|
,-
lim
a<-.o
= do
[note that this
Al
the change of
di
is
magnitude (only)
of the velocity
vector]
(7-8)
With only
slight rcinterpretation,
we may apply
these results
motion along any arbitrary curvilinear path. For

every point along such a path, therc is a center of curvature and
an associatcd radius of curvature (both of which change as one
movcs along the path). Provided that we interpret the symbols
to the case of
and
u to
mean
the instantaneous values of the radius of curvature
and the speed, the above expressions are perfectly general. They
give the instantaneous acceleration components tangent to the
In our formal diseussion of coordinate systems in Chapter 2 we defined the

outward radial direction as positive. We are introducing here the symbol a,
to denote the acceleration component along this direction. The minus sign
'
indicates that this acceleration
as
200
we have
diseussed.
is
in faet
toward the center
(i.e.,
Sce also the diseussion on pp. 106-108.
Using Nevvton's law
centripetal),
Arbitrary path
Fig. 7-9
Acceleration componenls at a poinl on
an arbitrarily curved palh.
path, and normal to the path
for the general curvilinear motion.
In this case Fig. 7-9 indicates a
more appropriate notation
for
these acceleration components.
on a phonoup provides a simple and familiar

possessing both radial and tangential ac-
particle of dust that rides, without slipping,
graph turntable as
example of a
it
particle
starts
components.
celeration
Its total acceleration
combination of a r and o at right angles: a
(Fig. 7-10)
(a r
is
the
1'
2
.
The net horizontal force applied to the particle by the turntable

must be in the direction of a and of magnitude ma. If the contact
between the turntable and the particle cannot supply a force
of this magnitude, such circular motion
is
not possible and the
particle will slip relative to the surface.

If
we
analyze the process of whirling an object at the end
of a string, so as to bring
circular
motion
(as, for
it
from
rest
up to some high speed of
example, in the athletic event "throwing
the
hammer") we
(1)
supply the tangential force to increase the speed of the object,
and
Fig.
(2)
7-10
vector
ofa
see that the string
must perform two functions:
supply the force of the appropriate magnitude
Net acceleration
particle attached to
a disk ifthe angular velocity of

the disk is changing.
201
Curvilinear motion with changing speed
mv 2 /r
Fig. 7-11
Pariide tracels in a
circular path about O.
To
crease its speed, the slring
in-
PO'
must provide a force component langenlial to the
circle.
toward the center of the

supplied by the string
supplied by
it
circle.
To
fiil
must "lead" the
this
dual role, the puli
object, so that the tension
has a tangential component, as shown in Fig. 7-11.
This can be maintained
if the
inner end, O', of the string
moved around in a circular

kind of thing we do more or less
con-
is
This
tinually
path, as indicated.
the
instinctively in practice.
CIRCULAR PATHS OF CHARGED PARTICLES

UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELDS
One of
IN
most important examples of
the
circular
motion
behavior of electrically charged particles in magnetic
The separate
section
the magnetic force
is
is
the
fields.
on pp. 205-206 summarizes the properties of

and describes how this force is in general
given by the following equation:
F mag =
where q
moving
magnetic
(7-9)
the electric charge of the particle (positive or negative).
is
now imagine
Let us
q,
X B
in the
fieid
a charged particle of (positive) charge
plane of
this page, in
points perpendicularly
a region
down
in
which the
into the paper.
Then from Eq. (7-9) we have
F = qvB
This
is
(7-10)
a pure deflccting
particle's
motion.
change, but
its
although there
ticle
202
Hence
force,
always at right angles to the
the magnitude of the velocity v cannot
Thus,
direction changes uniformly with time.

is
no center of
force in the usual sense, the par-
describes a circular path of radius r with center
Using Newton's law
[Fig.
(b)
(a)
Fig.
in
7-12
(a)
Charged parlicle following a
circular path
a uniform magnelicfield. (b) Magnelicalty curved
tracks ofelectrons
The main fealure

energy 30
and posilrons
is
the paih
MeV going
a cloud chamber.
in
ofan
eleclron of inilial
through a succession ofalmosl
circular orbils ofdecreasing radius as
loses energy.
(Courtesy oflhe Unicersily of California Lawrence

Radiation Laboralory, Berkeley.)
7-1 2(a)].
The
centripetal acceleration
is
v 2 /r, and so by Newton's
law we have
qvB
mu
whence
mo
Thus
203
(7-11)
the radius of the circle
Charged
particles in
is
a mcasure of the
uniform magnetic
momentum mv
ftelds
of a particle of given charge

underlies the
in a given
nuclear physicist's
magnetic
method
momenta of charged particles in a cloud

[see Fig. 7-1 2(b)]. From the radius of the
for
This fact
field.
determining the
or bubble chamber
circular track which
a charged particle generates in a cloud chamber placed between
momentum can be readily found if the

To get the period T (or the
the poles of a magnet the
charge of the particle
known.
is
angular velocity), wc write
qvB = mwv
or
o>
% = 1B
which
is
independent of the particle's spced.
(7-12)
quency given by Eq. (7-12)
and depends, for

to
mass of the
led
him
fre-
called the "cyclotron" frequency
field, only on the ratio of charge

was the recognition of this by E. O.
magnetic
a fixed
particle.
Lawrence that
is
The angular
It
1929 to design the
in
first
cyclotron, in
which protons could be raiscd to high energies by the application

of an alternating electric
field
The holdmeans
of constant frequency.
ing of charged particles in an orbit of a given radius by
of a magnetic
field is
an
essential feature of
most high-energy
nuclear accelerators.
Having the velocity
in
course, a very special case.
we can imagine
ular to
a plane perpendicular to
But
if this
v to be resolved into
and a second component
condition
7-13
parallel to B.
Helical
path of charged particle
having a velocity
vs
component parallel
t o a magnetic field.
204
(Jsing
Newton's
lavv
not
is,
of
satisfied,
one component perpendic-
Eq. (7-9), has no magnetic forcc associated with
Fig.
is
const.
The
it;
latter,
by
the former
in precisely the
changes with time
the resultant motion
perpendicular to
CHARGED PARTICLE
It is
IN
is
fixed circle, as
described above.
Thus
shown
in Fig. 7-13.
A MAGNETIC FIELD
a matter of experimental
may, at a givcn point
particle
way
a helix, whose projection on the plane
is
an
fact that
electrically
in space, experience
charged
a force when
moving which is abscnt if it is at the same point but staThe cxistence of such a force depends on the presence
somewhere in the neighborhood (although perhaps quite far
it is
tionary.
away) of magnets or
reveal the following featurcs

1
The
force
is
[cf.
Fig. 7-14]:
always exerted at right angles to the direction
of the velocity v of the particle.

direction of the velocity
2.
The
force
is
is
3.
is
force
reversed
is
The force
amount of charge,
reverses
if
is
proportional to the magnitude of
For motion
parallel to
one certain direction
tion in which a
compass needle placed there would
the direction of the magnetic _/?e
W at that point.
(o) Situa-
of zero force
and maximum force

moving
in
Field direction
magnet ic field.
(b) General veetor
relationship
ity,
of veloc-
magnetic field,
(b)
and magnetic force.
205
align itself.
For any other direction of motion, the direction of the
for a charged particle
at a given
This direction coincides with the direc-
is
zero.
size
v.
Field direction
tions
q,
the sign of the
For a given value of q and a given direction of v, the
It is called
Fig. 7-14
the
reversed.
point, the force
5.
if
reversed.
of the force
4.
The
proportional to the
carried by the particle.
charge
Detailed observations
electric currents.
Charged
particle in a
magnetic
field
force
is
perpendicular to the plane formed by v and the
field
direction.
6.
The magnitude of
the force
proportional, for given
is
values of q and v and for a fixed magnetic field arrangement, to
and the
the sine of the angle between v
Ali the above results can be
field direction.
summarized
in a very
compaet
We are going to intro'duce a quantitative
mathematical statement.
measure of the magnetic
field
veetor symbol B, in such a
way
strength and denote

that Fig. 7-14
by the
it
shows the relation
of the direetions of qv, B, and F for a charged partiele.

that q
may be of
(Note
normal to the plane
Then the value of F, in both magnitude and
either sign
containing v and B.)

direction,
is
and that F
is
given by the following equation, involving the cross
produet of veetors (see p. 127):
F =
We
vXB
can then use
of the magnetic
this
equation to define the quantitative measure
field
strength, such that a field of unit strength,
applied at right angles (sin 6
with a speed of
1) to a
charge of
m/sec, would produce a force of
moving
N.
MASS SPECTROGRAPHS
The
charaeteristie curvature of a partiele of given
magnetic
field
ing precise relative

devices often
make
The
and second
whercas the
on
electric force
in
the
charged partiele
is
not.
difference V, the electric force
fmag =
first
in the
is
is
proportional to
beam of charged partieles

distance d apart, with voltage
If a
given by
But the magnetic force
(7-13)
is
given by Eq. (7-10),
$<-'
These forees can be arrangcd to be
206
manner deseribed
travels between parallel plates a
Fa =
velocity selection takes advantage of the faet
that the magnetic force

v,
in
all
use of the magnetic force in two ways,
as a velocity selector
last seetion.
q/m
methods of obtainvalues of atomic and isotopic masses. Such
provides the basis of nearly
Using Newton's law
in opposite direetions
by
Fig.
7-15
(a)
spectrometer.
Schematic design ofa simpleform ofmass

(b)
Exampfe ofisolopic
separalion
and
mass analysisfor isolopes of xenon with a spectrometer

like that in (a). [After A. O. Nier, Phys. Rev., 52, 933
(.1937).]
207
Mass spcctrographs
applying the magnetic
There
is
field at right
angles to the electric
field.
then only one speed at which particles can travel through
these "crossed fields" undeflected:

V_
(7-14)
Bd
Figure 7-15(a)
that uses a velocity
a diagram of a simple mass spectrograph

of this type, followed by a region in
is
filter
which the chargcd particles (ions) travel
in a semicircular
under the influence of the magnetic
alone.
field
path
Figure 7 15(b)
shows an example of the separation of isotopes by such a device.
THE FRACTURE OF RAPIDLY ROTATING OBJECTS

The question of
up in a rotating object, and the

bccome excessive, provides another
the stresses set
possibility of fracture
they
good example of Newton's law applied to uniform circular

motion.
Whenever an object such
portion of
it
as a wheel
a corresponding accelcrative force
is
rotating, every
Suppose, for
required.
example, that a thin wheel or hoop of radius r

its
is
has an acceleration toward the axis of rotation, and
is
rotating about
axis at n revolutions per second (rps) [see Fig. 7-1 6 (a)].
Then
any small section of the hoop, such as the one shown shaded,
must be supplied with a forcc cqual to
by
its
centripetal acceleration v /r.
of the angular velocity

to
Fig.
7-16
2irn
(a) Rotat-
ing hoop. (i) Forces

aeting on
a small
ele-
men! of the hoop.
208
Using Newton's law
is
defined
its
mass, m, multiplied
In this case the magnitude
by the equation
Thus the instantaneous specd
If
ar
(7-15)
isolation
diagram
shown shaded
portion of material
on
that the forces acting
it
on
'
via
one end had a component
at
its
contact with
These forces must, by symmetry,
rim at each point. (For example,
to the
Am
[Fig. 7-16(b)] for the small
in Fig. 7-16(a), it is clear
must be supplied
adjacent material of the rim.
exerted
given by
lirrn
we make an
be tangential
is
if
the force
radially outward,
then by the equality of action and reaction the portion of material
with which
it
was
in
contact would be subjected to a force
But
with a component radially inward.
Am
portions such as
asymmetries of
in
are equivalent; there
this kind.)
Thus we can
a uniform hoop,
is
no
by
all
any
picture the small portion
of the rim being acted on by a force of magnitude

If the length of arc represented
basis for
T at each
this portion is As,
it
end.
subtends
an angle A0, equal to As/r, at the center O, and each force has a
Thus
to Tsin(A0/2) along the bisector of AS.
component equal
by Newton's law we have
= Am
27"sin(A0/2)
Putting sin(A0/2)
A0/2, this then gives us
7"A0
^ Am
r
i.e.,
T ~ Am
or
7" A.?
Let us
o2
Am
now
(7-16)
express the mass
Am
in terms of the density, p,
of the material and the volume of the piece of the rim.

cross-sectional area o f the rim
is
A,
If the
we have
Am = pAAs
'We
shall
assume
that the spokcs of the wheel serve primarily to give just a
geometrical connection between the rim and the axis
and have almost
gible strength.
209
The
fraeture of rapidly rotating objects
negli-
Substituting this into Eq. (7-16) and substituting o
Eq. (7-15), we
CM7)
T = 4trV<
Now,
from
lirrn
obtain the following result:
an cxperimental
it is
rod of a given
fact that a bar or
material will fracture under tension
if
the ratio of the applied
force to the cross-sectional area exceeds a certain critical value
Thus we can infer from Eq. (7-17)

we have bcen discussing has a critical
the ultimate tensile strength, S.
that a
hoop of
the kind
above which
ratc of rotation,
it
will burst.
We
have, in fact,
1/2
Wmox
iw
(7-18)
Suppose, for cxample, that we have a

(i.e.,
and
about 0.3 m).
The
ultimate strength
its
is
is
N/m 2
about 10
hoop of radius 1 ft
about 7600 kg/m 3
steel
density of steel
These values lead
rpm much
to a value of n max of about 500 rps, or 30,000

than any such wheel would normally be driven.
faster
However, the
rotors of ultracentrifuges arc, in fact, driven at speeds of this

order,
significant fraetion of the bursting speed for their
up to a
particular radius (sec p. 513).
MOTION AGAINST RESISTIVE FORCES

We
shall
an object
consider an important class of problems in which
now
is
subjected to a constant driving force,
motion opposed by
a resistive force,
but has
an object
is
In general this resistive force is
and so on.
speed, so that the statement of Newton's law
its
pulled along a
solid surface, or the air resistance to falling raindrops,

cars,
in
Typical of such
direetion opposite to the instantaneous velocity.

forees are the frictional resistance as
R, that always acts
moving
a funetion of
must be written
as follows:
F -
= m
R(o)
As we saw
in fact nearly
that
Chaptcr
-=
Usili;
5,
independent of
we can put
R(c)
210
in
(7-19)
const.
Newton's
la
the resistive force of dry frietion

u,
is
as indicated in Fig. 7-1 7(a), so
Resistive
force
Fig.
7-17
(o) Dric-
Driving force
Driving force
mg and resistive
RW
forces for an object

resisted
lion.
Frictional force
by dryfric-
(b) Dricing
and
resistive forces for
object resisted
ff
an
by
"m
fluid friction.
(b)
(a)
MHHHnfflBH
MBBHHBHBimiHHi
Equation (7-19) then reduces to the simplc case of acceleration

undcr a constant net force, as dcscribed by the kinematics of
The
Eqs. (7-1).
situation
is
very different in the case of fluid
resistance, for which R(o) increases monotonically with
indicated in Fig. 7-1 7(b) and as described [Eq. (5-4)]
o,
as
by the
relation
In this case,
the force
force
is
= Ac
R(c)
(7-20)
we consider an
if
,
Bv 2
object starting out
the initial acceleration
FJm,
is
immediately rcduced to a value below
as the object has any appreciable velocity
from
rest
under
but the net driving
it
is
because as soon
exposed, in
its
own frame of reference, to a wind or flow of fluid past it at the

speed v. The statement of Newton's law as it applies to this
problem must now be written
m
dt
Fq
Av
(In this equation
One must be
Bu
(7-21)
A, B, and v are
what
careful to consider
ment of Newton's law
all
taken to be positive.
is
the appropriate state-
for this system if the direetion of v is
reversed.)
The
solving of Eq. (7-21)
is
not at
all
such a simple matter
as our familiar problems involving constant forces or forces
perpendicular to the velocity.
awkward
solution to an
to
plunge into
stead, this
211
is
all
are
now
faced with finding the
We
do not intend
the formal mathematies of this problem.
a suitable
Motion against
Wc
differential equation.
moment
In-
to point to the value of ap-
resistive forces
proximate numerical
methods in
other words, the method of
the digital computer, using finitely small intervals.
the principle of the
have a good
some
method
in
case for using
Chapter
it.
First,
We
outlined
3 [Eq. (3-11)]; here
however,
let
we
us consider
individual features of the solution:
For some rangc of small values of v, the acceleration will

be almost constant and o will start off as a linear funetion of t
1.
with slope
2.
As c
/m.
increases,
a decreases monotonically, giving a steadily
decreasing slope in the graph of v versus

3.
There
is
(Fig. 7-18).
any given applied
the speed at which the graph of R(v) versus v
foree.
It is
seeted
by a horizontal
line at the ordinate
Algebraically,
7-17(b)].
a limiling speed, v m , under
it
is
equal to
is
inter-
[see Fig.
the positive root of the quadratic
equation
Ao - F =
B v*
(What
the status of the negative root,
is
and why
is
it
to be
discarded?)
Notice the contrast between the sharply defined value of v,

in the graph of R(v) versus o, and the gradual manner in which
this velocity
is
approached (and
in principle
never quite reached)
one considers u as a funetion of time (Fig. 7-18).

It is well worth taking a moment to consider the dynamical
It is a motion with zero acsituation represented by v = v,.
celeration under zero net foree, but it seems a far cry from the
if
moving under no foree at all;

not an application of what we understand by
But let us emphasize that, like static
the principle of inertia.
equilibrium, it is a case of ZF = 0. Every time we see a car
unacceleratcd motion of objects
and
it is
Fig.
7-18
ccrtainly
lo terminal
Asymplolic approach
speed for object in a
fluid resislice
212
medium.
Using Newton's law
hurtling along a straight road at a steady 80
racing through the air at a constant 600 mph,
mph, or a jet plane

we are seeing objects
traveling under zero net force. This basic dynamical fact tends to
be obscured because what matters in practical terms

value of the driving force
motion once
it
is
the large
needed to maintain the steady
has been established.
DETAILED ANALYSIS OF RESISTED MOTION

how Newton's law for resisted motion [Eq.
practice we need to introduce one additional
In order to see
(7-21)]
works
feature
in
already describcd in Chapter 5

sistive force differ
their
dependence on the
Fig. 7-19).
that
the two terms in the rc-
not only in their dependcncc on d but also in

linear
dimensions of the object (see
Specifically, for a sphere of radius r
we have
A = C\r
B = C 2 r'2
and thus
R(v)
C\ro
The two terms
+ C2'V
in the resistance thus
(7-22)
become equal
at a critical
speed, v c defined by the formula

,
Vc
(7-23)
c 2r
We know
picture if v
Fig.
7-19
that the term proportional to v will

is
sufficiently small (since
Bv 2 /Av
(a) Linear
and quadratic terms

influid resistance for
a small
object, with
viscous resistance
predominant.
(b) Similar
graphfor
a large object, for

which the v 2 term
predominates at
a/l
except low speeds.
213
Dciailcd analvsis of resisted motion
v),
dominate the
but we know
equally that for speeds
much
quadratic term takes over.
>
in excess of vc (say v
If the resistive
medium
10uc ) the
the
is air,
coeffkients c t and c 2 have the following approximate values:
ci
c2
Thus,
if
0.87
10- 4
3.1
kg/m
kgm-
sec
_1
we have
expressed in meters,
is
...
3.6
v c (m/sec)
10~ 4
,, ...
(7-24)
This means that for an object such as a small pebble, with

r
cm, the value of vc
only a few centimeters per second; a
is
speed equal to 10 times this (say 0.5 m/sec) would be acquired
under gravity within a time of about 0.05 sec and a
in free fail
distance of about 0.5 in. (Check thcsc numbers!)
problems of practical
(we
interest
shall consider
Thus for most

an exception
in
the next section) the motion under a constant applied force in a
medium can be extremely
resisting
well described with the help
of the following simplified version of Eq. (7-21):
^
di
The
F - B
(7-25)
resistive term,
Bv 2
is
quite important in the
motion of
ordinary objects falling through the air under gravity.
becomes very apparent
putting dv/dt
tional force,
radius
in
we
if
Eq. (7-25), with
The
2.5 times that
:s
pr
c 2r
4(2.5
is
2
)
Bu, 2
10
(10"
2 3
)
thus about 0.1 N.
for
an object of
in the
10" 2 kg
The value of
this size is
about 10
the coef-
-4
kg/m.
equation
find
Vi
Under
214
by
B (=
F -
equal to the gravita-
:!
Substituting these values
we
set
cm. The density of stone or rock is about

so we have
i.e., about 2500 kg/m
value of
ficient
Take, for example, the case of our pebble of
mg.
of water,
This
calculate the terminal speed, v t
30 m/sec
the assumptions of genuinely free
Using Ncwton's law
fail, this
speed would
be attained
about 150
We
appreciably
significant
than these.
Iess
problems of
meets
can be sure, then, that the effects of the
become quite
sistance
ized
time of about 3 sec and a vertical distance of
in a
ft.
free fail
within
This means that
under
re-
times and distances
many
of the ideal-
gravity, of the sort that everyone
encounter with mechanics, do not correspond
in his first
very well with reality.
now
Let us
to handle the
consider the computer procedure for solving
Given a computer,
these problems.
it is
almost as
equation [Eq. (7-21)] as
full
proximation represented by Eq. (7-25).
it
is
little
trouble
to use the ap-
But for the purposes
of discussing the method, we shall use the simpler, approximate
form.
We
and
choose some convenient small increment of time,
will
measure time from
in
A/,
terms of integral multiples
of Af. In the simplest approach, we assume that the acceleration during each small interval remains constant at the value
(n)
calculated for the beginning of that interval.
Thus, for an
velocity equal to zero, the acceleration during the
is
The
end
At
initial
is
set
of this interval
thus given by
Using
ci
2 At
02
calculate the acceleration d\ at
At:
m Cl
tfo
this acceleration to the next interval, the velocity at
given by
is
We know
this
we
Applying
aoA/
this velocity,
ai
F Jm).
(=
equal to a
velocity Vi at the
first
vi
fli
At
that the
first
step in the calculation, as performed in
way, leads to an overestimate of Pj, but we see that in this

is in some measure compensated by
particular problem the error
leading in turn to an underestimate of a%.
The
calculated values
of a in successive time intervals are as indicated in Fig. 7-20(a).
Applying an exactly similar treatment to the changes of position
we would take our set of values of velocities, as given by the

above calculation and represented graphically in Fig. 7-21 (a),
and would use the following formula
(jt)
x +i
215
vAt
Detailed analysis of resisted motion
Fig.
7-20
(d) Basis
ofsimple ealculation
of acceleration versus
time for objecl start-
ingfrom
resistive
resi
n a
medium.
The acceleration
is
calculaied from the
speed al the beginning ofeach time interval.
{b)lmproved
approach to the same

problem, using acceleration calculated
from speed at midpoint ofeach time
Thus we should have
interval.
=
=
=
x\
X2
X3
ro A/
(clearly
x\
oi
X2
CiAt
At
Our graph of x versus
an underestimate)
vi At
would be the
result
of summing the areas
of the rectangles in Fig. 7-21 (a) up to successively greater values
of
n.
more
sophisticated analysis takes account of the fact that
a better average value of the acceleration or velocity during a

given time interval
is
provided by the instantaneous value at the
midpoint of that interval. Thus the acceleration between n At and

(n
1)
At
is set
equal to the instantaneous value at (n
This Ieads to the following formulas:
Fig. 7-21
(a) Veloc-
ity-time graph based
on
velocities at the
beginnings of the successive time intervals.

(b)
Improved graph
based on velocities
evaluated at midpoints of the time
intervals.
216
Using Newton's law
-J)
At.
v n +i
a n+ i /2 A/
*+l
Vn+i /2 &l
This looks
fine,
but
(7-26)
we now run into a slight snag when we try

To find v u the velocity at the cnd
we now need v (= 0) and a ll2 The lattcr,
to get the calculation started.
of the
first interval,
however, by Eq. (7-25), depends on a knowledge of v

U2, which
we do not yet know. (Noticc that in the first, crude method, we
were able to
and a
Fig.
7-22
(a)
.)
start
We are
out directly from the
Com-
parison ofidealized
(resistanceless)
and
aclual dependence
of
speed on lime for a

falling pebble
of
radius l cm.
(b) Idealized
and
aclual dislances fallen
by such a pebble.
217
initial
thus forced to compromise a
Detailcd analysis of resistcd motion
conditions v
little,
although we
are
with a better treatment than before.
still Ieft
to calculate an approximate value of
V112
vn 2 from
What we do
is
the equation
(7-27)
o -z
and then we are under way. Figures 7-20(b) and 7-21 (b) show
what this method means in terms of graphs of a and v against
time.
Figure 7-22 shows graphs of the actual calculated variation
of speed and distance with time for our 1-cm-radius pebble falling
in air,
under gravity; the idcalizcd
frce-fall
curves are given
for comparison.
MOTION GOVERNED BY VISCOSITY

If
we
are dealing with microscopic or near-microscopic objects,
such as particlcs of dust, then, in contrast to the situations discussed above, the resistance
is
due almost
term, Av, up to quite high values of
of radius
sider a tiny particle

tells
v.
If,
m (= 10
entirely to the viscous
we con-
for cxample,
-6
m), then Eq. (7-24)
us that the critical spccd, vc at which the contributions

,
and Bo
bccome equal,
is
of lower speeds for which the motion

resistance
alone,
writtcn, without
and
Av
360 m/sec. This implies a wide range

is
controlled by viscous
the statcmcnt of Newton's law can be
any appreciable
error, in the following
form:
*
m di mFo -Ao
(7-28)
with
A =
c\r
Motion under these conditions played the central role in

R. A. Millikan's cclebrated "oil-drop" experiment to determine
the elcmentary electric charge. The basic idea was to measure
the electric foree exerted on a small charged object by finding the
terminal spced of the object in
air.
If the radius of the particle is
completely determined, and the
known, the
resistive
driving foree
must be equal and opposite to
foree
is
it
at v
In Millikan's original experiments the charged partieles

were tiny droplets of oil in the mist of vapor from an "atomizer."
Such droplets havc a high probability of carrying a net
218
Using Newton's law
electric
Fig.
Basic paratlel-plate arrangement in Millikan
7-23
experiment.
charge of either sign when they are produced.
In order to apply
them, Millikan used the arrangement shown
electric forces to
Two
schematically in Fig. 7-23.
parallel metal plates, spaced
by
a small fraction of their diameter, are connected to the terminals
of a battery.
'
The force on a
tween these plates
q anywhere be-
given by
where
is
particle of charge
(7-29)
the voltage difference applied to the plates
is
their separation in meters.
If
is
and d
is
is
measured in coulombs,
given in newtons by this equation. (See also our discussion of the
Thus
a dynamic balance
cathode-ray oscilloscope,
p.
up between this
force Av-, we should have
electric driving force
were
set
q-j=
a
The
Ad,
if
and the
resistive
ciru,
droplets
of various sizes.
195.)
randomly produced in a mist of oil vapor

The ones that Millikan found most suitable
are
for
his experiments were the smallest (partially because they had the
lowest terminal speed under their

lets
own
weight).
But these drop-
through a medium-power microscope
tiny that even
were so
they appeared against a dark background merely as points of

light;
no
direct
measurement could be made of
their
size.
Millikan, however, used the clever trick of exploiting the law of

viscous resistance a second time by applying it to the fail of a
droplet under the gravitational force alone, with no
between the
Fo =
plates.
mg =
Under
these conditions
y pr g
the density of oil (about 800
where p
is
speed of
fail
voltage
we have
under gravity
is
kg/m 3 ). The
terminal
then given by
Millikan himself used plates about 20 cm across and 1 cm apart and several
thousand volts. Most modern versions of the apparatus use smaller values
of all three quantities.
219
Motion governed by
viscosity
4jt
y pr g =
(Gravitational)
cirDB
(7-30)
Putting in the approximate numcrical values

(Gravitational)
Putting r
f
10
lju
-4
i?
10
m/sec
-0
10 r 2
find
(u in m/sec,
(
m)
in
m, we have
0.1
mm/sec
min to fail 1 cm in air under

own weight, thus allowing prccision measurements of its speed.
Such a droplet would take over

its
we
It
term Bo 2
is
motions as
incidentally, that for such
(It is clear,
sistive
is
this the re-
utterly negligible.)
worth noting the dynamical
stability
of this system,
and indeed of any situation involving a constant driving force

and a
resistive force that increases
monotonically with speed.
by chance the droplet should slow down

force that will speed
it
up.
Conversely,
subjected to a net retarding force.
motion of a
if it
If
little,
air,
being
molecules, does not behave as a perfectly
If
a net
is
should speed up,
it is
one could observe the
falling droplet in sufficient detail, this
doubtless be found, because the
there
behavior would
made up
of individual
homogeneous
fluid.
other words, the speed of the droplet would fluetuate about
In
some
average value, although the fluetuations would be exceedingly

small.
In the Millikan experiment proper, the vertical
the charged droplets
is
or opposing the gravitational force. Thus

as positive
and sign
downward, the terminal
will
if
we measure
velocity in both
is
velocities
magnitude
be defined by the equation
mg + *r- cm,
where
motion of
studied with the electric force either aiding
(7-31)
the voltage of the upper plate relative to the lower
and q is the net charge on the drop (positive or negative). Although in principle the terminal velocity is approached but never
quite reached (see Fig. 7-18), the small droplets under the conditions of the Millikan experimcnt do, in effect, reach this speed
within a very short time
much
less
than
msec
in
most cases
(see the next seetion).
Millikan was able to follow the motion of a given droplet
220
Using Ncwton's
lavv
'
for
many
hours on end, using
which to puli
it
up or down
its electric
at will.
tracted observations the charge
charge as a handle by
In the course of such pro-
on the drop would often change
spontaneously, and several different values of v, would be ob-
The
tained.
crucial observation
was that
any such experiment,
in
with a given value of the voltage V, the speed v was limited to a

t
set
of sharp and
comes
itself
distinct values, implying that the electric charge
in discrete units.
obtained the
first
But Millikan went further and
precise value of the absolute magnitude of the
elementary charge.
You
method
might wonder why Millikan used such a roundabout

to
on a charged
principle be possible to hang such
measure the
electric
force exerted
would in
on a balance and measure the force in a
However, in practice, when only a few
static arrangement.
elementary charges are involved, the forces are extremely weak
and such a method is not feasible. For example, the force on a
After
particle.
an
all, it
electrified particle
particle with a net

1
cm
charge of 10 elementary
apart with 500
between them,
is
units,
between plates
13
N,
only about 10~
equal to the gravitational force on only 10 ,upg!
GROWTH AND DECAY OF RESISTED MOTION

We
have seen how the velocity under a constant force
resistive fluid
medium
What happens
value.
We can
rises asymptotically
if
the driving force
is
suddenly removed?
guess that the velocity will decay away toward zero in a
similar asymptotic way, as indicated in Fig. 7-24.
speed
is
If the initial
small enough, the whole decay depends on viscous
sistance alone
and
Eq. (7-28) in which
=
m
dt
is
governed by a
is set
special, simplified
re-
form of
equal to zero:
Av
(7-32)
or
do
=
dt
where a
'For his
at)
= A/m.
own
full
and interesting account (and much other good physics),

The Electron (J. W. M. Du Mond, ed.), University of
see R. A. Millikan,
Chicago Press (Phoenix
221
in a
toward the terminal
Series),
Growth and decay of
Chicago, 1963.
rcsisted
motion
Fig.
7-24
Growth
and decay of the

velocity
ofa parlicle
controlled by a vis-
cous
resistiue force
proportional to v.
You may
equation of
not,
is
recognizc Eq.
all
you may
(7-32) as the basic differential
how
in effect just arithmetic,
this
equation can be solved by what
using the approach of numerical
We divide up the time
analysis and digital-computer techniques.

into a large
Whether you do or
forms of exponential decay.
like to see
number
of equal intervals Al,
and interpret Eq. (7-32)
as telling us that the changc of v between

(n
1)A/
proportional to the
is
mean
n At and
velocity during that
interval:
Au =
Solving
t;
v n+ i
we have
this,
+i
-*~-"\2) At
+ a Al/2
aAt/2 _
where/is a constant
ratio, less
than unity. The velocities at equal
intervals of time thus decrease in geometric proportion.

initial velocity is
the velocity at time
Substituting the expression for
and putting k =
1
fO
o(t)
t/At,
we
(= k
Al)
is
If the
given by
from the preceding equation
thus get
aAr/2\
a At/l)
l/Ai
we
made shorter and shorter, and their
number correspondingly greater. To simplify the discussion, we
We
shall
now
consider what happens to this expression as
imagine the intervals At to be
shall put
aAt =
222
Using Newton's law
The quantity
approach
is
then a large number that
oi/=
Besides substituting
u(l),
we
we
shall
allow to
infinity.
l/z in the above equation for
exponent t/At by
shall also replace the
its
equivalent
Thus we have
quantity, azt.
/l
\/2z\
a"
\TTtj2z)
\i -r i/^z/
i.e.,
o (0
tfO/>
where
Let us look at the behavior of p(z) as z

larger (Table 7-1).
As z
increases, the
made
is
number p
larger
and
clearly ap-
is
TABLE 7-1
Decimal value of p
y(z)
0/3)'
0.3333
(3/5)
0.3600
(5/7)3
0.3644
(7/9)*
0.3659
(9/1 l) 5
0.3667
(19/21)'
0.3676
10
proaching a limiting value;

reciprocal of the
this value is
famous number
the base of natural
0.367879
and
is
the
(= 2.71828
.), which forms
or Napierian logarithms. Thus in Eq. (7-32)
e
we can put
lim p(z)
0.367879
-1
e
Z*X
and hence we have the following expression, now

value of
223
exact, for the
v(i):
v(t)
The
reciprocal of
v e~'
(7-34)
in
Growth and decay of
Eq. (7-34)
resisteci
is
of the dimension of time
molion
and represents a characteristic time constant,

ponential decay pjocess.
moving through the

_
We can
m_
ar
air,
for
t,
the ex-
n the particular case of small spheres
is
defined by the equation

0.
express this in
terminal velocity of
much more
fail
vivid terms
under gravity, vg
by introducing
the
For from Eq. (7-30)
we have
mg
"'w
It
follows that we have
(7-35)
Thus t
equal to the time that a particle would take to reach
is
a velocity equal
to the terminal Velocity
with v 0.1 mm/sec,

For an oil drop of radius 1
-5
sec (= 10/tsec).
time would be only about 10
free fail.
this
under conditions of
/j.,
In a time equal to any substantial multiple of t, the value
of v(t) as given by Eq. (7-34)
For example,
v(t)
and put
v
voe-'
we take
if
falls
to a very small fraction of vo-
the basic equation
ir
(7-36)
10r, then the value of v
becomes
less
than 10
-4
toward
its
limiting value, after a particle starts
the action of a suddenly applied driving force,
from rest under

must be a kind
of upside-down version of the decay curve (see Fig. 7-24).

fact, if the
terminal velocity
is o,
conditions of viscous rcsistance,
v(l)
If
oAl
t v
u(0
one can see

are related.
the approach to
is
it,
In
under these
described by
- e-" T )
one chooses to write

v,
(7-37)
this in the
form
lir
(
explicitly
how
closely the
growth and decay curves
Indeed, one could almost deduce Eq. (7-37) from
Eq. (7-36) plus the recognition of this symmetry.
224
of
which for many purposes can be taken to be effectively zero.

It is more or less intuitively clear that the growth of velocity
Using "New lon's law
AIR RESISTANCE
AND "INDEPENDENCE OF MOTIONS"
When
Galileo put forward the proposition that the motion of a
projectile
could be analyzed into separate horizontal and vertical
and a constant ac-
parts, with a constant velocity horizontally
celeration under gravity vertically, he

to the conceptual basis of mechanics.
made
It
a great contribution
may
be worth pointing
down
out, however, that this "independence of motions" breaks

if
one takes into account the resistive force exerted on objects
of ordinary
We have seen how for such objects the magnitude
size.
of the resistive force
is
proportional to the square of the speed.
Consider an object moving in a vertical plane (Fig. 7-25).
At a given
instant let
the horizontal,
its
velocity v be directed at
as shown." The
gravitational force, F,
and a
object
an angle
above
then subjected to the
is
resistive force R(u),
of magnitude
Bv 2 , in a direction opposite to v. Newton's law applied to the

x and y components of the motion at any instant, thus gives us
m -^= -R z
= -Bo 2 cose
at
dCy
= mg
m-^
Since v cos 6
vz ,
_ 2
Bu
and v
n
sin 6
sin 6
vu ,
we can
rewrite these equa-
tions as folio ws:
=
do*
\
- la
{BojOm
m- = -mg dt
(flOPy
Thus the equation governing each separate component of

velocity involves a
velocity
knowledge of the magnitude of the
and hence of what
is
other coordinate direction.

the
(
a)
more important does
ferent
Fig.
7-25
partiele
225
happening at each instant along the
The
larger
this cross
the magnitude of v,
connection between the
components of the motion become. Thus we
caleulate the vertical
Resistive
moving
in
the
total
motion of a
falling
really
dif-
cannot
body without reference
and gravitational force vectorsfor a
a vertical plane.
Air resistance and "independence of motions"
to the horizontal
component.
salutary for those
who
Recognition of
this fact
may
be
are accustomed to taking for granted the
In the folklore of physics
idealized equations of falling objects.
who would make

money off his nonscientific acquaintances by a bet. He asked
them to consider two identical objects. One is dropped from
there
is
the story of the impecunious student
rest at a certain height
same
horizontally at the
The
first?
above the ground; the other

instant.
Which one
victim (poor ignoramus!)
vague idea that the
must somehow keep
is
fired off
reach the ground
would often have some
motion of the second object
fast horizontal
it in
will
the air longer.
But of course that
is
it? look at the analysis of motion

under gravity in Chapter 3. And even a direct test would appear
But the
to prove the poin t if the velocities were kept small.
demonstrably
false,
isn't
complete equations, as written above, show that a large initial

horizontal velocity would increase the time taken to descend a
given vertical distance.
Notice that
Moral: Beware of
if
the resistance
is
facile idealizations.
purely viscous, varying as the
power of v, then the x and y components of the motion can

be handled entirely separately, even though the problem is not
that of idealized free fail. Thus, although one can always take
a statement of Newton's law as the starting point of any problem
first
of a particle exposed to forces, the way of proceeding from there

to the analysis of the complete motion
may depend
critically
on
the precise nature of the individual problem.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

One
of the most important of
of a mass
to
its
distance from that point.
confined to the
F(x)
all
dynamical problems
that
is
by a force proportional
the motion is assumed to be
attracted toward a given point
axis
If
we have
= -kx
(7
~38)
good approximation to this situation is provided by an object

on a very smooth horizontal table (e.g., with air suspension) and
a horizontal coiled spring, as shown in Fig. 7-26(a). The object
would normally
rest at a position in
compressed nor extended.

slight
226
The force brought
displacement of the mass
described by Eq. (7-38).
Using Newton's law
which the spring
is
neither
into play
in either direction is
The constant k
is
by a
then well
called the spring
(a)
7-26
Fig.
(a)
Mass-spring sysiem on a frictionless
horizontal surface.
(b)
Mass hanging front a
vertical
Graph offorce versus displacement with a

linear force law; the equilibrium silualions O and O'
spring.
(c)
correspond to (a) and (b), respeclivety.
and is measured in newtons per meter. This linear force

law for a spring was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1676 and is
An even simpler arrangement in practice,
named after him.
more
complicated theoretically, is to suspend
slightly
although
constant
'
a mass at the bottom end of a vertical spring, as in Fig. 7-26(b).

In this case the
normal resting situation already involves an
extension of the spring, sufficient to support the weight of the

object.
A further displacement up or down
from
this equilibrium
position leads, however, to a net restoring force exactly of the

form of Eq. (7-38). This is indicated in Fig. 7-26(c), which shows
the magnitude of the force exerted by the spring as a funetion
of
its
extension y. If one takes as a
new
origin of this graph the
point O', then one has a net restoring force (F

tional to the extra displacement (y
The
mg) propor-
ya).
great importance of this dynamical problem of a
mass
on a spring is that the behavior of very many physical systems

under small displacements from equilibrium obeys the same basic
equation as Eq. (7-38). We shall diseuss this in more detail in
Chapter
10; for the present
we
shall just
concern ourselves with
solving the problem as such.
announced it in a famous anagramceiiinosssttuvwhich 2 years

he revealed as a Latin sentence, "ut tensio, sic vis" ("as. the cxtension,
so the force"). By this device (popular in his day) Hooke could claim prior
publication for his discovery without actually telling his competitors what
J
He
first
later
it
227
was!
This makes a good case in which to begin with the computer

method of solution rather than with formal mathematics. The
basic equation of motion, expressed in the form ma = F, is as
follows:
d\
Rewriting
(7-39)
this as
we
d x
dfi
k/m
recognize that
Denoting
dfi
We can
is
this
by w
2
,
our
is
a constant, of dimension (time)
basic equation thus
2
.
becomes
= W X
(7-40)
read this as a direct statement of the way in which dx/dt
changing with time and can proceed to calculate the ap-
proximate change of dx/dt
i(
di \<//^
i)
in a small interval
of time At
2
- - CO X
and so
(f)~- w! xM
This
is
defined
Fig.
7-27
the reverse of the process

(cf.
Chapter
3).
Displace-
ment versus time in

simple harmonic
motion.
228
Using Newton's law
(7-41)
by which d 2 x/dt 2 was
originally
Suppose, to be
x = x
and v
Then
7-27.
(=
at time
xo
i>o
- w 2 A;oAr
x
rfx
we
that
specific,
dx/di)
both
with
shown
in Fig.
out at
start
positive, as
A/ we have
f o Ar
The displacement is a little bigger, the slope a little

these new values, we take another step of A/, and so
features can be read from Eq. (7-41):
1.
As
long as x
we go from
if
dx/dt
2.
to
negative
is
The
graph has
Using
as
more
change of dx/dt
it
gets smaller;
proportional to x.
is
The
it
becomes
less
and as x
x becomes
negative, dx/dt
positive with each time increment A/.
these considerations,
a curve that
positive
is
a straight line.
As soon
negative or
\idx/dt
becomes more negative.
greatest curvature at the largest x,
becomes almost
3.
is,
Several
dx/dt decreases when
positive, the slope
A/. That
it
rate of
its
is
Using
less.
on.
we can
construct the picture of
always curving toward the line x
is
axis), necessarily
(i.e.,
the
forming a repetitive wavy pattern.
Now
anyone who has ever drawn graphs of trigonometric

functions will recognize that Fig. 7-27 looks remarkably like a
sine or cosine curve. More specifically, it suggests a comparison
with the following analytic expression for the distance x as a
function of time
x = A
where
is
sin(af
the
ô)
maximum
value attained by
a a constant with the dimension

angle that allows us to
Testing this
fit
(time)
the value of
trial function
-1
at
x during the motion,

and <p an adjustable
t
0.
against the original differential
equation of motion [Eq. (7-40)] requires differentiating x twice

with respect to
/:
= aA
cos(atf
at
+ <ô)
.2
= -2 =
at
We see
a = w.
229
oc
sin(a/
<f>o)
that the solution does indeed
fit,
provided that we put
This then brings us to the following
final result:
= A
x(t )
Equation (7-42a)
what
is
1/2
(7-42a)
harmonic
called a
is
of the sine function
what
is
The
oscillator.
and v>o (Gk: phi) is

The complete argument,
the amplitude of the motion,
is
called the initial phase (at
ip
w =
the characteristic equation of
is
equation of motion
this
at
where
motion (SHM), and any system that obeys
called simple harmonic
constant
-ay
+ *?o)
sin(w/
motion at any given
The
instant.
is
0).
called just "the phase" of the
result represented
by Eq. (7-42a)
could be equally well expressed by writing x as a cosine function,

rather than a sine function, of
x(l)
= A
cos(at
<p'
/:
(7-42b)
<p'
This form of the
some purposes.
with an appropriate value of the constant

solution
is
found more convenient
The harmonic motion
is
for
characterized by
its
period, T, which
defines successive equal intervals of time at the
end of which
the state of the motion reproduces itself exactly in both dis-
placement and velocity. The value of
T is
readily obtained
Eqs. (7-42) by noting that each time the phase angle (at
changes by 2w, both
tpi
2vr
ip
v have passed through a complete
Thus we can put
cycle of variation.
<pi
x and
from
+
o>(/i +
uti
</>o
T)
vo
Therefore, by subtraction,
2w = 10T
or
'
/'
(r)
!-(!)'
The form of
and
if
more
result
this
knowledge that
if
the spring
is
(7-43)
corresponds to one's commonsense
gets bigger the oscillation goes
madc
stiffcr (largcr
more
slowly,
k) the oscillation becomes
rapid.
Example.
a fixed point.
spring of negligible mass hangs vertically from
When
a mass of 2 kg
of the spring, the spring
is
is
hung from the bottom end
stretched by 3 cm.
What
is
the period
of simple harmonic vibration of this system?

First
230
we
calculatc the foree constant k.
Using Newton's law
The
gravitational
force
on the mass
of
extension
is
9.8
m; therefore,
we then have
0.03
Using Eq. (7-43)

.
N.
19.6
This force causes an
= 653 N/m.
19.6/0.03
1/2
""
'-*(&)
(You might
like to
=- 35!sec
note that
we need not have
cm when a
specified the mass.
mass
Any
spring that extends 3
will
have a vibration period of 0.35 sec with
certain
is
this
hung on
it
same mass.
Why?)
MORE ABOUT SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Fitting the initial conditions
We
have come to recognize, both as a general principle and

through various examples, that the complete solution of any
problem in the use of Newton's law requires not only a knowledge
of the force law but also the speciflcation of two independent
quantities that correspond to the constants of integration intro2
2
duced as we go from a (= d x/dt ) to
have talked of giving the

velocity, v
oscillator,
initial
x.
position,
we
also need initial conditions or their equivalent.
We have already identified A

n
Eq- (7-42).
as the amplitude of the motion and

are given the values of x
<po
and v we
as follows:
Eq. (7-42a),
= A sin(co/ +
=
we
phase. If
can readily solve for
From
Here, in our analysis of the motion of a harmonic
Actually they appear as the two constants
as the
Most commonly we
and the initial
x
= wA
^
dt
ifio)
cos(o>/
+ *>o)
(7-44)
Therefore,
xo
Vq
= A sin v>o
= o>A cos v>o
It follows that
1/2
'-k+(?)T
tanô =
oixo
oo
231
More about
simple harmonic motion
(7-45)
geometrical representation of
There
is
basic connection
very
motion and uniform motion

a particularly simple
Imagine that
7-28(a).
peg
will
between simple harmonic
in a circular path. This fact leads to
way of
SHM.
displaying and visualizing
a horizontal disk, of radius A, rotates with constant
u about a
angular speed
that a peg
SHM
vertical axis
mounted on
is
Then,
if
the disk
through
its
center.
the rim of the disk as

is
Suppose
shown
in Fig.
viewed edge on (horizontally) the
seem to move back and forth along a horizontal straight

Its motion along this line will correspond
line [Fig. 7-28(b)].
exactly to Eq. (7-42a) if the angular position of the peg at

is
correctly chosen so that the angle
to ut
<pq.
SOP
in Fig.
In this representation the quantity
actual angular velocity of
as
it
travels
7-28(c)
is
around the
is
equal
seen as the
circle.
The
peg has a velocity v that changes direction but always has the
magnitude u A.
(7-44).
7-28
Fig.
a uniformly
disk.
(a)
Thus
Resolving v parallel to
the
motion of the point
Peg on
rotating
(b) Displace-
ment of the peg as

viewed in a plane conlaining the disk.
(c)
Detailed relation
of circular motion
to
simple harmonic
motion.
232
Using Newton's !aw
Ox
at once gives Eq.
in Fig. 7-28(c) corre-
sponds
in every respect to that of a particle
along the
Dynamical
performing
SHM
axis.
relation
between
SHM and circular motion
Although the analysis just described is a purely geometrical one,

it suggests a close dynamical connection, also, between the actual
linear
motion of a harmonic
oscillator
and the projection of a
The acceptance of F = ma means that

same motion implies the same force causing it, whatever the
uniform circular motion.

the
particular origin of the force
may
be.
understood with the help of Fig. 7-29.

kept moving in a circle of radius
to
This equivalence can be
particle of
A by means
fixed support at the center of the circle, O.
has a constant speed,
v,
mass
is
of a string attached
If the particle
the tension, T, in the string must be
given by
mv
T=
~A
Here v 2/'A is the magnitude of the instantaneous

a of m toward the center of the circle.
Now
the total force
and the
acceleration,
total acceleration at
any instant
can be resolved into their x and y components in a rectangular

coordinate system.
(Normally we would not be interested in
doing
Fig.
7-29
this,
because
and
a,
have well-defined constant mag-
Dynamical
relationship between
and
circular motion
linear
harmonic
motion.
233
More about
simple harmonic motion
Taking the x components alone, we have
nitudes.)
mu
cos e
Fx = - T cos e =
ax
cos 8
Thus the x component of the complete vector equation, F = ma,

is Fx = max with the values of Fx and ax stated above.
In order to display the dynamical identity of this component
,
motion with
SHM, we
uA.
We
Fx and
ax
putting v
can take the expressions for
separately, introducing the angular velocity
and
then have
Fx - mco 2 Acosd = mw 2x
ax = u 2 Acos8 = u 2 x
The
first
of these equations defines a restoring force proportional
to displacement, exactly in accord with our initial statement of
Hooke's law [Eq. (7-38)].
The second corresponds
the equation [Eq. (7-40)] that
was our
exactly to
starting point for the
kinematic analysis of the problem:
d x
Thus we
see that the
every respect.
dynamical correspondence
It tells us,
is
moreover, that we could,
complete in
if
we wished,
go the other way and treat a uniform circular motion as a superposition of two simple harmonic motions at right angles. This
is, in fact, an extremely important and useful procedure in some
contexts, although
we
shall not take time to follow
it
up here
and now.
PROBLEMS
7-1
Two
identical gliders,
each of mass m, are being towed through

Initially
speed and
tow rope
they are traveling at a constant
the air in tandem, as shown.

the tension in the
is 7"o.
begins to accelerate with an acceleration a.
A and B immediately
234
The tow plane then
What
are the tensions in
aftcr this acceleration begins?
Using Newton's law
Two
7-2
on a horizontal
table.
M as shown.
to block
blocks, of masses
and the
There
m =
2 kg, are
F =
in
contact
is
applied
be-
but no frictional force between the
block
first
kg and
a constant frictional force of 2
is
tween the table and the block

table
constant horizontal force
(a) Calculate the acceleration
of the two blocks.
(b) Calculate the force of contact between the blocks.
7-3
mass
sled of
is
pulled by a force of magnitude
to the horizontal (see the figure).
surface of snow.
It
Draw an
on
at angle 8
sled slides over a horizontal
experiences a tangential resistive force equal to
M times the perpcndicular force

(a)
The
isolation
W exerted on
the sled by the snow.
diagram showing
the forces exerted
all
the sled.
F = ma
Write the equations corresponding to
(b)
horizontal and
vertical
the
for
components of the motion.
Obtain an expression for the horizontal acceleration
(c)
terms of P,
6,
m,
n,
and
g.
For a given magnitude of P, find what value of 6 gives
(d)
in
the
biggest acceleration.
7-4
it
is
mi
block of mass
frictionless horizontal surface;
on a
rests
connected by a massless string, passing through a frictionless
eyelet, to a
second block of mass
mi
that rests
on
a frictionless incline
(see the figure).
Draw
(a)
tion of
isolation diagrams for the masses
and write
the equa-
motion for each one separately.
(b)
Find the tension
(c)
Verify that, for 6
in the string
jt/2,
and the acceleration of mi.
your answers reducc to the ex-
pected results.
7-5
In the figure,
F acts on
(a)
it
a pulley of negligible mass.
is
An
external force
as indicated.
Find the relation between the tensions on the right-hand

sides of the pulley. Find also the relation between F
and left-hand
and the
tensions.
(b)
What
relation
among
the motions of m.
M, and P
is
pro-
vided by the prescncc of the string?

(c)
Use
the
above
results
and Newton's law as applied to each

M, and P in terms of m. M, g,
block to find the accelerations of m,
and
F.
Check
that the results
make
sense for various specialized or
simplified situations.
A man
and the platform on which he stands

2
with a uniform acceleration of 5 m/sec by means of the rope-andpulley arrangement shown. The man has mass 100 kg and the platform is 50 kg. Assumc that the pulley and rope are massless and
7-6
move without
235
Problems
is
raising himsclf
frietion,
and neglect any
tilting effects
of the platform.
Assume g = 10m/sec 2
(a) What are the tensions
.
(b)
Draw
draw a separate
isolation
What
clearly indicate
all
the platform and

the forces acting
direction.
its
the force of contact exerted
is
and C?
man and
force diagram for each, showing
on them. Label each force and

(c)
in the ropes A, B,
diagrams for the
on
the
man
by the
platform ?
7-7
In an equal-arm arrangement, a mass 5/no
is
balanced by the
masses 3mo and 2mo, which are connected by a string over a pulley
of negligible mass and prevented from moving by the string
the figure).
e.g.,
Analyze what happens
if
the string
is
(see
suddenly severed,
by means of a lighted match.

-
"S
5i
3i
2m
7-8
prisoner in
jail
decides to escape by sliding to freedom
He
a rope provided by an accomplice.
down
attaches the top end of the
rope to a hook outside his window; the bottom end of the rope hangs
The rope has a mass of 10 kg, and the prisoner

The hook can stand a puli of 600 N without
prisoner's window is 15 m above the ground, what
clear of the ground.
has a mass of 70 kg.

giving way.
is
If the
the least velocity with which he can reach the ground, starting from
rest at the top
7-9
(a)
end of the rope?
Suppose that a uniform rope of length L, resting on a
tionless horizontal surface,
length by
means of a
force
is
fric-
accelerated along the direction of
F pulling
it
at one end. Derive
its
an expression
T in the rope as a function of position along its length.

How is the expression for Tchanged if the rope is accelerated vertically
for the tension
in a constant gravitational field ?

(b)
mass
is
accelerated by the rope in part (a).
Assuming
the mass of the rope to be w, calculate the tension for the horizontal
and
vertical cases.
7-10 In 1931 F. Kirchner performed an experiment to determine the

charge-to-mass ratio, e/m, for electrons. An electron gun (see the
figure) produced a beam of electrons that passed through two "gates,"
each gate consisting of a pair of parallel plates with the upper plates
Electrons could pass
connected to an alternating voltage source.
236
Using Newton's law
-07
-K
o-
straight through a gate only
momentarily
Wilh
zerc.
the voltage
if
on
the upper plate were
the gates separated by a distance
equal to 2.449
10
Hz
(1
Hz =
equal to
at a frequency
50.35 cm, and with a gate voltage varying sinusoidally
cycle/sec), Kirchner
found that
electrons could pass completely undeflected through both gates
when
Under
these
the initial accelerating voltage
(K
was
set at
1735 V.
conditions the flight-time between the gates corresponded
to
one
half-cycle of the alternating voltage.

(a)
(b)
(c)
What was the electron speed, deduced directly from / and /?

What value of eI m is implied by the data ?
Were corrections due to special relativity significant?
[For Kirchner's original paper, see Ann. Physik, 8, 975 (1931).]

7-11
certain loaded car
way between
the front
and
is
to have
rear axles. It
(at the rear) start slipping
How
known
when
is
the car
its
center of gravity half-
found that the drive wheels

is
driven
up
a 20 incline.
back must the load (weighing a quarter the weight of the

empty car) be shifted for the car to get up a 25 slope? (The distance
far
between the axles

7-12
is
child sleds
10
ft.)
down a snowy
hillside, starting
from
rest.
level field at the foot.
The
The
has a 15 slope, with a long stretch of

ft up the slope and continues for 100 ft on the level
field before coming to a complete stop. Find the coefficient of friction
between the sled and the snow, assuming that it is constant throughout
hill
child starts 50
the ride.
7-13
Neglect air resistance.
beam
of electrons from an electron gun passes between two
parallel plates, 3
mm
apart and 2
the electrons travel to

farther on.
It is
cm when 100 V
if
long.
After leaving the plates
desired to get the spot to deflect vertically through
are applied to the deflector plates.
the accelerating voltage

general, that
cm
form a spot on a fluorescent screen 25 cm
Vo on
the electron
gun?
What must
(Show
first,
be
in
the linear displacement caused by the deflector plates
can be neglected, the required voltage is given by V o = V(lD/2Yd),

where Y is the linear displacement of the spot on the screen. The
notation
237
is that
Problem s
used on p. 197.)
7-14
ball
known
It is
of mass
is
attached to one end of a string of length
nine times the weight of the
made
table, is
/.
that the string will break if pulled with a force equal to

ball.
The
ball,
supported by a frictionless
to travel a horizontal circular path, the other end of the
What is the largest number

make without breaking
string being attached to a fixed point O.
of revolutions per unit time that the mass can

the string?
7-75
cm
mass of 100 g
is
attached to one end of a very light rigid rod
The other end of the rod is attached to the shaft of a

motor so that the rod and the mass are caused to rotate in a vertical
20
long.
with a constant angular velocity of 7 rad/sec.
circle
Draw a
(a)
mass
force diagram showing
by the rod on the mass when'the rod points

i.e., at0 = 90?
You
7-16
the forces acting
all
on the
an arbitrary angle of the rod to the downward vertical.

(b) What are the magnitude and the direction of the force exerted
for
in a horizontal direction,
Camel at 60 mph and

when suddenly you
behind you fiying at 90 mph.
are fiying along in your Sopwith
2000-ft altitude in the vicinity of Saint Michel
Red Baron
notice that the
is
just 300
ft
Recalling from captured medical data that the
Red Baron can
with-
stand only 4 g's of acceleration before blacking out, whereas you can
withstand 5
down
you decide on the following plan.
g's,
You
dive straight
at full power, then level out by fiying in a circular are that
out horizontally just above the ground.
Assume
comes
that your speed
is
constant after you start to puli out and that the acceleration you
experience in the are
will follow
is
Since
5 g's.
you know
that the
Red Baron
you, you are assured he will black out and crash. Assuming
that both planes dive with 2 g's ucceleration
from the same
initial
point (but with initial speeds given above), to what altitude must
deseend so that the Red Baron,

are,
is
Assuming
either crash or black out?
must
a poor shot
down,
in trying to follow
will
and must
get within 100
ft
that the
your plan succeed ? After starting down you
recall reading
you excced 300 mph.
if
your plan sound
on your plane?
7-17
curve of 300
of 25 m/sec
is
55
mph)
normal to the surface

(a)
What
(b)
The
radius
on a
level
Red Baron
of your plane to shoot you
that the wings of your plane will fail off

in view of this limitation
you
your subsequent
road
is
so that the force exerted
Is
banked for a speed

on a car by the road
at this speed.
bank ?
tires and road can provide a maximum
tangential force equal to 0.4 of the force normal to the road surface.
What is the highest speed at which the car can takc this curve without
is
the angle of
frietion
between
skidding?
7-18
238
large
mass
M hangs
Using Ncwton's law
(stationary) at the
end of a
string that
smooth tube to a small mass m that whirls around

path of radius / sin 6, where / is the length of the string
passes through a
a circular
from m to the top end of the tube
in
(see the figure).
Write
down
the
must
dynamical equations that apply to each mass and show that
v2
Consider
whether
time
of
2ir(lm/gM)
orbit
in
a
complete one
.
there
is
any
7-19
model rocket
on the value of the angle 6
restriction
rests
joined by a string of length
motion.
frictionless horizontal surface
on a
/
in this
to a fixed point so that the rocket
and is
moves
/.
The string will break if its
The rocket engine provides a thrust F of
The
constant magnitude along the rocket's direction of motion.
in
a horizontal circular path of radius
tension exceeds a value T.
rocket has a mass

(a) Starting
that does not decrease appreciably with time.
from
rcst at
0, at
what
(b)
What was
(c)
What
/ 1 is
the rocket
the magnitude of the rocket's instantaneous net
1/2? Obtain the answer in terms of F, T, and m.

distance does the rocket travel between the time t\
acceleration at time
when
later time
Ignore air resistance.
traveling so fast that the string breaks ?
The rocket engine continues
the string breaks and the time 2/i?
to operate after the string breaks.
has been suggested that the biggest nuclear accelerator we

are likely to make will be an evacuated pipe running around the
The strength of the earth's magnetic field at the
earth's equator.
7-20
It
equator
is
about 0.3
or 3
10
-5
what speed would an atom of lead
MKS
(at.
With
units (N-sec/C-m).
wt. 207), singly ionized
(i.e.,
move around such an
orbit
carrying one elementary charge), have to
so that the magnetic force provided the correct centripetal acceleration?

(e
lead
7-21
1.6
10~ 10 C.) Through what voltage would a
atom have
to be accelerated to give
trick cyclist rides his bike
form of a
it
around a "wali of death"
vertical cylinder (see the figure).
force parallel to the surface of the cylinder
on the bike by the

At what speed must the cyclist go
the normal force exerted

(a)
239
Problems
singly ionized
this correct orbital
The maximum
is
speed ?
in the
frictional
equal to a fraction n of
wali.
to avoid slipping
down?
(b)
At what angle
(c)
If
radius of the cylinder

ride,
to the horizontal
(<p)
must he be inclined?
0.6 (typical of rubber tires
m,
is
at
on dry roads) and
what minimum speed must the
the
cyclist
and what angle does he make with the horizontal?
7-22 The following expression gives the resistive force exerted on a

sphere of radius r moving at speed v through
air.
valid over a
It is
very wide range of speeds.
R(c)
-4rJ
3.1
10
0.87/-V
m, and v in m/sec. Consider water drops falling

under their own weight and reaching a terminal speed.
(a) For what range of values of small r is the terminal speed
where
N, r
is in
in
1%
determined within
by the
first
term alone
in the expression for
R(v)l
For what range of values of Iarger r is the terminal speed

1% by the second term alone?
(b)
determined within
Calculate the terminal speed of a raindrop of radius 2
(c)
were no
If there
rest before
7-23
An
paratus.
oil
experiment
The
mm
When
is
the upper plate
radii,
mm
is
made 1100 V
the radius of the droplet?
is its
net charge,
1.6
plates un-
from one
line to
positive with respect
measured as a number of elementary
10" 19 C.)
What voltage would hold
fail
and takes 22.0 sec to cover the same

4
is 3.1 X 10~ n; (MKS units).
What
What
is
With the
apart.
that the resistive force
deduccd
precise value of the charge
7-24
The expcriment is done with

The droplets are timed between
Assume
charges? (e
(c)
observed to take 23.6 sec to
to the lower, the droplet rises
(b)
mm.
from
apart.
kg/m 3
lines that are 2.58
two horizontal
(a)
fail
performed with the Millikan oil-drop ap-
is
plates are 8
charged, a droplet
distance.
it
reaching this speed?
droplets of density 896
the other.
from what height would
air resistance,
the droplet stationary?
[Use the
in part (b)].
solid plastic spheres of the same material but of different
Two
R and
2R, are used
equal charges q.
The
in
a Millikan expcriment. The spheres carry
Iarger sphere
is
observed to reach terminal
speeds as follows: (1) plates uncharged: terminal speed

ward), and
(2) plates charged: terminal speed
suming that the
resistive force
ciro, find, in terms of
i>o
and
on a sphere of radius
vi, the
vo (down-
lm (upward).
r at
As-
speed o
is
corresponding terminal speeds
for the smaller sphere.
7-25 Analyze
in
retrospect the legcndary Galilean experiment that
Imagine such an experiment

done with two iron spheres, of radii 2 and 10 cm, respectively, dropped
simultaneously from a height of about 15 m. Make caleulations to
took place at the leaning tower of Pisa.
240
Using Ncwion's
lavv
determine, approximately, the difference in the times at which they

hit the
Do you
ground.
think this could be detected without special
mcasuringdevices? (Density of iron
7-26 Estimate the terminal speed of

balloon, with a diameter of 30
about
inside) of
cm
7500
kg/m 3 .)
fail (in air)
air-filled toy
and a mass (not counting the air
About how long would
0.5 g.
of an
it
take for the balloon
to come to within a few percent of this terminal speed? Try making

some real observations of balloons inflated to different sizes.
7-27
is
What
(b)
The
(c)
and
the 2-kg
What
0.
cm
When
is
mass are placed on a smooth
cm and
table.
then
is
the equation of the ensuing motion?
is
from rest, the mass were started

m/sec in the direetion of increasing
instead of being released
with a speed of
what would be
7-28
a mass of 2 kg
the spring constant k ?
spring
I f,
x =
is
cm when
pulled so as to extend the spring by 5
is
released at
x,
extended by 10
(a)
The mass
off at
and comhung from it.
spring that obeys Hooke's law in both extension
pression
the
the equation of
mass
is
doubled
deseends an additional distance

for the arrangement in
motion?
diagram
in
//.
What
is
AH
diagram (b)?
(a),
the end of the spring
the frequency of oscillation
shown
individual springs
are identical.
7-29
Any
object, parlially or wholly
submerged
in a fluid,
up by a foree equal to the weight of the displaced

r
rn: _L
n
2m
cylinder of density p
length
/ is
floating with
its
is
buoyed
uniform
axis vertical, in a
of density po. What is the frequency of small-amplitude vertical

oscillations of the cylinder?
fluid
7-30
(a)
and
fluid.
(a)
(b)
at
when
7-31
is
of length
SHM
L and
under
is
that the
mass
in
the case where the
mass
is
attached
from one end instead of the midpoint.
block rests on a tabletop that
motion of amplitude
A and
(a) If the oscillation
that will allow the
is
undergoing simple harmonic
period T.
vertical,
is
what
is
block to remain always
(b) If the oscillatior.
horizontal,
is
betwcen block and tabletop

will
attached to the midpoint of a
string
given a slight transverse displacement.
Find the frequency
a distance
is
The
Find the frequency of the
constant tension T.
deseribes
small bead of mass
string (itself of negligible mass).
is p.,
what
is
the
value of
in contaet with the table?
and the
the
maximum
coefficient of frietion
maximum
value of
that
allow the block to remain on the surface without slipping?
7-32 The springs of a car of mass
200 kg give
it
a period when empty
of 0.5 sec for small vertical oscillations.

(a)
How
far
passengers, each of
241
Problems
does the car sink down when a driver and three
mass 75
kg, get into the car?
(b)
The
road whcn
2
in.
it
car with
its
passengers
traveling along a horizontal
is
suddenly runs onto a piece of new road surface, raised
above the old surface.
Assume
that this suddenly raises the
wheels and the bottom ends of the springs through 2
in.
before the
body of the car begins to movc upward. In the ensuing rebound, are
the passengers thrown clear of their seats? Consider the maximum
acceleration of the resulting simple
242
Using Newton's law
harmonic motion.
If it universally appears, by experiments and astronomical

obseruations, that all bodies about the earth gravitate
towards the earth
in
proportion to the auantity of matter
that they severally contain; that the
gravitates towards the earth
we must,
in
and all
likewise
the planets one
in like
manner towards
conseauence of this
rule, universally
towards another; and the comets

the sun;
moon
allow that all bodies whatsoever are endowed with a principle
of mutual gravitation.
newton,
Principia (1686)
THE DISCOVERY OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

in chapters 6 and 7
we have
built
up the kind of foundation
dynamics that Newton himself was the

nutshell,
it is
first
to establish.
in
In a
the quantitative identification of force as the cause
of acceleration, coupled with the purely kinematic problem of

relating accelerations to velocities
now
consider, as a topic
splendid example of
its
We
and displacements.
own
shall
and most
right, the first
how
a law of force was deduced from the
and
historically
study of motions.
It is
convcnient,
not unrcasonable, to con-
sider separately three aspects of this great discovery:

1.
The
analysis o f the data concerning the orbits of the
planets around the sun, to the approximation that these orbits

are circular with the sun at the center.
Several people besides
Newton were closely associated with this problem.

2. The proof that gravitation is universal, in the
sense that
the law of force that governs the motion of objects near the
earth's surface
is
also the law that controls the motion of celestial
bodies. It seems clcar that

result,
3.
Newton was
The proof
that
the
true planetary
ellipses rather than circles, are
law of
the true discoverer of this
through his analysis of the motion of the moon.
force.
orbits,
which are
explained by an inverse-square
This achievement, certainly, was the product of
Newton's genius alone.

In the present chapter
of these questions quitc
we
fully,
shall be able to discuss the first
using only our basic results in the
245
The second question
kinematics and dynamics of particles.

requires us to learn (as
Newton himself
had
originally
to)
how
to analyze the gravitating properties of a body, like the earth,
which
so obviously not a geometrical point
is
close to
its
surface.
We
shall present
lem here and complcte the story
Chapter
in
when viewed from
one approach to the prob-
feature of the gravitational problem
is
11,
where
discussed.
this special
The
third
question, concerning the exact mathematical description of the

orbits,
is
something that we
shall not
go into
at all at this stage;
such orbit problems will be the exclusive concern of Chapter 13.
THE ORBITS OF THE PLANETS

We
have described in Chapter 2
how
the knowledge of the
classical planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter,

was already exceedingly well developed by the time
motions of the
and Saturn
of the astronomer Ptolemy around 150 a.d.
By
this
we mean
that the angular positions of these planets as a function of time

had been catalogucd with remarkable accuracy and over a long
enough span
for their periodic returns to the
the sky to bc cxtremely well
We
known.
same
position in
have pointed out pre-
viously, however, that the interpretation of such results
on the model of the solar system that one
uses.
Let us
carefully at the original observational data
more
clusions that can be
The
first
and the con-
drawn from them.
thing to recognize
is
that,
whether or not one
accepts the earth as the real center of the universe,

center as far as
this
to a
all
depends
now look
it
primary observations are concerned.
is
the
From
vantage point, the motion of each planet can be described,

first
approximation, as a small
circle (the epicycle)
whose
moves around a larger circle (the deferent). Now there

are some facts about the motions of two particular planets
Mercury and Venus that point the way to some far-reaching
center
conclusions. These are

1.
That
for these
two
planets, the time for the center
of the epicycle [Fig. 8-1 (a)] to travel once around the deferent
i.e., the same time that it takes the sun
is exactly 1 solar year
to complcte one circuit around the ecliptic.
The planets Mercury and Venus never get far from the
sun. They are always found within a limited angular range from
the line joining the earth to the sun (about 22J for Mercury,
2.
246
Fig. 8-1 (a) Motions
of
.'/.'(
sun and Venus
as seen from the
Venus always
earlh.
lies within the
range
$m
angular
of the
sun's direction.
(6) Heliocentric
picture
of the same
situation.
46
for Venus).
Both of these
for if
we go over
to the heliocentric, Copernican system [Fig.
We
8 l(b)].
facts are beautifully
see that the larger circle of Fig. 8-l(a) corresponds
in this case to the earth's
and the smaller
circle
own
orbit
around the sun, of radius rs,
the epicycle represents the
other planet (Venus or Mercury, as the case

interpretation,
this
accounted
we can proceed
to
may
make
orbit of the
be).
Given
quantitative in-
ferences about the radii of the planetary orbits themselves.
This
is a crucial advance of the Copernican scheme over the Ptolemaic.

Although Ptolemy had excellent data, they were for him just the
source of purely geometric parameters, but with Copernicus

arrive at the basis of a truly physical model.
Thus
we
in Fig. 8-1 (b)
angular deviation, dm , of the planet P from the

earth-sun line ES defines the planet's orbit radius r by the
the
maximum
equation
sin
(rB
The radius of
>
(8-la)
r)
the earth's orbit
is
clearly a natural unit for
mea-
suring other astronom ical distances, and has long been used
for this purpose:
1
astronomical unit
(AU)
mean
(1.496
In terms of this unit,
247
The
we
then have
orbits of the planets
distance
from earth
X 10" m)
to sun
For Mercury:
For Venus:
When
it
sin 225
sin 46
AU
0.72 AU
0.38
comes to the other planets (Mars, Jupiter, and

These planets are not closely
Saturn) the tables are turned.
linked to the sun's position; they progress through the full 360
with respect to the earth-sun line. This can be readily explained
if
we interchange
the roles of the
two component circular motions,
so that the large primary circle (the deferent)

orbit of the planet,
epicycle
sun.
is
now
is
taken to be the
larger than that of the earth,
and the
seen as the expression of the earth 's orbit around the
In the case of Jupiter, for example, the Ptolemaic picture
is
represented by Fig. 8-2(a) and the Copernican picture by Fig.

8-2(b).
now
Thus
the periodic angular swing,
0m
of the epicycle
is
related to the ratio of orbital radii through the equation
^=sin-
(rB
<
(8-1 b)
r)
in
which the
(8-la).
roles
of
and
r B are reversed with respect to Eq.
Ptolemy's recorded values of 6 m for Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn were about 41,
1,
and
6, respectively.
These would
then lead to the following results:

esc 41
esc 6
For Mars:
For
Jupiter:
For Saturn:
esc 11
AU
5.2 AU
9.5 AU
1.5
Thus with the Copernican seheme (and this was its great triumph)
construct
it became possible to use the long-established data to
Fig.
8-2
(a)
Motions
of the sun and

Jupiter as seen
the earth.
from
The
angle 8 m here
charaeterizes the
magnitude of the
retrograde (epicyclic)
motion.
(6) Helio-
centric picture
same
of the
situation.
248
Fig.
8-3
Universe
according lo
Copernicus.
(Reproduced from
his hisloric work,
De
Revolutionibus.)
of the planets in their orbits in order of their increasing

from the sun. Figure 8-3 is a reproduction of the
diagram by which Copernicus displayed the results in
a picture
distance
historic
his
book {De Revolutionibus) in 1543.

The data with which Copernicus worked (and Ptolemy,
too,
1400 years before him) were actually far too good to permit a
simple picture of the planets describing circular paths at constant speed around a
common
center.
out a detailed analysis to find out

orbit of each planet
was
offset
Thus Copernicus
how
carried
far the center of the
from the sun. But even with
this
adjustment, the detailed change with time of the angular positions
of the planets could not be

orbit
fitted unless the
was made nonuniform.
motion around the
Copernicus, like Ptolemy before
him, introduced auxiliary circular motions to deal with the
not the answer and we

For the moment we shall use
the basic idealization of uniform circular orbits and set aside
until later the rcfincmcnts that were first mastered by Kepler
problem, but
shall
this,
not discuss
as
its
when he recognized
we now know, was
compIexities.
the planctary paths as being ellipses.
PLANETARY PERIODS
The problem of determining
the periodicities of the planets, like
that of finding the shapes of their orbits,
249
Planctary pcriods
must begin with what
'
Fig.
&-4
(a) Relative
posilions
the
of the sun,
earth, and Jupiter
Et
at the beginning
fr
(SEiJi) and end

(SE2J2) ofone
synodic period.
(b)
Comparable
gram for
earth,
dia-
the sun, the
*
E,
//
V/ 1
\
and Venus,
allowing for the fact
>
v,
that Venus must be
offset from the line
between sun and earth
(b)
(a)
^^HBH BI
ifit is to be visible.
can be observed from the moving platform that
is
our earth.
The recurring situation that can be most easily recognized

one
in
some
is
the
which the sun, the earth, and another planet return, after
same positions relative to one
characteristic time, to the
The length of
another.
this recurrence time is
synodic period of the planet

centric
in question.
model of the solar system,
true (sidereal) period
this
is
known
as the
In terms of a helioeasily related to the
of one complete orbit of the planet around
the sun.
Consider
Jupiter.
first
the case of one of the outer planets, say
Figure 8-4(a) shows a situation that can be observed
from time to time.

Jupiter
lie
in a
The
positions of the sun, the earth,
straight line.
established by finding the date
the celestial
and
Observationally this could be
on which Jupiter passes aeross

it 180 away
meridian at midnight, thus placing
from the sun.

Now if one such alignment
is
represented by the positions
Ei and J t of the earth and Jupiter, the next one will oecur rather
ycar later, when the earth has gained one whole
more than
revolution on Jupiter. This is shown by the positions E 2 and J2
1
Jupiter has traveled through the angular distance 9 while the
earth goes through 2k
6.
Both Ptolemy and Copernicus knew
"The celestial meridian is the projection, on the celestial sphere, of a plane

containing the earth's axis and the point on the earth's surface where the
It is thus a great cirele on the celestial sphere, running
is located.
from north to south through the observer's zenith point, vertically above him.
Noon is the instant at which the sun crosses this celestial meridian in its
daily journey from cast to west.
observer
250
that the length of the synodic period separating these
figurations
by the symbol
in general
Then if the earth makes ns complete

and Jupiter makes nj revolutions per
r.
revolutions per unit time
we have
unit time,
Hr
rtjr
But n E and
Te and Tj
are the reciprocals of the periods of revolution
tij
of the two planets. Thus
and solving
we have
Tj we have
this for
Tj =
(8-2a)
- i.
Te /t
Tb/t
Putting
two con-
close to 399 days. Let us denote the synodic period
is
365/399
0.915,
we
thus find that
The same type of observation and calculation can be applied

Mars and Saturn and the other outer planets that we now know.
When we come to Venus and Mercury, however, the situation,
to
as with the determination of orbital radii,

First is the practical difficulty that
we
is
little different.
cannot, at least with the
naked eye, see these planets when they are in line with the sun,
because it would rcquire looking directly toward the sun to do
We
so.
can
by considering any other

8-4(b)] in which the angle between the direcThis particular diagram shows
is measured.
easily get
situation [see Fig.
ES and EV
Venus as a morning
tions
star,
around
this
appearing above the horizon
before the sun as the earth rotates

value of the angle
takes over l^yr
case, however,
earth.
Thus
it is
Venus
leading to the result
251
Tb/t
Planetary periods
hr or so
The same
one synodic period.
that has gaincd
This
In this
one revolution on the
form of the equation that applies to
we now have
1
east.
583 days, to be more precise.
instead of the
ngt
will recur after
about
the outer planets,

tivr
from west to
TE /r
Putting
7V
365/583
0.627,
we
find that
^224 days
a curious fact that Copernicus, in the introductory

general account of his model of the solar system, quotes values
of the planetary periods which are so rough that some of them
It
is
These values are marked on his
could even be called wrong.
diagram (Fig. 8-3) and are repeated in his text: Saturn, 30 yr;
Jupiter, 12yr; Mars, 2yr; Venus, 9 months; Mercury, 80 days.
The worst
(9
cases are
Mars
(2 yr instead of
months instead of about
7$).
about
i)
and Venus
This seems to havc led some
peoplc to think that Copernicus had only a crude knowledge of

the facts, which
was
Perhaps he was
certainly not the case.
careless about quoting the periods because his real interest was
in the
The
geometrical details of the planetary orbits and distances.
any event,
truth of the matter, in
is
that his quantitative
knowledge of both periods and radii, as spelled out in detail

later in his book, was so good that the best modern values do
not,
most part,
for the
quoted. This
ican
and
the
is
differ
from the ones he
significantly
shown in Table 8-1, which
lists
both the Copern-
modern data on the classical planets. (Incidentally,

from Ptolemy's data are almost iden-
the values to be extracted
TABLE 8-1:
DATA ON PLANETARY ORBITS

Orbital radius,
AU
Synodic period, days
Sidereal period
Modern
Planet
Copernicus
Modern
Mercury
Venus
0.376
0.3871
115.88
87.97 days
87.97 days
0.719
0.7233
538.92
224.70 days
Earth
1.000
1.0000
224.70 days
365.26 days
365.26 days
Mars
1.520
1.5237
779.04
1.882 yr
1.881 yr
Jupiter
5.219
5.2028
398.96
11.87 yr
11.862 yr
Saturn
9.174
9.5389
378.09
29.44 yr
29.457 yr
tical
Copernicus
Copernicus
with those of Copernicus, an astonishing tribute to those
astronomers whose measurements, from about 750

the time of Ptolemy's
own
b.c.
up to
observations around 130 a.d., pro-
vided the basis of his analysis.)
KEPLER'S THIRD LAW

The data of Table 8-1 point
clearly to a systematic relationship
between the planetary periods and distances.
252
This
is
displayed
Fig.
8-5
Smooth
curue relating the

periods and the orbital
radii
of the planets.
graphically in Fig. 8-5.
The
first
the following year in his
In
was
precise form of the relationship
discovered by Johann Kepler in 1618 and published by him
book The Harmonies of
he triumphantly wrote: "I
it
first
believed
the
World.
was dreaming
and exact that the ratio which exists

between the periodic times of any two planets is precisely the
." Table 8-2
ratio of the ^th powers of the mean distances
But
it is
absolutely certain
TABLE
KEPLER'S THIRD LAW
8-2:
Radius r of
of planet,
orbit
Period T,
/T2 ,
Planet
AU
Mercury
Venus
0.389
87.77
7.64
0.724
224.70
7.52
Earth
1.000
365.25
7.50
Mars
1.524
686.98
7.50
Jupiter
5.200
4,332.62
7.49
Saturn
9.510
10,759.20
7.43
days
(AU)'i /(dayy2
10"
shows the data used by Kepler and a test of the near constaney
2
of the ratio r 3 /T
Figure 8-6 is a different presentation of the
.
planetary data (actually in this case the data of Copernicus from
Table 8-1) plotted in modern fashion on log-log graph paper so

as to
show
T~
This
is
this relationship:
r3 ' 2
known
(8-3)
as Kepler's third law, having been preceded, 10
years earlier, by the statement of his two great discoveries (quoted
253
Kepler's third law
!|HBHnaHMMngHBmHHn|HmaHgnBMjfl
Fig.
8-6
Log-log
plot of planetary
period
T versus
radius
r,
orbit
using data
guoted by Copernicus.
The graph shows that
T is proporlional
to
r3 '" (Kepler's third

law).
in the Prologue)
concerning the
elliptical
paths of the individual
planets.
The dynamical expIanation of Kepler's
third law
had
to
await Newton's discussion of such problems in the Principia.
very simple analysis of
it is
possible
if
we
again use the sim-
plified picture of the planetary orbits as circles with the sun at
the center.
It
then becomes apparent that Eq. (8-3) implies that
an inverse-square law of force

of radius r we have
Expressing v in terms of the
254
2itr
is
at work.
known
For in a circular orbit
quantities, r
and
T,
we have
4
==-
ar
From Newton's
=ma
From
we
law, then,
infer that the force
on a mass
=- *&
we have
the relation
Y=K
(8-6)
K might
applies to
all
(8-5)
Kepler's third law, however,
where
in
must be given by
circular orbit
Fr
(8-4)
(toward the center)
be called Kepler's constant
the same value of

From Eq.
the planets traveling around the sun.
we thus have l/T 2 = K/r z and

,
it
(8-6)
substituting this in Eq. (8-5)
gives us
= -
Fr
The
(8-7)
implication
of Kepler's third
in
planet
proportional to
is
its
portional to the square of
inertial
its
is
mass
therefore,
that the force
Huygens
when
on a
and inversely pro-
distance from the sun.
contemporaries Halley, Hooke, and

arrived at
law,
terms of Newton's dynamics,
analyzed
all
Newton's
appear to have
some kind of formulation of an inverse-square law

problem, although Newton's,
the planetary
in
in
terms of his
concept of forces acting on masses, seems to have been

most clear-cut. The general idea of an influence falling off
2
as l/r was probably not a great novelty, for it is the most
deflnite
the
natural-seeming of
all
conceivable effects
something
spreading
out and having to cover spheres of larger and larger area, in

2
proportion to r so that the intensity (as with light from a source)
,
gets
weaker according
The
required
an inverse-square relationship.
to
proportionality of the force to the attracted mass, as
by Eq.
appreciated the
(8-7),
was a feature of which only Newton

With his grasp of the concept
full significance.
of intcractions exerted mutually between pairs of objects,
saw that the
mean
that the force
object just as
Newton
reciprocity in the gravitational interaction
it is
is
proportional to the mass
to the
must
of the attracting
Each object is
concerned. Hence
mass of the attracted.
the attracting agent as far as the other
one
is
the magnitudo of the force exerted on either one of a mutually
255
Kepler's third law
gravitating pair of particles
must be expressed
famous
the
in
mathematical statement of universal gravitation
Gmxm2
F_ _
where
(8 _ g)
a constant to be found by experiment, and
is
are the inertial masses of the particles.
matter of determining
the
famous problem that
in
led
We
m, and
shall return to the
practice, but first
we
shall discuss
Newton toward some of
his greatest
discoveries concerning gravitation.
THE MOON AND THE APPLE

but
It is
an old
as a
young man of
story,
still
an enthralling one, of how Newton,
came to think about the motion of the

nobody had ever done before. The path of
23,
moon in a way that

the moon through space,
as referred to the "fixed" stars,
is
line of varying curvature (always, however, bcnding toward the

sun), which crosses and recrosses the earth's orbit. But of course
there
is
much more
striking
way of looking
earth-centered view, which shows the
proximatcly circular orbit around the earth.

quitc like the planetary-orbit problem that
But Newton, with
discussing.
structed
an
intellectual
at
moon
it
the familiar
describing an ap-
To this extent it is
we have just been
his extraordinary insight, con-
bridge between this motion
behavior of falling objects the
and the
being such a commonplace
latter
needed a genius to rccognize its relevance.

He saw the moon as being just an object falling toward the earth
like any other as, for example, an apple dropping off a tree in
phenomenon
his garden.
that
it
very special case, to be sure, because the
moon was
away than any other falling object in our experience. But perhaps t was all part of the same pattern.
As Newton himself described it, he began in 1665 or 1666
to think of the earth's gravity as extending out to the moon's
orbit, with an inverse-square relationship already suggested by
so
much
farther
'
We
Kepler's third law.

tripetal acceleration
could of course just restate the cen-
formula and apply
it
to the
cussing the problem.

at
any point A
in
its
In effect hc said
orbit (Fig. 8-7).
'See the Prologue of this book.
256
this:
moon, but
it is
own way
of dis-
Imagine the
moon
illuminating to trace the course of Newton's
If freed of all forces, it
Fig.
8-7
portion
Geometry ofa small
ofa
circular orbit, show-
ing the deviation
y from the
tangential straiglu-line displace-
ment
AB ( = x)
lltat
would be
followed in the absence of gracity.
would
the
AB, tangent
travel along a straight line
Instead,
it
moon
follows the arc AP.
is
its
far the
moon
radial distance r
falls, in this
the distance of about 16
ft
is
AB as x, and
bit of analytic
the distance
sec,
BP
toward O, even
Let us caleulate
how
and compare
with
it
that an object projected horizontally
near the earth's surface would
unehanged.
sense, in
to the orbit at A.
the center of the earth,
has in effect "fallen" the distance
though
First,
If
fail in
that
geometry.
BP as y,
it
If
will
same time.
we denote the distance
be an exceedingly good
approximation to put
(8-9)
~2r
One way of obtaining this

ONP, in which we have
ON =
NP
result
= x
is
to consider the right triangle
OP =
Hence, by Pythagoras' theorem,

(r
y)
x2 =
x
r2
= 2ry - y 2
r for any small value of the angle d, Eq. (8-9) follows

y
good approximation. Furthermore, since (again for small d)
Since
as a
the arc length
AP (=
s) is
almost equal to the distance
can equally well put
257
The moon and the apple
A B, we
*-
(8-10)
In order to put numbers into this formula we need to know

both the radius and the period of the moon's orbital motion.
The
distance to the
moon,
as
known
to
Newton, depended on the
two-step process devised by the ancient astronomers finding

the earth's radius and finding the moon's distance as a multiple
of the earth's radius.
rcminder of these classic measurements
discussion
is given in Figs. 8-8 and 8-9 and the accompanying
everyone,
is that the
(pp. 259-261). The final result, familiar to
moon's orbit radius r is about 240,000 miles ~ 3.8

Its period T is 27.3 days 2.4 X 10 sec. Therefore,
travels a distance along its orbit given by
fi
r
(m
During
denote
sec)s
this
y>i
= 2ttX
3.8
2A x
same time
to identify
it,
it
falls
0*
-
in
10
1
m.
sec
it
_ 1000
|WM m
1Q|
a vertical distance, which
we
will
given [via Eq. (8-10)] by
>-i7: -^lo
(ini sec)
=1 3X,0 ~ 3m
-
In other words, in
a distance of
mm,
indeed
or about 5V in.;
slight.
sec
is
On
projected
surface,
1
sec, while traveling "horizontally"
km, the moon
its
falls vertically
through
through just over
is
the other hand, for an object near the earth's

horizontally,
the
vertical
displacement
in
given by
y2 = yr- = 4.9
Thus
'i
'O"''
Newton knew
that the radius of the
moon's
orbit
was about
as the ancient Greeks
60 times the radius of the earth itself,

had first shown. And with an inverse-square law, if it applied
equally well at all radial distances from the earth's center, we
would expect yjy* to be about 1/3600. It must bc right!
And
yet,
what an astounding
result.
Even granted an
inverse-
square law of attraction between objccts separated by many

times their diamctcrs, one still has the task of proving that an
258
object a few feet above the earth's surface
is
attracted as
though
the whole mass of the earth were concentrated at a point 4000
miles below the ground.
Newton
1685, nearly 20 years after his
He
first
did not prove this result until

great insight into the problem.
published nothing, either, until
complete, in the Principia in 1687.

follows on
p.
earth's
One way
came
out, perfect
and
of solving the problem
262 (after the special section below).
MOON
FIND1NG THE D1STANCE TO THE

The
it all
radius
About 225 B. c. Eratosthenes, who lived and worked at Alexandria

near the mouth of the Nile, reported on measurements made on
the shadows cast by the sun at noon on midsummer day. At
Alexandria (marked A in Fig. 8-8) the sun's rays made an angle
of 7.2 to the local vertical, whereas corresponding measurements
made 500 miles farther south at Syene (now the site of the
Aswan Dam) showed the sun to be exactly overhead at noon.
(In other words,
Cancer.)
It
Syene lay almost exactly on the Tropic of
follows at once
from these
of length 500 miles, subtends an

center of the earth.
angle of 7.2 or
Hcnce
_
Re ~
Re ~
4000 miles
500
figures that the arc
or
Fig.
8-8
Basis of the
method useci by
Eratosthenes to find
the earth's radius.
When
the
midday sun
was exactly overhead

at Syene (S) its rays
fell at 7.2 to the verti-
cal at Alexandria (A).
259
Finding the distance lo the
moon
g rad
AS,
at the
The moon's distance measured
in
Hipparchus, a Grcek astronomer
who
made observations
of Rhodes,
in
earth
radii
lived mostly
about 130
B.c.
on the island
from which he
obtained a remarkably accurate estimate of the moon's distance.
His method was one suggested by another great astronomer,

Aristarchus, about 150 years earlier.
The method involves a
clear understanding of the positional
and moon.
relationships of sun, earth,
moon
Hipparchus measured
this angle to be 0.553
a.
that sun
and
at the earth.
1/103.5 rad); he
knew what Aristarchus before him had found that the

far more distant than the moon.
Hipparchus used this
also
sun
We know
subtend almost exactly the same angle
is
knowledge
in
(Fig. 8-9).
The shaded
plete
an analysis of an eclipse of the
shadow;
its
moon by
region indicates the area that
boundary
lines
with one another, because this
is
the earth
com-
is in
PA and QB make an
angle a
the angle between rays
coming
from the extreme edges of the sun. The moon passes through the
shadowed region, and from
the
measured time that
this passage
took, Hipparchus deduced that the angle subtended at the earth
by the arc BA was 2.5 times that subtended by the moon

Thus Z AOB 2.5a.
Let us
now do some
moon
earth's center to the
geometry.
is
If the distance
D, the length of the arc
nearly equal to the earth's diameter
PQ
AB 2RB - aD
8-9 Basis of the method used by Hipparchus tofind
moon's distance. The method depended on obseroing
Fig.
the duration {and hence the augular widtli)

total eclipse in the
the arc
260
shadow of the
AB.
of the moon's
earth, as represented
from the
BA
is
very
diminished by the
amount aD:
the
itself.
by
But we also have
AB ~
_
2.5a
AB
2.5aZ>
or
Substituting this in the
first
equation WC have
3.5aDi 2R F
,
or
D _
2
3.5o
Since a
Z)
1/103.5 rad, this gives
5-
Combining
this with the value
of .Re
itself,
we have
236,000 miles
Modern methods
Refined triangulation techniques give a mean value of 3,422.6",
or 0.951, for the angle subtended at the
radius.
Using the modern value of the
(Re
6378
km =
moon by
the earth's
earth's radius
3986 miles)
one obtains almost exactly 240,000 miles for the moon's mean
distance.
Such traditional methods, however, are
far surpassed
by the technique of making a precision measurement of the time

for a radar echo or laser reflection to return to earth.
The
fiight
time of such signals (only about 2.5 sec for the roundtrip) can
be measured to a fraction of a microsecond, giving range determinations that are not only of unprecedcntcd accuracy but are
also effectively instantaneous.
THE GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION OF A LARGE SPHERE

It
has long been suggested that Newton's failure to publicize
his discovery
261
The
about an invcrse-square law of the earth's gravity
gravitational attraction of a large sphere
extcnding to the
moon was due
discrepancy, resulting
earth's radius.
from
an erroneous value for the
This would, via Eq. (8-10), falsify the value
the moon's distance of

orbit)
primarily tO an actual numerical
his use of
since
fail,
calculated, according to the
was
of
moon's
method discovered by
(the radius of the
When Newton
Hipparchus, in tcrms of the earth's radius.
first
was home in the countryside, out of reach

of reference books, and it is reliably recorded that he calculated
the earth's radius by assuming that 1 of latitude is 60 miles,
instead of the correct figurc of nearly 70 miles. Be this as it may,
it remains almost certain that Newton, with his outstandingly
thorough and critical approach to problems, would never have
did the calculation he
regarded the theory as complete until he had solved the problem
of gravitation by large objects.

analyzing this problem.
more
in a
(In
Let us
Chapter
1 1
now
we
consider a
shall tackle
way of
it
again
sophisticated way.)
Suppose we have a large solid sphere, of radius R as shown

in Fig. 8-10(a), and wish to calculate the force with which it attracts a small object of mass m at an arbitrary point P. We shall
,
assume that the density of the material of the sphere may vary
with distance from the ccnter (as is the case for the earth, to a
very
marked degree) but
that the density
equidistant from the center.
We
is
the
same
at all points
can then consider the solid
sphere to be built up of a very large number of thin uniform
Fig.
8-10
(a)
solid sphere can be regarded as built
up ofa set ofthin concentric splierieal
shells.
gravitational effect of an individual shell can
by treating
262
it
(b)
as an assembtage ofeireular zones.
The
befound
The
spherical shells, like thc successive layers of an onion.
total
gravitational effect of the sphere can be calculated as the super-
position of the effects of
is
the
by a
the force exerted
assuming that the funda-
thin spherical shell of arbitrary radius,
mental law of force
Thus
these individual shells.
all
becomes that of calculating
basic problem
that of the inverse square between point
masses.
we show
In Fig. 8-10(b)
a shell of mass
negligible thickness, with a particle of
from the center of the

shell,
AP.
shell.
we
If
near point A, the force that
mass
M,
radius R, of
at a distance r
consider a small piece of the
it
exerts
on
m is along the line
from the symmetry of the system, howcver, that
It is clear
the resultant force due to the whole shell must be along the line
OP; any component of
near
will
from material near
we need
near A,
force transverse to
OP
due
to material
be canceled by an equal and opposite contribution

A'.
Thus
if
only consider
we have an element of mass
dM
contribution to the force along
its
OP, i. e., the radial direction from the center of the

Hence we have
shell to
m.
GmdM
s2
now
Let us
shaded
is
consider a complete belt or zone of the shell,
in the
diagram.
shown
represents the portion of the shell that
It
and
contained between the directions
dd to the axis OP,
and the same mean values of s and <p apply to every part of
Thus, if we calculate its mass, we can substitute this value
dM in
the belt
2irR
R dd
is
and
sin 6 dd.
mass of the
_. =
dM
belt
2TrR
OFr
263
The
task
now
circumference
is
is
..
sin
Now
the width of
2irR sin 9; thus
the whole shell
sm6d6 M = M
is
4irR
2
;
its
area
hence the
d6
gives us
GMm
j
its
The area of
is given by
Thus Eq. (8-11)
Our
as
Eq. (8-11) to obtain the contribution of the whole belt to
the resultant gravitational force along OP.
is
it.
to
co s f
sin 9
dd
..
sum
the contributions such as
,.
(o-lZ)
Ti
dFr
gravitational attraction of a largc sphere
over the
whole of the
and
e.
over thc whole range of values of
shell, i.e.,
<p,
.?,
This looks like a formidable task, but with the help of a
calculus (another of Newton's inventions!) the solution
little
turns out to be surprisingly straightforward.
From
the geometry of the situation [Fig. 8-10(b)],
and
possible to exprcss both of the angles
<p
in
and R, and the variable distance

separate applications of the cosine rule we have
fixed distances, r
,+ *cose = -
From
the
sin 6
first
n
dd =
,
-uar
s.
By two
R2
~^T
of these, by differentiation, we have
sds
-rR
Hence, substituting the values of cos
we
+ s2 -
=~
"* v
is
it
terms of two
<p
and
sin 6
dd in Eq. (8-12),
obtain
dFr
The
= " GMm
~4^R
total force
minimum
is
+ s2 -
(r
R 2 )ds
found by integrating
value of
(=
R) to
its
this expression
maximum
from the
value (r
R).
Thus we have
d4^'f
"--îr
-
The
integral
is
just the
sum
of two elementary forms;
Inserting the limits,
r+B
f
/T-R
we
2
2
"*"% _
2 J.
S*
-R
then find that
ds
[(r
+ R)-
(r
= 2R - (r- R)
= 4R
264
R)]
- R _ r - R2\
\r+ R " r- R J
_ (r
(r
R)
we have
Substituting this value of the definite integral in Eq. (8-13)
we
have
Fr = -
(8-14)
What a wonderful
the radius
result!
It is
of extraordinary simplicity, and
of the shell does not appear at
all.
It is
uniquely a
consequence of an inverse-square law of force between particles;
effect of
would
force law
no other
yield such a simple result for the net
an extended spherical object.
Once we have Eq.
(8-14), the total effect of a solid sphere
Regardless of the particular
follows at once.
way
which the
in
density varies between the center and the surface (provided that
it
depends only on R) the complete sphere does indeed act as

It does
its total mass were concentrated at its center.
though
not matter
how
close the attracted particle
of the sphere, as long as
it is
in fact outside.
consider what a truly remarkable result this

it
obvious that an object a few
feet
is
to the surface
Take a moment to
is.
Ask yourself: Is
above the apparently
fiat
ground should be attracted as though the whole mass of the

earth (all 6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons of it!) were con-
down?
It is
from obvious as could be, and there can be
little
centrated at a point (the earth's center) 4000 miles
about as
far
doubt that Newton had to convince himself of
own
hc could establish, to his
between
satisfaction, the
this result before
grand connection
gravity and the motion of the
terrestrial
moon and
other celestial objects.
OTHER SATELLITES OF THE EARTH

Newton's thinking quite
least theoretically
81
is
an
of having other
embraced the
satellites
possibility
at
of the earth. Figure
from Newton's book, The System of the

incorporated in the Principia); it shows the
illustration
World (which
transition
explicitly
is
from the
effectively parabolic trajectories
of short-
range projectiles (although the apparent parabolas are really

small parts of ellipses) to a perfectly cireular orbit and then to
other elliptic orbits of arbitrary dimensions.
Let us derive the formulas for the required velocity v and

the period
of a
satellite
orbit at a distance r
265
Other
satellites
from
launehed horizontally in a cireular
the center of the earth.
of the earth
The necessary
Fig.
8-11
Newlon's
diagram showing the

transit ion front
normal
parabolic trajectories
to complete orbits
encircling the earth.
(From The System of

the World.)
force to maintain circular motion
is
provided by gravitational
attraction:
= G Mnm
mv
r*
Mg
where
and
is
the
mass of
the earth,
the
mass of the
satellite,
the universal gravitational constant. Solving for v,
(8-15)
.-(T
often convenient to express this result in terms of
It is
familiar quantities.
object of
on
it,
by Eq.
F.
But
mass
We
at the earth 's surface, the gravitational force
(8-8), is
GMatn
Re 2
this is the force that
can be
set equal to
question. Hence we have
GMgm
mg =
2
Rs
or
GME
= gRE
Substituting this in Eq. (8-15),
266
more
can do this by noticing that, for an
we
get
mg
for the
mass
in
-W
1/2
The
period, T, of the satellite is then given
2xr _
2^/2
(8-16)
g ll2 R E
g =
Putting
by
9.8
m/sec 2
/?g
6.4
10 m,
we have
a nu-
merical formula for the period of any satellite in a circular orbit
of radius r around the earth:
Tw
(Earth satellites)
where
T is
in seconds
For example, a
and
5.3
The
first
10 ;i sec
man-made
an orbit as shown
10~ 7 r 3/2
(8-17)
r in meters.
satellite
(about 200 km, say), has r
3.14
minimum
at
6.6
practicable altitude
10 m, and hence
90 min
satellite,
Sputnik
in Fig. 8-1 2(a).
Its
(October 1957) had
maximum and minimum
distances from the earth's surface were initially 228 and 947
respectively, giving a
Fig.
8-12
satellite
(a) Orbit
mean value
of Sputnik
I,
man-made
the first
(October 1957). (A) Synchronous
satellite
com-
munication System. Orbital diameter in relation to

earth's diameter is approximately to scale.
267
Othcr
satellites
of the earth
km,
of r equal to about 6950 km.
With
Eq. (8-17) gives an orbital period of about
this value of r,
96 min, which agrees closely with the observed

Particular interest
have an orbital period equal
on
that
satellites
to the period of the earth's rotation
such
If placed in orbit in the earth's equatorial plane,
its axis.
remain above the same spot on the earth's surface,
satellites will
and a
figure.
attaches to synchronous
set of three of
them,
ideally in a regular triangular array
as shown in Fig. 8-12(b), can provide the basis of a worldwide
Communications system with no blind

one finds
in Eq. (8-17),
Putting
spots.
km
42,000
T=
day
Thus
or 26,000 miles.
must be about 22,000 miles above the earth's surabout 5 earth radii overhead. The first such satellite
such
satellites
face,
i. e.,
to be successfully launched
was Syncom
II in
July 1963.
Equation (8-16), on which the above calculations are based,

has a very noteworthy feature.
satellite traveling in
a circular
orbit of a given radius has a period independent of the
mass of
Thus a massive spaceship of many tons will, for

the same value of r, have precisely the same orbital period as a
flimsy object such as one of the Echo balloons, with a mass of only
the satellite.
about 100 kg
debris with a
direct
G,
a small piece of interplanetary
This result
is
consequence of the fact that the gravitational force on
any object
THE VALUE OF
or, for that matter,
mass of only a few kilograms.
is strictly
proportional to
its
own
mass.
AND THE MASS OF THE EARTH
Although the
result expressed
by Eq. (8-14) was obtained by
considering a large sphere and a small particle, one can quickly
convince oneself that
it is
also the correct statement of the force
between any two spherical objects whose centers are a distance

r apart.
For suppose that we have two such spheres, as shown
in Fig. 8-1 3(a).
The
calculation that
we have
carried out
shows
on the left) attracts every particle

of the other as if the left-hand mass were a point [Fig. 8-1 3(b)].
This therefore reduces the problem to the mutual gravitational
that one sphere (say the one
mass m)
mass M. But now we can apply the result
a second time. Thus we arrive at Fig. 8-1 3(c),
attraction between a sphere (the right-hand sphere, of
and a point
of the
particle of
Iast section
with two point masses separated by a distance
r,
as a rigorously
correct basis for calculating the force of attraction between the
two extended masses shown
The above
result is
ment, already described
268
in Fig. 8-1 3(a).
important
in
in the analysis
Chapter
5, for
of the experi-
finding the universal
Fig.
8-13
lion.
(a)
Two
treating
it
gracilaiing spheres at small separa-
ofone
(b) Effect
spliere
as a poinl mass.
(M)
(c)
can be calculated by
The argumen! can be
repeated, so thal the attraction between the spheres can
be calculated as lhougli bolh were poinl masses.
from the measured force between two
gravitation constant. G,
spheres of
effect
known
In order to get the biggest possible
masses.
with an interaction that
is
so extremely weak,
is
it
usual
to arrange things so that the centers of the spheres are separated
by only a
little
more than the sum of
the radii.
It is
then a great
convenience to be able to calculate the force, even under these

Notice, however, that
conditions, on the basis of Eq. (8-14).
Some
the result holds only for spheres.
determine
have
made
them
greater ease of machining

it
of the measurements to
use of cylindrical masses, because of the

In such cases
to high precision.
becomes necessary to calculate the net force by an
explicit
integration over the spatial distribution of material.
from laboratory measurements of the force exerted between two known

masses, is (as already quoted in Chapter 5):
The
G =
prescntly accepted value of G, as obtained
6.670
X 10-" m 7kg-sec 2
(8-18)
know the value of G, although he made

a celebrated guess a t the mean density of the earth, from which
he could have obtained a conjectural figure. In Book III of the
Newton
himself did not
Principia, he
common
remarks
one point as follows
at
"Since ... the
matter of our earth on the surface thereof
twice as heavy as water, and a
little
lower, in mines,
three, or four, or even five times heavier,
about
it
that the quantity of the whole matter of the earth
or six times greater than

If
we denote
the
if it
mean
consisted
at the earth's surface is given
The
value of
G',
of water
density of the earth as p
as R, the gravitational force exerted
269
all
on a
is
is
about
is
found
probable
may be
.
five
."
and its radius

mass m just
partiele of
by
and ihc mass of ihc earth
9Mn
F=
(8-19)
R2
where
Hence
4*
F =
-- (GpR)m
Since, however, this
acceleration
is
just the force that gives the particle an
in free fail,
we
also have
F = mg
It follows, then,
that
^GpR
g =
(8-20)
If in this cquation
we put g
9.8
and (using Newton's estimate) p
m/sec 2
5000
R ~
to
6.37
10 m,
6000 kg/m 3 , we
find that
(6.7
0.6) X
10-"
:,
/kg-sec 2
Thus Newton's estimate was almost exactly on target. In practice, of course, the calculation is done the other way around.
Given the
directly
G [Eq. (8-18)] we suband (8-20) to find the mass and the mean
The result of these substitutions (with
determined value of
stitute in Eqs. (8-19)
density of the earth.
R =
6.37
5.97
=
=
10
m)
X
X
10
5.52
10
is
24
3
kg
kg/m 3
LOCAL VARIATIONS OF g
If
we take
the idealization of a perfectly spherical, symmetrical
earth, then the gravitational force
distance h above the surface
F =
270
GMm
+ A)2
(R
Universal gravitaiion
is
on an object of mass
given by
at
If
we
identify
times the value of g at the point in ques-
we have
tion,
For
F with m
/i
R,
this
(8-2,)
would imply an almost exactly
linear decrease
Using the binomial theorem, we can rewrite
of g with height.
Eq. (8-21) as follows:
GM(.,h\
,,,
Hence, for small
* 2~
\
h,
we have
gCA)-w(l-f)
= GM/R 2
where g
the earth's surface.
(8-22)
the value of g at points extremely close to
[Alternatively,
we can use a calculus method

we want to consider the
that can be extremely useful whenever
fractional variation of a quantity.
It is
based on the fact that the
differentiation of the natural logarithm of a quantity leads at
once to the fractional variation. In the present case we have

..
GM
= -^T
Therefore,
ln
g =
const.
2 ln r
R, g
Differentiating,
As
k _ 2 Ar
r
g
Hence, putting
Ag
go,
and Ar =
h,
we have
^ - 2go -
which leads us back
to
Eq. (8-22).
Notice
how
this
method
frees us of the need to concern ourselves with the values of any
multiplicative constants that appear in the original equation
271
GM in the equation for g. A recognition of this
e.g.,
the value of
fact
can enable one to avoid a
Local variations
ofg
lot
of unnecessary arithmetic in
the computation of small changes of one quantity that depends
upon another according
some
to
well-defined functional re-
lationship.]
He
height.
Hooke,
Robert
contcmporary,
Newton's
made
several
of the gravitational attraction with
efforts to detect a variation
did this by looking for any changes in the measured
weights of objects at the tops of church towers and the bottoms
Not surprisingly, he was unable to find any difBy Eq. (8-22) one would have to ascend to a point
about 1000 ft above ground (e. g., the top of the Empire State
of deep wells.
ference.
g was even as great as I part in

see in a moment, however, such variations
greatest of ease by modern techniques.
Building) before the decrease of
As we
10,000.
shall
are detected with the
Superimposed on the systematic variations of the gravitaforce with height are the variations produced by in-
tional
homogeneities in the material of the earth's crust.

if
one
is
For example,
standing above a subterranean deposit of salt or sand,
much lower
in density
value of
to be reduced.
than ordinary rocks, one would expect the
Such changes, although extremely
measured with remarkable accuracy by modern
small, can be
become a very valuable
instruments and have
tool in geophysical
prospccting.
Almost
all
which a mass
gravity
and an
other words,
in
modern
is
in
gravity meters are static instruments, in
equilibrium under the combined action of
elastic restoring force supplied
it is
by a
spring.
just a very sensitive spring balance.
as the instrument
is
moved from one
change
point to another leads
to a minute change in the equilibrium position, and this

tected by sensitive optical
methods or
In
electrically
is
de-
by, for ex-
ample, making the suspended mass part of a tuned circuit whose
and hencc frequency,
capacitance,
displaccment.
To
is
changed by the
slight
be useful, such instruments must be capable
of detecting fractional changes of g of 10
-7
or
Figure
less.
8-14(a) shows the basic construetion of one such device.
With
it one can trace out contours of constant g over a region of

interest. Figure 8-14(b) shows the results of such a survey, after
allowance has been
made
for effects
surface features, and so on.
272
in these gravity
gal
cm/sec 2
surveys
is
\Q~* g
Universal gra vital ion
altitude,
in-
The primary unit of mcasureknown as the gal (after Galileo):
dications of ore concentrations.
ment
due to varying
Such contours can give good
(a)
Fig.
8-14
ia) Sketch of basic features
ofa
sensitiue
grammeter, made offused quarlz. The arm marked

acts as the
carries a pointer P.
control spring
The restoring force
S\ and a
gravity surcey ouer
made by
Sweden, and reproduced
be oblained
Example
indicating
an ore
deposit.
the Boliden Mining Co.,

in
D. S. Parasnis, Mining
Geophysics, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1960.)
273
(.b)
an area about 400 by 500 m,
with contours of conslant
(After a survey
52
provided by a
is
null reading can
wilh the help ofthe ca/ibrajed spring
ofa
U is picoied al A and B and
main weight.
Local varialions of g
This
too large for convenience, so most surveys, like that
far
is
of Fig. 8-14(b), show contours labeled in terms of milligals

-3
cmsec 2 10~"g). Under the best conditions,
(1 mgal = 10
relativc
mcasurements accurate to 0.01 mgal may be achievable.
One can
appreciate
how
change of g by 0.01 mgal

in elevation of only
impressive this
is
by noting that a
8
(1 part in 10 ) corresponds to a change
about
cm
at the earth's surface!
THE MASS OF THE SUN

Let us return to the simple picture of the solar system in which
each planet deseribes a cireular orbit about a fixed central sun
We
(Fig. 8-15).
how
law,
have seen,
the use of
in the diseussion
of Kepler's third
Newton's Iaw of motion implies that the
on the planet is given, in terms of its mass, orbital radius,

and period, by the following equation [Eq. (8-5)]:
foree
F = -
4tt
mr
/-
According to the basic law of the foree, however, as exprcssed

by Newton's law of universal gravitation [Eq.
of
Fr
is
(8-8)], the value
Fr = -
GMm
r*
where
is
expressions,
mass of the sun. From the equality of

we obtain the following result:
the
these
4*y
(8-23)
GM
We may
Fig.
8-15
maled by a
again note the feature, already
Planelary orbit approxicirele wiih the
sun at the
cemer.
274
two
Iniversal gravitation
commented on
in
con-
nection with earth satellites, that the period
mass of the orbiting object,
What does
other planet.
turn Eq. (8-23) around,

value of this mass,
M,
in
is
independent of the
in this case the earth itself or
matter
is
the
mass of the sun, and
we have an equation
that
tells
some
if we
us the
terms of observable quantities:
*-
<H4>
3
2
Kepler's third law expresses the fact that the value of r /T
The statement of
indeed the same for a U the planets.
does not, however, rcquire the use of absolute values of r

for that matter, of
of r and
T for
either.
It is sufficient
to
know
is
this result
or,
the values
the various planets as multiples or fractions of the
earth's orbital radius
and period.
In order to deduce the
mass
of the sun from Eq. (8-24), however, the use of absolute values
We
essential.
have seen, earlier
of the earth's year has been
days of antiquity.
to the sun
is,
known with
how
is
the length
great accuracy since the
knowledge of the distance from the earth
however, rather recent.
knowledge makes an interesting

the special seetion following.
mean
in this chapter,
The
The development of
this
is
summarized in
final result,
expressed as a
story,
which
distance in meters, can be substituted as the value of r in
Eq. (8-24), along with the other necessary quantities as folio ws:
r*** 1.50
TK ~
G =
We
3.17
6.67
XlO H m
X 10 7 sec
X 10-" m 3 /kg-sec 2
then find that
M m
2.0
10
30
kg
FINDING THE DISTANCE TO THE SUN

The
by
first
attempt to estimate the distance of the sun was
the great
Greek astronomer, Aristarchus, in the
made
third century
B.c, and he arrived at a result which, although quite erroneous,

held the field for
but
made
many centuries. His method, sound
ineffectual
in principle
by the great remoteness of the sun,
dicated in Fig. 8-16(a).
He knew
is
in-
moon was
moon were
that one half of the
illuminated by the sun and that the phases of the
the result of viewing this illuminated hemisphere from the earth.
275
Findina the distance to ihc sun
Sun
Earth
Fig.
8-16
(a)
Melhod allempied by Arislarchus
Ihe sun's dislance
moon.
by measuring ihe angle
(b) Triangutation
to find
SEM at half-
melhod of cslablishing
the
of ihe solar sysiem by finding ihe dislance o/

Mars, iising Ihe earth' s radius as a base line. (c) Direel
scale
delerminalion of ihe sun's dislance by obserc'mg Ihe

transit
of Venus front
When
the
moon
differenl poinls
is
on
exactly half
Ihe earth.
full,
the angle
SME is 90.
If, in
an exact measurement can bc made of the angle d,

the difference in directions of the sun and moon as seen from a
point on the earth, we can deduce the angle a (= 90 - 6)
this situation,
subtcnded at the sun by the earth-moon distance r m- Aristarchus
a ~ 3 ~ 55 rad and
measured angle is 9 and
judged
to be about 87, which gives
hcnce
/\s
20/\u.
not a, the error
Our
Since, however, the
in the final result
present knowledge
tells
may
be (and
us that the value of
represented by Fig. 8-16(a)
is
is)
very great.
in the situation
actually about 89.8 instead of
87; this relatively small change in 6 raises the ratio rs /r M to

several
hundred instead of
20.
complctcly different attack on the problem was initiated
by Kcpler, although
its full
exploitation
was not possible
until
later.
Even so it at once becamc clear that the sun is
more distant than Aristachus had concluded. The basis of the
method is indicated in Fig. 8-16(b). It involves observations on
much
276
the planet Mars.
both planets
line joining
distance between
Now
radii.
earth,
When Mars
if
them
Mars
more
to the vastly
to the sun.
the difference between their orbital
is
viewed from two different points on the
is
should appear
it
with respect
in slightly different directions
The
A and B
distant background of "fixed" stars.
particular angular difference,

is
the earth, it lies on a

Under these conditions the
is closest to
called the parallax;
it
is
for observers placed at
S,
the angle subtended
To measure
radius at the position of Mars.
by
the earth's
this angle
one does
not need to have observers at two different points on the earth;
would carry an observer from A.

to B in about 6 hr during a given night. Now Kepler was able
to deduce from the very careful observations of his master,
Tycho Brahe, that the value of S must be less than 3 minutes of
the rotation of the earth itself
arc,
which
distance to
is
about 1/1200 rad; he could conclude that the
Mars
must be greater than 1200
in this configuration
Then, using the known
earth radii or about 5 million miles.
from the Copernican seheme
values of orbital radii
relatioe
(Table 8-1),
it
follows that the distance of the sun from the earth
more than 10 million miles.

John Flamsteed, a contemporary of Newton to whose
observations Newton owed a great deal (he was Astronomer
Royal from 1675 to 1720), reduced the upper limit on the parallax
of Mars to about 25 seconds of arc, and concluded that the sun's
is
more than 2400 earth
distance
was
at least
radii, i.e.,
80 million
An
miles.
Italian
astronomer,
Cassini, arrived at a specific value of about 87 million miles at
about the same time, using observations made by himself in
Europe and by a French astronomer, Richer, at Cayenne in

South America. Another contemporary of Newton's Edmund
Halley
proposed a method that finally led, 100 years later, to
the first precision measurements of the sun's distance. The method
involved what
is
known
Venus aeross the sun's
as a transit of Venus,
disk, as seen
8-16(c) illustrates the basis of the method.
As
the sun, Venus looks like a small black dot.
and
also the times at
which the
the position of the observer
Edmund
Halley, best
known
on
i.e.,
from the
Its
a passage of
earth.
it
apparent path,
transit begins or ends,
earth.
for the
Figure
passes aeross
depend on
Since the motion of Venus
comet named
after him, succeeded
this, however, he had

been very active in physics and astronomy. He became a devoted friend and
admirer of Newton, and it was largely through his help and persuasion that
Flamsteed
in
1720 as Astronomer Royal.
Long
the Principia was published,
277
Finding the distance to the sun
before
is
known, the timing of the
accurately
yield accurate
measures
can be used to
transit
of the differences in angular positions
of Venus as seen by observers at different positions. From such

observations the parallax of Venus can be inferred, after which
one can use an analysis just like that for Mars. These transits
arc fairly rare, because the orbits of the earth and Venus are not
in the
same
plane, but Halley pointed out that a pair of
would occur
then
in
them
and 1769, and again in 1874 and 1882, and

From the first two of these (both occurring
own death) the solar parallax was found to be
in 1761
2004 and 2012.
long after Halley 's
between about 8.5 and 9.0 seconds of arc, corresponding to a distance of between about 92 and 97 million miles. Thus
the currently accepted result was approached. (The best meadcfinitely
surements of
its
elosest
this
type have been
made on
the asteroid Eros at
approach to the earth.)
Further refinements came with the observations made in

the late nineteenth century. One of the most notable of these
was the use of an accurately known value of the speed of light
from the accumulated
to deduce the diameter of the earth's orbit
time lag, over a period of 6 months, in the observed eclipses

of the moons of Jupiter. The situation is indicated in Fig. 8-17.
While the earth moves from

J, to J\.
to
E2
Jupiter
moves only from
This introduces an extra transit time of about 16 min
for the light that tells us that
one of
the speed of light
is
moons has, for

Knowing that
space,
we can
empty
Jupiter's
example, just appeared from behind the
planet.
186,000 miles/sec in
deduce that the earth's orbital radius is equal to this speed times
about 480 sec, or about 90 million miles. (The caleulation was
originally donc just the other way around, by the Danish astron-
omer Roemer in 1675. Using an approximate value of the

distance from earth to sun, he made the first quantitative estimate
of the speed of
Fig.
8-17
light.)
Measure-
ment of the diameter

of the earth's orbit by
observing the eclipses
of Jupiter's moons
and
the apparent
delays due to the

travel time
of light
through space.
278
Although the modern measurements of the sun's distance

are of great accuraey,
we must
reckon with the
still
this distance varies diiring the course of a year.
however, we can
relatively small variation,
If
fact that
we ignore
make
this
use of the
average value, already quoted near the beginning of this chapter:
rE
AU =
1.496
10 n
MASS AND WEIGHT

Perhaps the most profound contribution that Newton made to
was the fundamental connection that he recognized beinertial mass of an object and the earth's gravitational
force on it a force roughly equal to the measured weight of the
object.
(Remember, we have defined weight as the magnitude
science
tween the
of the force, as measured for example on a spring balance, that

holds the object at rest relative to the earth's surface.)
had been known since Galileo's time that
It
the earth
it
was
with about the same acceleration,
fail
just
a kinematic
fact.
took on a much deeper
this acceleration, there
have
by F =
ma,
F, =
It
But
If
objects near
Until
g.
Newton
Newton's law
an object
is
it
observed to
must be a force F acting on
given
it
i.e.,
mg
(8-25)
then becomes a vitally significant dynamical fact that, since
the acceleration g
it is strictly
remarkable
same
the
is
for all objects, the force F, causing
proportional to the inertial mass.

this result
is,
static
experiment.
a springlike device
and has, as
qg
appreciate
a torsion
the force
fiber.
One
it
finds a quantity,
with
which
electrical interaetions) a gravita-
This "charge"
inertial
purely
in a
by balancing
is
charaeteristie of any object
far as these experiments are concerned,
do with the
how
serateh to in-
between two objects
One measures
might be called (by analogy with

tional charge,
To
imagine starting from
vestigate the force of attraction
to
in terms of
significance.
all
mass, which
is
nothing at
acceleration (under the aetion of forees produced, for example,
stretehed springs).
One
all
defined solely in terms of
cxperiments with objects of
materials, in different states of aggregation,
all sorts
and so on.
It
by
of
then
turns out that, in each and every instance, the gravitational
charge
is
strictly
proportional to an independently established
quantity, the inertial mass.
279
Mass and weieht
Is this just a
remarkable coincidence,
or does
this
point to something very fundamental? For a long time
it
apparent coincidence was regarded as one of the unexplained
mysteries of nature. It took the sagacity of an Einstein to suspect
may,
that gravitation
be equioalenI to acceleration.
in a sense,
Einstcin's
"postulate of equivalence,"
charge q
and the
inertial
mass
quantity, provided the basis of his
embodied
that
to this in Chapter 12,
gravitational
are measures of the
own theory
in the general theory of relativity.
when we
the
same
of gravitation as
We
shall
come back
discuss noninertial frames of
reference.
We
of F to
are quite accustomcd to exploiting the proportionality
in
our use of the equal-arm balance [Fig. 8-1 8(a)].

two forces, but
are doing is balancing the torques of
What we
what we are
actually interested in
of material.
We make
the valuc of
is
the
is
the equality of the
amounts
use of the fact that, to very high accuracy,
same
at the positions of both masses,
and
we do not need to bother about what its particular value is.

Thanks to the proportionality of gravitational force to mass, we
could, with an equal-arm balance and a set of Standard weights,
measure out a requircd quantity of any substance equally well
on the earth, the moon, or Mars. The spring balance [Fig.
8-1 8(b)], on the other hand, has a calibration that depends
on a particular value of g. Its readings are in effect

readings of force, even though we use them as a basis for measuring out required amounts of mass. We might find it convenient to use a spring balance for this purpose on the moon,
directly
but
if its
mask
this
scale
were marked
out and
Standard masses.
Fig.
8-18
(a)
Weigh-
ing with an egual-arm
balance
in effect
comparison of
masses, valid whatever
direct
the value
(b)
of g.
Weighing with a
spring balance
measurement of the
gravitational force,
directly dependent
the value
on
of g.
280
in kilograms,
we should have
to
attach a fresh calibration with the help of
Fig.
8-19
Forces acling on the bob ofa simple
pendulum.
Newton himself recognized
that the strict proportionality
of the gravitational force to the inertial mass, as evidenced by the

identical local acceleration of falling objects,
own
in his
was a key feature
statement of universal gravitation as expressed in
He
Eq. (8-8).
therefore
made a
series
of very careful pendulum
experiments to test whether a pendulum of a given length, but

with a variety of objects used as the bob, always had the same
To
period.
mass
see
how
m hung on a
this
works, consider an object of inertial
The two
string (Fig. 8-19).
ing air resistancc) are the tension
T and
forces on
it
(ignor-
the gravitational force F.
The tension T is at every instant pcrpendicular to the path of the

pendulum bob and so has no effect on the tangential acceleration
a$.
The tangential acceleration is due to the tangential component of
Fe
From
F.
= ma =
Fig. 8-19,
Fa smd
from which
= (Fg/m)sin 9
At every angle
(8-26)
depends on the
6 the acceleration ag
for given
ratio
F/m.
the vehcity of the
bob
So also the
period for one completc round trip will depend upon the ratio
(Fs /m). Newton observed the periods of pcndulums with difTherefore
initial
at every angle 6 will be
conditions
determined by
From
bobs but with equal lengths.
ferent
the periods of
all
More
his observation that
such pendulums were equal within his experi-
mental error, Newton concluded that

to better than
this ratio.
was proportional to
part in 1000.
recent experiments (beginning with Baron Eiitvos in
Budapest in the nineteenth century) have made use of a very

clever idca that permits a static
measurement.
It
depends on
recognizing that an object hanging at rest relatioe to the earth i n
an acceleration toward the
fact has
virtue of the earth's rotation,
radius r
= R cos \,
whcrc X
it is
is
the latitudc (see Fig. 8-20).
means
that a net force of magnitude
where
answer
is
is
the inertial mass.
that,
when
How
mu 2 r
is this
Mass and weight
This
must be acting on
force provided?
it,
The
a body hangs on a string ncar the earth's
surface, the string, exerting a force T,
281
by
earth's axis because,
traveling in a circular path of
is
not in quite the same
Basis of the Eotvos
Fig.8-20
methodfor comparing
mass and
mi object that
the earth
the inerlial
the gravitational
is
mass of
at rest relatice to
and hence
is
being aceeler-
ated toward the earth' s axis.
And
direction as the gravitational force F.
proportional to m, the angle between
To
for different objects.
sensitive torsion balance
if
and F
is
will
not
strictly
be different
search for any such variations, a very

is
used, carrying dissimilar objects at
two ends of a horizontal bar [Fig. 8-21 (a)]. If the directions

of the tensions T, and T a are different [Fig. 8-21 (b)], there will
be small horizontal components [Fig. 8-21(c)] that act in opthe
posite directions with respect to the horizontal bar but that givc
Fig.
8-21
Principle
torques in the same sense.
oftlte Eoluos lorsion-
balance measurement
of T! and
T2
Two approximately quite the same, there
(o)
To
fiber.
from a
the whole apparatus
torsion bar.
f the
objects
the other hand,
if
the directions
is
no net torque tending to twist the torsion

any such torque, Eotvos placed
test for the existence of
egual masses hang
(b) I
On
are identical, even if their magnitudes are not
n a case that could be rotated.
The
do
not have identical

ratios
T, sin B
of inerlial to
gracitational mass, the

lensions in the sus-
pending strings must

be in slightly different
directions.
In eguilib-
jyi
rium, the direction of

the
main supporting
fiber must be intermediate between the
directions
T2
ofTi and
r, sin
(c) This implies
the possibility of a net
'6
torque that twists the

torsion bar abotit
a
(a)
vertical axis.
282
Universal eravitation
(b)
(c)
i*
hori-
Fig.
8-22
To see
whether a net torque
Eotvos
exisls in the
experiment, the whole
apparatus
turned
is
through 180".
This
would recerse the

sense ofthe torque.
zontal
beam
carrying the two masses was aligned in an east-west
and a reading was taken of its position

with respect to the case. The whole system was then rotated
through 180, as inFig. 8-22(b). If you analyze both situations
direction [Fig. 8-22(a)]
on the basis of Fig. 8-21, you
will find that,
center line of the case, the angle of twist

this operation;
would be
if
any net torque
existed,
its
existence
revealed.
More
some elegant modernized experiments of
recently,
have been performed by R. H. Dicke and his collabBy such experiments it has been shown that the strict
this type
orators.
hence,
with respect to the
would be reversed by
'
proportionality of
FB
to
holds to
part in 10
10 or better.
The description of the above experiments points to a closely

phenomenon a systematic variation with latitude of the
measured weight of an object. If we take the idealization of a
related
perfectly spherical earth (Fig. 8-23), the equilibrium of the object

is
maintained by applying a force of magnitude
W at an angle a
to the radius such that the following conditions are satisfied:
Wsina =
Jfcosa =
where
moi 2 rsin\
mui 2 rcos\
= R cos X.
Since a
justifiable to put cos
is
certainly a very small angle,
in the
the result
W
'See R.
283
Fg -
H. Dicke,
mo> 2 R cos 2 X
Sci.
Am., 205, 84 (Dec. 1961).
Mass and weight
it is
second equation, thus giving
Fig.
8-23
The force needed to
balance the weiglil of an object

different 'm bolh direction
is
and magni-
tude from t he force of gravity.
It
follows that
Wo + mu 2 R sin 2 X
W(\)
where
iy
is
the measured weight
on the equator.
Putting
mgo, we can also obtain a corresponding expression for
the latitude dependence of g:

l?(X)
80
<*
R sin 2 X
we
this expression
If in
R =
6.4
with g
g(\)
10 m,
9.8
9.8(1
This formula
we
2
m/sec
is
find
/?
3.4
-1
and
10~ 2 m/sec 2 , which
27r/86,400sec
gives us
0.0035 sin 2 X)
more
w =
substitute
m/sec 2
successful than
it
deserves to be, for
we
have no right to ignore the significant flattening of the earth,
due again to the rotation, which makes the equatorial radius

of the earth about 1 part in 300 greater than the polar radius.
This eliipticity has two consequences: It puts a point on the
equator farther away from the earth's center than
would
bc,
but
it
otherwise
also in effect adds an extra belt of gravitating
material around the equatorial region.
The
resultant value of
at sea level, taking these effects into account,
scribed
it
is
quite well de-
by the following formula:
g(\)
9.7805(1
Thus our simplc
0.00529 sin 2 X)
calculation has the correct form, but
(8-27)
its
value
for the numerical coefRcient of the latitude-dependent correction

is
284
only about two thirds of the true figure.
WE1GHTLESSNESS
It
appropriate, after thc detailed discussion of the relations
is
among
mass, gravitational force, and weight, to devote a few
The very
we have drawn between the gravitational
force on an object and its measured weight makes use of what is
called an operational definition of the latter quantity. The weight,
as we have defined t, is the magnitude of the force that will
words
to the propcrty that is called weightlessness.
explicit distinction that
hold an object at rest relative to the earth.
Our
definition of
An
weightlessness derives very naturally from this:

weight less whenever
it
is in
object
a state of completely free fail.
each part of the object undergocs the same acceleration,
state
of whatcvcr value corresponds to the strcngth of gravity at

location.
(In saying this
we assume
that
its
does not change ap-
preciably over the linear extent of the object.)

is
is
In this
An
object that
prevented from falling, by being restrained or supported,
and deformations
inevitably has internal stresses
librium state.
This
may become
in
its
equi-
when a drop
very obvious, as
of mercury flattens somewhat when
it rests on a horizontal surand deformations are removed in the

The mercury drop, for cxample, is
fail.
Ali such stresses
face.
weightless state of free

free to take
on a perfectly spherical shape.
The above
any
The
definition of weightlessness can be applied in
and
gravitational environment,
this is the
phenomena of
bizarre dynamical
life
way
should be.
it
in a space capsule do
not depend on getting into regions far from the earth, where the
much
gravitational forces are
the capsule,
acceleration,
ample,
if
and everything
which
it,
is
is in
orbit
same
For ex-
falling freely with the
consequence goes undetected.
in
a spacecraft
reduced, but simply on the fact that
in
around the
earth,
200
km
above
the gravitational force on the spacecraft,

and on everything iri it, is still about 95% of what one would
measure at sea level, but the phenomena associated with what
we call weightlessness are just as pronounced under these conthe earth's surface,
ditions as they are in another spacecraft 200,000 miles
where the earth's gravitational attraction
is
down
from
earth,
to j^Vo of that
an object released inside

The same would
be true in a spacecraft that was simply falling radially toward
the earth's center rather than pursuing a cireular or elliptical
at the earth's surface.
In both situations
the spacecraft will remain poised in midair.
orbit
285
around the earth.
Weightlessness
When
viewcd
in these
terms the phe-

nomena of
weightlessness are not in the least mysterious,
though they are
still
al-
startling because they conflict so strongly
with our normal experience.
LEARNING ABOUT OTHER PLANETS

The
recognition of the
universality of gravitation gives us a
powerful tool for obtaining Information about planets other
than the earth, and indeed about

particular,
In
celestial objects in general.
a planet has satellites of
if
its
own, we can
find its
mass by an analysis exactly similar to the one we used for deducing the mass of the sun from the motions of the planets
This provides the simplest way of finding the mass
themselves.
of any planet that has
Such
satellites.
more than one of them,
satellites, if
a planet has
also provide a further test of Kepler's
third law, taking the planet itself as the central gravitating body.
Newton himself applied an
analysis of this kind to Jupiter,
four most prominent satellites. These were

"moons") that made history when Galileo discovered them with his new astronomical telescope in 1610 (see
pp. 287-290). Figure 8-24(a) shows their changing positions as
seen through a modern telescope, and Fig. 8-24(b) reproduces a
using data for
its
the satellites (or
few of the sketches that Galileo himself made, night after night,
over a period of many months. Figure 8-24(c) is a graph constructed from Galileo's quantitative records, using the readings
unambiguously associated with the outermost of the
that can be
four satellites.
had no
period of about 16 days can be inferred. Galileo
hesitation in interpreting his observations in terms of the
four satellites following circular orbits that were seen edgewise

giving, as
motion
we would
describe
at right angles to
it,
our
the appearance of simple harmonic
line of sight.
measurements Galileo arrived
On
the basis of further
at rather accurate values of the
orbital periods of all four satellites
and
at
moderately good values
of the orbital radii expressed as multiples of the radius of Jupiter

itself.
Newton,
in the Principia,
cision, obtained
(p.
290)
lists
rithmically
by
his
used similar data of greater pre-
contemporary John Flamsteed. Table 8-3
these data, and in Fig. 8-25 they are plotted loga-
(cf.
Fig. 8-6) in such a
way
as to
show how they
give
another demonstration of the correctness of Kepler's third law.
The slope is accurately f.

The use of Jupiter's radius
orbital radii
286
as a unit for measuring the
was not merely a convenience. As we have already
noted in our discussion of the mass of the

of the solar system was not
Newton's day.
known
suri,
the absolute scale
with any great certainty in
interesting, however, that using the data as
It is
presented in Table 8-3, without absolute values of the radii,
one can deduce the mean density, pj, of Jupiter.
By analogy
and
in particular
with our analysis of

Eq. (8-15)], we have
266,
(GMj\ 1/2
2xr
whence
earth satellites [p.
Mj =
Putting
Mj =
we
^ Pj Rj
get
i
_ 3t n
'>
n*/T 2 ~ 7.5
3
m /kg-sec 2 wefind
Substituting
10- n
of
10
-9
sec
-2
,
mass may be
inferable
called
disturbing effects
one another's
and Venus.
orbits.
from a
6.67
its
own, the magnitude
detailed analysis of the tiny
perturbations
that
planets exert
on
This technique has been used for Mercury
The unraveling of
complicated and
case
G -
1050 kg/m 3
about the same density as water.

If a planet does not have satellites of
its
and
pj
i.e.,
difficult
these mutual interactions
matter, however, and
in at least
is
one
posed a problem that was not adequately answered for a
it
long time.
This was the interaction between the two most
massive planets, Jupiter and Saturn, which caused irregularities

It
was even con-
sidered possible that the basic law of gravitation
would need to
of a very puzzling kind in the orbits of both.
be modified slightly
ship.
The
away from
a precise inverse-square relation-
solution to the mystery
was
finally achieved,
almost a
century after the publication of the Principia, by the Frcnch
mathematician Laplace, building on work by his great fellow
287
Learning about othcr planels
The moons of
In 1608
Jupiter
Hans Lippershey,
successful lelescope.
own
design.
in Holland, patented what
Galileo learned of
this,
may
hace been the
and soon made
lelescopes
first
of his
His Ihird instrumen!, of more than 30 diamelers' magnification,
led him lo a dramalic discouery, as recounted by him in his book,
The
Slarry
Messenger:
"On the secenth day of January in this prcsenl year 1610, al Ihe first
hour of Ihe night, when I was ciewing ihe heavenly bodies with a teleseope,
Jupiter presented itself lo me, and
I perceiced that beside Ihe planet
.
there were three small starlets, small indeed, bui cery bright.
belieced them lo be
among
Ihe hosl offixed stars, they aroused
Though I
my
curiosily
somewhat by appearing lo lie in an exacl straight line parallel to the ecliplic

I paid no attenlion to the distances between them and Jupiter, for at Ihe
oulsel l thoughl them lo be fixed stars, as l hace said. Bui returning lo the
same incestigalion on January eighth
ledby what, l do not know
I found
."
a uery different arrangemenl.
.
Afew more
nights ofobseruation were enough lo concince Galileo what he
was
seeing: "I hadnow [by January 11] decided beyond all question thal there exisled
in Ihe
heavens three stars wandering aboul Jupiter as do Venus and Mercury
about the sun.
Nor were there just
three such stars; four wanderers complele
measured the distances between them

Moreocer I recorded the times of the observaby means of the teleseope.
tions ..for the revolutions ofthese planets are so speedily completed that it is
their revolutions aboul Jupiter. ... Also I
.
usually possible to lake eien their hourly varialions."
Fig. 8~24(a)
and
its
Jupiter
four mosi
prominent
salellites as
seen through a modern

teleseope.
The first
and second photographs
illustrale
Galileo's observation that noticeable
changes oecur within a

single night.
Yerkes
Obsercatory photographs)
288
4-J-
d -7-
4-S-A?
'y i
r.
f-.tv-r-
*^_^>D^
#r>_
-7
<a.6?M/
(8&
T'
.=:
Kr.
<-* r- tf-
=*-*=^V*
jf *
J?Tb
4- '
o v** "'*'
0***-* +
Fig. 8-24(b)
Facsimile of a page of Golileo's
own
handwritten records ofhis observations diiring the later
months (July-October) of 1610.
Fig. 8-24(c)
A graph
conslrucied from
Galileo's
own
records,
showing the periodic
mol ion
ofCallisto, the
outermost of the four

satellites visible to
Mm. The period of

about 16 3/4 days
is
clearly exhibited.
289
"
The raoons of Jupiter
*"
'
"
"
countryman Lagrange. It turned out that a curious kind of

resonance effect was at work, resulting from the fact that the
periods of Jupiter and Saturn are almost in a simple arithmetic
TABLE 8-3:
n = r/Rj
Satellile
Fig.
8-25
DATA ON SATELLITES OF JUPITERn 3 /T 2 sec~ 2
Period (T)
Io
5.578
1.7699 days
Europa
8.876
3.5541 days
Ganymede
14.159
7.1650 days
Callisto
24.903
16.7536 days
1.53
10 5 sec
7.4
10-
3.07
X
X
X
10 5 sec
7.5
10~ 9
6.19
1.45
10
sec
10 6 sec
7.5X10-
7.4
IO" 9
log-log
grapli displaying the
applicabilily
of
Kepler's thitd law IO

the Galilean satellites
of Jupiter.
It
may
be
seen that Calileo's

results are little dif-
ferent from those ob-
tained by John Flamsteed nearly 100 years

later.
"Thcse same data have been presented in a striking way in Eric Rogers,
Physicsfor the Inauiring Mind, Princeton University Press, Princeton,
N.J., 1960:
Satellile
T2
(milesy
(hours) 2
X
X
10 3
7.264
29.473
lfl
29.484
10 3
160.440
10 16
160.430
10 3
1.803
Europa
7.261
Callisto
How
would you convince your friends
cidencc
is
X 10"
X 10 10
X 10
Io
Ganymede
290
r\
10 3
that this close numerical coin-
not evidence of a new fundamental law?
1.803
relationship (5Tj
term
in
(~900
2TS
)-
This made large an otherwise negligible

long
the perturbation, with a repetition period so
yr) that
the mystery
it
was
When
seemed to be increasing without limit.

finally resolved the belief in Newton's theory
was, of course, strengthened
further.
still
THE DISCOVERY OF NEPTUNE

Probably the most vivid illustration of the power of the gravitational theory has been the prediction and discovery of planets
whose very existence had not previously been suspected. It is

noteworthy that' the number of known planets remained unchanged from the days of antiquity until long after Newton.
Then,
in 1781,
William Herschel noticed the object that we now

He was engaged in a systematic survey of the
only clue to start with was that the object seemed
know as Uranus.
and
stars,
his
slightly less pointlike
than the neighboring
Then, having
stars.
a telescope with various degrees of magnification, he confirmed

that the size of the image increased with magnification, which
is
they remain below the
not true for the stars
of even the biggest telescopes,

distinguishable from
Once
returned to
in-
those due to ideal point sources.

object, Herschel
had been drawn to the
his attention
it
limit of resolution
and always produce images
night after night and confirmed that
it
was moving
with respect to the other stars. Also, as has happened in various

other cases, it was found that the existence of the object had in
fact been recorded
maps
n earlier star
(first
by John Flamsteed
These old data suddenly became extremely valuable,

because they were a ready-made record of the object's movein 1690).
ments dating back through nearly a century.
new measurements
with
showed that the object
member of our solar

with a mean radius of
a
carried out over
(finally to
When combined
many months,
they
be called Uranus) was indeed
system, following an almost circular orbit
AU
and a period of 84 years.

This is where our main story begins. Once it was discovered,
Uranus and its motions became the subject of a continuing study,
and cvidence began to accumulate that there were some ex19.2
tremely small irregularities in
its
motion that could not be
aseribed to perturbing effects from any
known
source.
Figure
8-26(a), a tribute to the wonderful precision of astronomical
observation, shows the
The
291
suspicion began to
The
anomaly
grow
as a funetion of time since 1690.
that perhaps there
discovery of Neptune
was
yet
another
Fig.
8-26
(a)
Unexplained residual devialions in the
observed positions of Uranus between 1690 and 1840.

(b) Basis ofascribing the devialions lo the influence
an extra planet. The arrows indicate the

nitude of the perturbing force
at
planet beyond Uranus,
unknown
Two men J.
Francc
292
C.
Adams
relalive
of
mag-
dijferent times.
in
in
mass, period, or distance.
England and U.
indepcndcntly workcd on the problem.
J.
LeVerrier in
Both men used
as a starting point the assumption that the orbital radius of the
unknown
was almost exactly twice that of Uranus. The

was a curious empirical relation, known as Bode's
law (actually discovered by J. D. Titius in 1772, but publicized
planet
basis of this
by
J.
Bode), which expresses the fact that the orbital radii of the
known
planets can be roughly fitted by the following formula:
R (AU)
2,
0.4
is
4, 5,
and 6 one
and Uranus.
asteroid belt.)
= cc,
is hard to defend).
Using
good values for Jupiter, Saturn,
(The missing integer, n = 3, corresponds to the
Figure 8-27 shows this relation of orbital radii
(Mercury requires n
n
(0.3X2")
an appropriate integer for each planet. Putting n = 0,

we get the approximate radii for Venus, earth, and Mars
where n
1,
which
gets quite
with the help of a semilog plot;

relation (linear on this graph)
accepts Bode's law, then n
it is
7 gives r
what Adams and LeVerrier used.
Fig.
8-27
Graph for
predicting the orbital

radius of the
new
planet with the help of
Bode's law.
293
clear that
a simple exponential
works almost as
The discovery of Neplune
38.8
well,
but
AU, and
if
one
this is
Given the
definite picture, as
the
new
is automatically defined by
becomes possible to construct a
the period
radius,
Kepler's third law,
and then
shown in
it
Fig. 8-26(b), of the
way
in its orbital
which
in
planet could alternately accelerate and retard
Uranus
motion, depending on their relative positions. With
the help of laborious analysis, onc can then deduce where in
new planet should be on a
orbit the
its
Adams
particular date.
supplied such information in October 1845 to the British Astron-
omer Royal, G.
B.
who acknowledged Adams'
Airy,
raised a question of detail, but otherwise did nothing.
did not complete his

the astronomer to
own
whom
made an immediate
calculations until
he wrote
and
search
(Neptune) on his very
first
(J.
next night
it
had
August 1846, but
G. Galle,
identified
Germany)
new planet
It was only
8-28). The
in
the
night of observation.
about a degree from the predicted position
letter,
LeVerrier
(see Fig.
visibly shifted, thereby confirming its planetary
status.
Although the discovery of Neptune

great success story,
and of human
received
it is
frailty.
Adams was
no support from
bachelor's degree
some respects a
good and bad,
in
is
also a story of luck, both
really first in the field,
(he
his seniors
when he bcgan
was
fresh
-.
v'--
8-28
Star
map
showing the discovery
of Neptune, September
23, 1846.
(From
Herbert Hal/ Turner,
Astronomical Discovery,
Edward
*.
-,
'
Arnold, London,
i
1904.)
294
his
Airy missed
his calculations).
Fig.
but he
from
'
man
Adams
the credit, which he might readily have won, of being the
But the locations that both
who
first identified Neptune.

and LeVerrier predicted might well have been hopclessly misleading, for in their reliance on Bode's law they used an orbital
radius (and hence a period) that was far from correct.
value
is
about 30
AU
The
true
instead of nearly 40 as they had assumed,
which means that they overestimated the period by nearly 50%.

It
was therefore
near to
its
largely a lucky accident that the planet
was so
predicted position on the particular date that Galle
sought and found
it.
But
let this
not be taken as disparagement.
A great discovery was made, with the help of the laws of motion
and the gravitational foree law, and it remains as the most
triumphant confirmation of the dynamical model of the universe
Newton invented. 2 The discovery of Pluto by C. Tombaugh

1930, on the basis of a detailed record of the irregularities of
that
in
Neptune's
own motion,
provided an echo of the original achieve-
ment.
GRAVITATION OUTSIDE THE SOLAR SYSTEM

When Newton
known about
wrote his System of the World, nothing was
the distances or possible motions of the stars.
They simply provided a seemingly
fixed
background against which
the dynamics of the solar system proceeded.
ceptions.
There were ex-
few prominent stars e.g., Sirius known since
antiquity by naked-eye astronomy, were found to have shifted
But the serious and systematic

was
begun by William Herschel.
motions
investigation of stellar
His observations, continued and refined by his son John Her-
position within historic time.
schel
The
and by other astronomers, revealed two
first
classes of results.
was the continuing apparent displacement of individual
stars in a
way
that suggested that the solar system
volvcd in a general
movement of
is itself in-
the stars in our neighborhood,
at a speed of the order of 10 miles/sec (comparable to the earth's
own
orbital speed
an empirical
faet.
around the sun). This, as it stood, was just

But the second type of result pointed directly
This also means that they overestimated the mass necessary to produce the
observed perturbations of Uranus. LeVerrier gave a figure of about 35 times
the mass of the earth; the currently accepted value is about half this.
For a detailed account of the whole matler, see H. H. Turner, Astronomku!
Edward Arnold, London, 1904. A shorter but more readily
accessible account may be found in an essay entitled "John Couch Adams
and the Discovery of Neptune," by Sir H. Spencer Jones, in The World of
Mathemaiks (J. R. Newman, ed.), Simon and Schuster, New York, 1956.
2
Discovery,
295
Gravitation outside the solar system
Scale (secondsof arc)
8-29
Fig.
willi
'1868
/*"
1864
lime oflhe rela-
live position vector
the
1880
Varialion
1821
of
members ofa
double-star syslem.
1885
(After Arthur Berry,
S:1827
A Short History of
Astronomy, 1898;
reprinted by
Dover
Publications,
New
1781
1897
1890
1830
1895
*
l84o"
York, 1961.)
For
Newton's dynamics.
to the operation of
the
Herschels
discovered numerous pairs of stars that were evidently orbiting
Figure 8-29 shows one
around one another as binary systems.
of the best documented early examplcs, and the
first
to be sub-
jccted to a detailed analysis in terms of Kepler's laws.
-Ursae, in one of the hind
paws of the
constellation
(It is
known
as
the Grcat Bear.)

period of a binary star depends on the total mass of the
The
system, not on the individual masses.
This
is
easily
proved
in
the case in which the orbits are assumed to be circles around the
common
stars are
the center, C.
stars,
If
[see
Fig. 8-30(a)].
we
mit
/W2WI1
(r.
write the statement of
'
The
individual
line passing
through
F = ma
for
common
to both stars.
one of the
we have
say mi,
mass
center of
always at opposite ends of a straight
= miu
r\
r2 )2
where w (= 2tt/T)
is
the angular velocity
Hence
2
CO
Gnt2
ri(ri
For a
296
full
r2 )2
discussion of the concept of center of mass, sce Ch. 9, p. 337.
(a)
Fig.
8-30
(a)
Motion
ofthe members of a
binary star system
with respect to the
center of mass. C, for

the case ofcircular
(b) Direct
orbits.
visual euidence
of the
motion of a binary
system Krueger 60,
photographed by E. E.
Barnard. (Yerkes
Obseroatory photograph.)
(b)
definition of the center of mass,
However, by the
'i
mi
we have
rri2
where
r
It
n + ri
follows at once that

2
03
Thus
if
G(m\
+ m2
r,
the distance r between the stars can be obtained
by
from a knowledge
the
masses is at once
sum
of
of their angular scparation), the
determined. Finding the individual masses entails the somewhat
direct astronomical observation
(e.g., starting
harder job of measuring the motion of each star in absolute

terms against the background ofthe "fixed" stars. Figure 8-30(b)
shows convincing direct evidence of the
orbital
actual binary system.
297
Gravitation outside the solar system
motion of an
Fig.
8-31
Rotating
galaxy (spiral galaxy
NGC 5194 in the

constellation
Venatici).
Canes
(Photo-
graph from the Hale

Obsercatories.)
With the development of modern astronomy, the systematic

its neighbors came to be seen as part
motions of our sun and
of a greater scheme of movements controlled by gravity.
AU
around us throughout the universe were the immense

systems the galaxies most of them vividly suggesting a
state
stellar
of general rotation, as
difficult structurc to elucidate
are embedded,
clear,
however, that
Fig. 8-31,
and that
was the onc
the Milky
i.e.,
its
in it
The most
which we ourselves
It finally became
n Fig. 8-31, for example.
Way
basic structure
our sun
is
in
galaxy.
is
much
very
describing
some
20
like that
of
kind of orbit
m (= 30,000
around the center, with a radius of about 3 X 10
light-years) and an estimated period of about 250 million years
,5
(= 8 X 10
sec).
Using these figures we can infer the ap298
orbit, that
proximate gravitating mass, inside the

motion. From Eq. (8-24) we have
would define
this
.23
With
G=
X 10~" m
40
m~
/kg-sec
we
X1 G1
find that
41
Since the mass of the sun (a typical star)
we
see that a core
really a figure that
of about 10"
ke
10
about 2
is
10
This
stars is implied.
can be independently checked.
It is
30 kg,
is
not
a kind
of ultimate tribute to our belief in the universality of the gravitational law that it is confidently used to draw conclusions like
those above concerning masses of galactic systems.
EINSTEIN'S THEORY OF GRAVITATION
We
how Newton
have described carlier
proportionality of weight to inertial

significance;
it
mass
played a central role
clusion that his law of gravitation

nature.
For Newton
this
was a
is
rccognized that the

a fact of fundamental
in leading
must be
strictly
him
to the con-
a general
dynamical
law of
result, ex-
pressing the basic properties of the force law. But Albert Einstein,
in 1915, looked at the situation through new eyes. For him the
fact that all objects fail
toward the earth with the same accelera-
tion g, whatcver their size or physical state or composition,

implied that this must be in some truly profound way a kinematic
or geometrical result, not a dynamical one.

being on a par with Galileo's law of
inertia,
He
regarded
it
as
which expressed the
tendeney of objects to persist in straight-line motion.

Building on these ideas, Einstein developed the theory that
a planet (for
sun because
example) follows
in so
that
geodesic line
doing
is
it
is
its
charaeteristie path
traveling along
to say, the
what
around the
is
most economical way
called a
of getting
His proposition was that although

massive objects the geodesic path is a straight
line in the Euclidean sense, the presence of an extremely massive
object such as the sun modifies the geometry locally so that the
from one point to another.

in the absence of
geodesies
299
become curved
lines.
The
state of affairs in the vicinity
Einsteirrs theorv o! gravitation
of a massive object
of a gravitational
space"
facile
not
in this view, to be interpreted
is,
field
of force but
in
terms
in
terms of a "curvature of
phrase that covers an abstract and mathe-
matically complex description of non-Euclidean geometries.
For the most part the Einstein theory of gravitation gives

results indistinguishable from Ncwton's; the grounds for premight seem to be conceptual rather than practical.
ferring
it
But
one celebrated instance of planetary motions there
in
real discrepancy that favors Einstein's theory.
This
nomenon
is
liptical in
shapc, very gradually rotates or precesses in
planc, so that the major axis
is
is
the
The phe-
so-called "precession of the perihelion" of Mercury.
that the orbit of Mercury, which
is
in
is
distinctly elits
own
along a slightly different direction
at the end of each complete revolution.
Most of
this precession
(amounting to about 10 minutes of arc per century) can be

understood
in
terms of the disturbing effects of the other planets
according to Newton's law of gravitation.

tiny, obstinate residual rotation
century.
But there remains a
'
equal to 43 seconds of arc per
The attempts to explain
it
on Newtonian theory
for
example by postulating an unobserved planet inside Mercury's
own
orbit
all
came
to grief
by conflicting with other
observation concerning the solar system.
facts
Einstein's theory,
of
on
the other hand, without the use of any adjustable parameters,

led
to
a calculated precession rate that agreed exactly with
observation.
It
corresponded,
in effect, to the existence of a
very
small force with a different dependence on distance than the
dominant l/r 2 force of Newton's theory.
The way
in
which a
disturbing effect of this kind causes the orbit to precess
cussed in Chapter
basic law of gravitation
square law
had been
is
dis-
Other cmpirical modifications of the
13.
small
departures from the inverse-
tried before Einstein developed his theory,
but apart from their arbitrary character they also led to false
predictions for the other planets.
it
emerged automatically that the
In Einstein's theory, however,

size of the disturbing
term was
proportional to the square of the angular velocity of the planet
and hence was much more important for Mercury, with
its
short period, than for any of the other planets.
The
about
apparent amount of precession as viewed from the earth is aclually

1.5 per century, but most of this is due to the continuous change in
the direction of the earth's
Chapter
300
own
14).
axis (the precession
of the equinoxes
see
PROBLEMS
Given a knowledge of Kepler's third law as it applies to the
solar system, together with the knowledge that the disk of the sun
subtends an angle of about at the earth, deduce the period of a
8-1
hypothetical planet in a circular orbit that skims the surface of the sun.
8-2
well
It is
that the gap between the four inner planets
known
the five outer planets
is
the asteroid belt instead of
occupied by
and
by a
This asteroid belt extends over a range of orbital radii

from about 2.5 to 3.0 AU. Calculate the corresponding range of
tenth planet.
periods, expressed as multiples of the earth's year.
8-3
proposed to put up an earth
It is
satellite in
a circular orbit with
a period of 2 hr.
How high
(a)
above the
were
(b) If its orbit
the
earth's surface
would
direction as the earth's rotation, for
same
it
have to be?
and
in the plane of the earth's equator
how
long would
it
in
be
continuously visible from a given place on the equator at sea level?
be placed in synchronous circular orbit around

the planet Jupiter to study the famous "red spot" in Jupiter's lower
atmosphere. How high above the surface of Jupiter will the satellite
8-4
be?
The
satellite is to
rotation period of Jupiter
is
9.9 hr,
Rj
its
mass
is
Mj
about
is
about 11 times that
320 times the earth's mass, and its

of the earth. You may find it convenient to calculate
radius
first
the gravita-
tional acceleration gj at Jupiter's surface as a multiple of g, using the

and Jt and then use a relationship analogous to
above values of
that developed in the text for earth satellites [Eq. (8-16) or (8-17)].
Mj
8-5
satellite is to
surface of the
moon.
be placed in a circular orbit 10 km above the

What must be its orbital speed and what is the
period of revolution ?
8-6
The
satellite is to
satellite's
power supply
is
in
synchronous circular earth
orbit.
If the
maxi-
expected to last 10 years.
acceptable eastward or westward drift in the longitude of the
mum
satellite
during
radius of
8-7
be placed
The
its
lifetime is 10,
its
what
is
the margin of error in the
orbit?
springs found in retractable ballpoint pens have a relaxed
cm and a spring constant of perhaps 0.05 N/mm.

Imagine that two lead spheres, each of 10,000 kg, are placed on a
length of about 3
frictionless surface
compressed
(a)
state,
so that onc of thesc springs just
between
How much
would
about
301
1,000
Problcms
kg/m
in its un-
the spring be compressed by the
gravitational attraction of the two spheres?

3
fits,
their nearcst points.
The
mutual
density of lead
is
(b) Let the
system be rotatcd
in the horizontal plane.
At what
frequency of rotation would the presencc of the spring become
ir-
relevant to the separation of the masses?
8-8
During the cighteenth century, an ingenious attempt to
mass of
He
Maskelyne.
was made by
find the
Astronomer Royal, Nevil

observed the extent to which a plumbline was pulled
the earth
the British
The figure
The change of direction of the
out of true by the gravitational attraction of a mountain.

of the method.
illustrates the principle
plumbline was measured between the two sides of the mountain.
made
(This was donc by sighting on stars.) After allowance had been
for the change in direction of the local vertical because of the curvature
of the earth, the residual angular difference a was given by 2Fm/Fb,
where Fm is the horizontal force on the plumb-bob due to the mountain, and Fe =
E m/RE^. (m is the mass of the plumb-bob.)
The value of a is about 10 seconds of arc for measurements on
GM
opposite sides of the base of a mountain about 2000
m high.
Suppose
mountain can be approximated by a cone of rock (of density

2.5 times that of water) whose radius at the base is equal to the height
and whose mass can be considered to be concentrated at the center
that the
Deduce an approximate value of
of the base.
(The true answer
these figures.
a to
gravitational deflection
is
about 6
the earth's mass from

24
kg.) Compare the
10
the change of direction associated with
the earth's curvature in this experiment.
8-9
Imagine that
a certain region of the ocean floor there
in
roughly cone-shaped
mound
of granite 250
high
and
km
is
diam-
in
The surrounding floor is relatively flat for tens of kilometers in

The ocean depth in the region is 5 km and the density
of the granite is 3000 kg/m 3
Could the mound's prcscnce be deeter.
all directions.
tected
by a surface
detect a
change
in
g of
Assume
(Hint:
equipped with a gravity meter that can
vessel
0.1
mgal?
that the field produced by the
mound
at the
surface can be approximated by the field of a mass point of the

total
mass locatcd
at the level of the surrounding floor.
Note
same
that in
g you must keep in mind that the mound

own volume of water. The density of water, even at
calculating the change in
has displaccd
its
such depths, can be taken as about equal to

1000
302
kg/m 3
its
surface value of about
8-10 Show that the period of a
particle that
moves
in a circular orbit
and the mean

close to the surface of a sphere depends only on G
Deduce what this period would be for any
density of the sphere.
sphere having a
mean
density equal to the density of water.
(Jupiter
almost corresponds to this case.)
8-11 Calculate the
density of the sun, given a knowledge of G,
mean
sun's diameter
the length of the earth's year, and the fact that the
subtends an angle of about 0.55 at the earth.
8-12
An
astronaut
who can
lift
km
(roughly spherical) of 10
50 kg on earth
is
exploring a planetoid
diameter and density 3500
kg/m 3
(a)
assuming that he finds a well-placed handle?

(b) The astronaut observes a rock falling from a
rock's radius
is
is
and as
One would not
problem.
rocks, even
It is
if
it
approaches the surface

it?
(This
is
velocity
its
obviously a fanciful
expect a planetoid to have
an astronaut were
The
cliff.
cliffs
or loose
to get there in the first place.)
pointed out in the text that a person can properly be termed
when he
"weightless"
satellite,
only
Should he try to catch
m/sec.
8-13
How large a rock can he pick up from the planetoid's surface,
yet
it is
is in
noted in
our normal weight there.
a satellite circling the earth.
The moon
many discussions that we would weigh

Is
is
of
there a contradiction here?
dedicated scientist performs the following experiment. After

elevator shaft,
installing a huge spring at the bottom of a 20-story-high
8-14
bathroom scale
he takes the elevator to the top, positions himself on a
and pencil to
inside the airtight car with a stopwatch and with pad
record the scale reading, and directs an assistant to cut the car's
Presuming that the scientist survives the
support cable at I = 0.
encounter with the spring, sketch a graph of his measured weight

up to the beginning of the second bounce.
versus time from / =
first
(Note: Twenty stories
is
ample distance for the elevator to acquire
terminal velocity.)
8-15
planet of
mass
M and a
single satellite of
mass M/10 revolve
of mass, being held

in circular orbits about their stationary center
between their
distance
together by their gravitational attraction. The
centers
is
(a)
(b)
D.
What
What
is
the period of this orbital
fraction
of the total
motion?
kinetic energy
rcsides in the
satellites?
(Ignore any spin of planet and satellite about their
own
axes.)
have considered the problem of the moon's orbit around

which
the earth as if the earth's center represented a fixed point about
the
moon
earth
and
however,
the
fact,
the motion takes place. In
8-16
We
revolve about their
303
Problems
common
center of mass.
Calculate the position of the center of mass, given that the
(a)
mass
earth's
is
is
How much
(b)
moon and
limes that of the
81
tween their centers
60 earth
longer would the month be
mass compared to the earth
negligible
8-17 The sun appears to be moving
if
at a speed of
10
(One light-year^ 10
What do
m.) The earth takes
M. (Note
value of
year to
X 10" m
around
these facts imply about the total
for keeping the sun in
sun's mass
of
about 250km/sec
describe an almost circular orbit of radius about 1.5

the sun.
moon were
the
of radius about 25,000 light-years around the center
in a circular orbit
of our galaxy.
that the distance be-
radii.
its
mass responsible
orbit? Obtain this mass as a multiple of the
that
you do not need to introduce the numerical
to obtain the answer.)
818 (A good problem for discussion.) In 1747 Georges Louis Lesage

explained the inverse-square law of gravitation by postulating that
numbers of
vast
invisible particles
directions at high speeds.

particles, leading to a
were flying through space
in all
Objects like the sun and planets block these
shadowing
effect that
result as a gravitational attraction.
has the same quantitative
Consider the arguments for and
against this theory.
opaque objects
(Suggestion: First consider a theory in which
block the particles completely.
This proposal
is
easy to refute.
fairly
Next consider a theory in which the attenuation of the

objecls
incomplete or even vcry small.
is
This theory
is
particles
by
much harder
to dismiss.)
8-19 The continuous output of energy by the sun corresponds (through

Einstein's relation
the rate of about
crease
we have
T~
A/ " 2
away from
the sun.
of-magnitude estimate of the
by assuming that
side,
for a
must take into account the
decreases the orbital radius
gradually spiral
low
mass M,
at
progressive in-
[cf Eq. (8-23)].
precise analysis of the effect
that as
its
the orbital periods of the planets, because for an orbit of a
in
given radius
E = Mc 2 ) to a steady decrease in
4 X 10 tons/sec. This implies a
size
itself increases
However, one can
of the
the
get
an order-
effect, albeit a little bit
remains constant.
fact
planets
on the
(See Problem 13-21
more rigorous treatment.)

Using the simplifying assumption of constant
approximate increasc
decrease
in
in
r,
the length of the year resulting
estimate the
from the sun's
mass over the timc span of accurate astronomical ob-
servations about 2500 years.
8-20
It is
mentioned at the end of the chapter
how
Einstein's theory
of gravitation leads to a small correetion term on top of the basic
Newtonian
speed o
304
foree of gravitation.
in a circular orbit
For a planet of mass m, traveling at

r, the gravitational foree becomes
of radius
in effect the following:
GMm
r2
where c
is
(a
the speed of light.
(Correction terms of the order of v 2 /c 2
are typical of relativistic effects.)

(a)
Show
GMm/r 2
is
that,
if
denoted by
the period under a pure Newtonian force

7"o,
the modified period
is
given approxi-
mately by
-(-3)
(Treat the relativistic correction as representing, in effect, a small
fractional increase in the value of G,
sponding to the Newtonian
and use the value of v corre-
orbit.)
Hence show that, in each revolution, a planet in a circular

would travel through an angle greater by about 24T 3 r 2 /c 2 To 2
than under the pure Newtonian force, and that this is also expressible
as 6irGM/c 2 r, where
is the mass of the sun.
(c) Apply these results to the planet Mercury and verify that
the accumulated advance in angle amounts to about 43 seconds of
arc per century. This corresponds to what is called the precession
(b)
orbit
of
305
its
orbit.
Problcms
God
and
created matter with motion and rest
now conserves
operations, as
in the universe,
in its parts,
by His ordinary
much of motion and of rest as He
originally
created.
rene descartes, Principia Philosophiae (1644)
and
Collisions
conservation laws
some concepts and results

that are at the very heart of mechanics. They are rooted in the
fact that it takes at least two particles to make a dynamical
Until now we have rather glossed over that fact, by
system.
in this chapter
we
shall be discussing
talking in terms of individual particles subjected to forces of
various kinds. Thus, for example, the motion of a planet around

the sun, or of an electron between the deflection plates of a
cathode-ray tube, was discussed as the problem of a single par-
exposed to the force supplied by some completely immovable

body or structure. But this is a very special way of looking at
ticle
things and
and gives
it
is
The sun
not in general justified.
an acceleration, to be
doesn't play favorites
it
sure,
pulls
on a planet
but the law of gravitation
has a completely symmetrical form
back on the sun with an equal and opposite

and
force. So the sun must accelerate, too, and will follow some kind
of path under the combined action of all the planets. It happens
the planet pulls
that the sun
is
hundreds of times more massive than the rest of

first approximation
the solar system put together, so that to a
we can ignore
disparity. The
its
wanderings.
But
this is only
basic dynamical system
is
an accident of
made up
acting particles, the motions of both of which
of two inter-
must be con-
The experimental study of such systems, via collision

was in fact the true starting point of dynamics. The
study of collisions has lost none of its importance to physics in
sidered.
processes,
307
the 300 years since

let
it first
us then consider
became a subject of exact
investigation
with care.
it
THE LAWS OF IMPACT

In 1668 the Royal Society of
London 1 put out
a request for the
of collision phenomena.
experimental clarification
Contribu-
tions were submitted shortly afterward by John Wallis (mathematician), Sir Christopher Wren (architect), and Christian
Huygens (physicist, and Newton's great Dutch contemporary).

The results embody what we are familiar with today as the rules
governing exchanges of momentum and energy in the collision
Most importantly, they involve at one
between two objects.
stroke the concept of inertial mass
and the
principle of con-
momentum.
servation of linear
These experiments revealed that the decisive quantity in a

collision is what Newton called "the quantity of motion," defined
as the product of the velocity of a body and the quantity of matter
in it this latter being what we have called the inertial mass.
We
have already
Chapter 6) discussed Newton's straighthow he was quite ready to assume that
(in
forward concept of mass:
mass of two objects together is just the sum of their

separate masses, and how he took it for granted that the masses of
difierently sized portions of a homogeneous material are proYou will recall from our earlier
portional to their volumes.
the total
diseussion that these assumptions, however reasonable they may

seem, are not always strictly justified. On the other hand, their
use does not lead to detectable inconsistencies in the dynamics
of ordinary objects.
found was
that,
if
And what Newton and
these
commonsense
his
contemporaries
ideas were accepted as a
quantitative basis for relating masses, then a very simple deseription of all collisions could be
matically
m\u\
made, which expressed mathe-
as follows:
is
+ m-iu-i
= mwi
(9-1)
/M2t"2
and
v2
are the velocities after impaet (a one-dimensional motion
is
wherc M] and u t are the

assumed).
This
is
velocities before impaet,
and
very powerful generalization, because
it
'The Society was formally chartered in 1662. (Newton was its President
from 1703 until his death in 1727.) Several other great European seientific
academies came into existence at about the same period.
308
Collisions
and conservalion Uiws
applies to quite different sorts of collisions those with almost
two glass spheres, down

no rebound at all, as between two lumps of putty.
Qualitatively, collisions can be described in terms of their degree
A quantitative but purely emof elasticity i.e., bounciness.
perfect rebound, such as occur between
to thosc with
measure of
pirical
of v 2
v y (the
this,
used by
called completely inelastic.
called elastic (somctimes,
hardened
steel
others,
is
ball
is
the ratio
u> (the
If this ratio is zero, the collision
relative velocity before impact).

is
Newton and
relative velocity after impact) to Ui
If the ratio is unity, the collision is
more
vividly, "perfectly elastic").
much more
elastic
than a rubber ball in
In the early investigations Wallis confined his studies
this sense.
Wren and Huygens
to completely inelastic collisions,

perfectly elastic objects,
and Newton, some time
experiments on objects of intermediate
to
almost
later,
added
elasticity.
THE CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

The
physicist
conserued
is
(i.e.,
always on the lookout for quantities that remain
unehanged)
in physical processes.
Once he has
discovered such quantities, they become powerful tools in his

analysis of
phenomena.
codifying pasi experience.

to
to
more and more new
make
They
start out
by being just an aid
in
But as they are found to be applicable
instances, their value
grows and one begins
confident predielions with their help.
about conservation of a particular quantity
is
The statement
promoted to the
some new instance the condown, one's faith in the law may
be so great that one hunts around for the missing piece. Should
status of a conservation law.
If in
servation law appears to break
it
be found, the conservation law
is
strengthened
Thus, for example, the law of conservation of mass

reaetions
is
accepted as a guide to
all
the masses of the reaeting materials.
was
first
still
in
further.
chemical
possible measurements
When
on
the chemical balance
applied to the study of chemical reaetions,
it
appeared
some processes mass was gained, in some it was Iost, and

But when Lavoisier proved,
in some it remained unehanged.
through numerous examples, that mass was merely transferred,
and that in a elosed system it was conserved, the whole seheme
became clear. Chemists could then exp]oit the conservation law.
For example, they could confidently infer the mass of a gaseous
produet (eseaping from an unclosed system) from easily made
measurements on solid and Iiquid reactants.
that in
309
The conservation of
linear
momentum
Some
of the most powerful aspects of our physical descrip-
tion of the world are
embodied
in statements
about conserved
quantities.
In mechanics the law of conservation of linear
mentum
such a statement
is
one
might even claim that
the most important single principle in dynamics.

directly
on the
marized
in
If,
word momentum
a compact statement:
of the system of two colliding particles re-
mains unchanged by the
collision,
i. e.,
the total linear
momentum
a conserved quantity.
is
Underlying
the
concerning two-particle col-
this generalization
lisions is the tacit
assumption that the system
effectively isolated
is
each other but not with anything
particles interact with
In the experiments of
else.
on impact as sumwe introduce the

product mv, then we have
for a given particle,
to describe the
momentum
total
it is
based
results of the experiments
Eq. (9-1).
single
Tbe
It is
mo-
Newton and others
this
was achieved
by hanging the colliding objects on long strings, so that they

swung as pendulums and collided at the lowest point of their
In the brief duration of the impact, therefore, the objects
swing.
were
by
essentially free
their
of all horizontal forces except those provided
mutual interaction.
Since
the
momentum
by an object
carried
is
given,
in
Newton's words, by "the velocity and the quantity of matter

conjointly,"
values of
i.e.,
by the value of the product
and v separately
single symbol, p, to represent the
along a given
Pi
then
+ P'i
line
describes
with velocity
it
is
mv and
not by the
convenient to introduce a
momentum of a mass m moving
v.
The
relation
(9-2)
const.
the conservation
collisions of the type studied
of
momentum
in
two-body
by Newton and his contemporaries.
MOMENTUM AS A VECTOR QUANTITY

We
have based our discussion so far on one-dimensional colas is

lisions.
It is important to appreciate, however, that
apparent from
its
definition
the
momentum
of a particle
is
vector quantity having the same direction as the velocity of the
So
that, for example, a
same momentum
310
as
body of mass \m
traveling with
traveling with velocity 2v has the
v.
mo-
particle.
Thus our statement of
mentum
in a collision between two bodies should really be
the conservation of linear
written as follows:
Pli
P2i
pi/
where the subscripts

values, respectively
P2/
and
(9-3)
/ are
used to denote
precollision
(i.e.,
and
and
initial
final
postcollision).
This single vector equation defines the magnitude and the

direction of any one of the
are
known.
momentum
vectors if the other three
very often be convenient to separate Eq. (9-3)
It will
into three equations in terms of the resolved parts of the vectors
along three mutually orthogonal axes
example,
if
two bodies, of masses
final velocities U|,
mi +
u 2 and Vi, v 2
m2U2 = mivi
and
Each of these
(x, y, z).
component equations must then be separately
satisfied.
m2
have
Thus, for
initial
and
Eq. (9-3) becomes
/H2V2
(9-4)
which contains the following three independen! statements:
m\u\ x
miui,,
ntiui,
+ nt2U2r =
+ nt2U =
+ JW22. =
fltiPia
miviy
2y
mivi,
+ m2D 2z
+ m 2 02 V
+ /W202.
(9-5)
In carrying out actual numerical calculations this resolution of

the vectors will often be necessary.
and
unspecified masses
But manipulations involving
velocities are best
made
terms of the
in
unresolved equations (9-3) or (9-4), without reference to any

particular coordinate system.
This
is,
indeed, one of the main
strengths (and economies) of using vector notation.
Example.
An
object of mass 5 kg, traveling horizontally
on
a frictionless surface at 16 m/sec, strikes a stationary object of
mass
3 kg.
After the collision, the 5-kg object
have a velocity of magnitude

direction of motion, as
of the 3-kg object?

all
shown
We
the velocity vectors.
in Fig. 9-1.
What
momenta
Let the
Pi/
P2/
P2/ =
Pl.
Pl/
+x
Momentum
original
the velocity
axis lie along the original
Then we have
(sincep 2
its
1).
Let us denote
of the 5-kg object as p u, and the
as pi/ and p 2 /.
Pii
311
momentum
is
observed to
can choose an xy plane that contains
direction of motion of the 5-kg object (particle
the initial
is
2 m/sec at 30 to
Pli
0)
+ ( Pl/)
as a vector quantity
final
Fig.
9-1
Conserva-
ofthe total vector

momentum 'm a simt ion
ple collision.
Figure 9-1 shows the vector construction by which p 2/ can be

found. The length of p h represcnts, on some appropriate scale,
momentum
the initial
60 kg-m/sec, and
its
is
as shown.
direction of p 2 / can be found directly
and v 2 /
The
of 80 kg-m/sec.
direction
component form.
m\ =
u\ z =
W2 =
5 kg
16 m/sec
v\ x
=
= 6\/3
i;i
= 6 m/sec
Pi/
First, let
triangle,
Along
list
momentum
the
known
conserva-
quantities:
K2
m/sec
80
x:
us
kg
2x
Thus we have [using Eq.
(9-5)]
30\/3
= 30
Along^:
+
+
3t> 2 ,
3l>2
Hence
U2l
l-
f2
The
- 30\/3)/3 9.3 m/sec
= 10.0 m/sec
= [(9.3) 2 + (10.0) 2 ]" 2 13.6 m/sec
=
(80
direction of v 2
tan 5
312
is
-SU = = V2
2x
is
length and
Alternatively,
tion in
The
from the vector
found as p 2 /Aw 2
we can write down the
is
length of
at an angle d to the x axis such that
10.0
:-
9.3
-47
Notice that
has been obtained through
this result
conservation alone;
requires
it
momentum
no knowledge of the detailed
momentum changes
interaction between the objects. Relating the
of the individual objects to the forces acting on them during the
however, be our next concern.
collision will,
ACTION, REACTION, AND IMPULSE
We
an analysis along the
shall begin this discussion with
Newton
we
lines
draw attention to a
somewhat different approach, which can be more readily adapted
to relativistic dynamics, although it is in harmony with Ncwton's
that
Later
himself used.
shall
analysis within the confines of classical mechanics.
Newton
interpreted the collision experiments from the stand-
point that the concept of inertial mass of an individual object
is
we
a summary
already established by experiments and arguments like those
made
use of in Chapter
In that case, Eq. (9-4)
6.
is
of the actual experimental observations; the *'quantity of motion"

is
One can
conserved.
then,
by using F
about the forces acting during the
ma, draw conclusions
collision.
collision is
process involving two objects, each of which exerts a force on

the other. Object
F2
a force
exerts a force Fi
on object
(Fig. 9-2).
on object
We make
about the relationship between the two

act for equal times.
This
last
no assumptions
forces, except that they
assumption
because we recognize that the forces
2; object 2 exerts
certainly reasonable,
is
come
into being as a result
of the collision, and surely the duration of the collision must be

the
same
for both objects.
F = ma
as
it
We
can then take the statement of
applies to each object separately:
= miai
F21
'
F12 =
1282
Isolation
l.e.,
boundary
ai
No.
F21
&2
F12
(9-6)
Fig.
9-2
Inferring the equalily of action
and reaction
forces from the fact of momentum conservation.
Yet this is anolher of those intuitively "obvious" conditions that is not binding and indeed has to bc qualified in some of the collision problems that require the use of special relativity.
313
Action, reaction, and impulse
Suppose, to simplify this present argument, that each force re-
mains constant throughout a
collision that lasts for
a time
At.
Then we have
Tl
ui
A/
- u2
v2
mi
At
(9-7)
rri2
where Ui and a 2 are the initial velocities of the two objects and
From these equations we
?i and v 2 are their final velocities.
therefore have
mivi = /miui
W2V2 = W2U2
+
+
F2jA/
F\2At
Adding these two, we thus
/KlVl
WJ2V2
/MlUl
Experimentally, however,
get
/M2U2
(F21
we have Eq.
+ Fi2>A/
(9-4).
We
(9-8)
deduce, there-
fore, that
F21
F21
= -F12
F J2 =
i.e.,
(9-9)
This is, of course, the famous statement known usually as

Newton's third law, that "action and reaction are equal and
opposite."
We
have already
made
extensive use of this result, tacitly
or explicitly, earlier in this book, and in Chapter 4
we
indicated
the kind of experimental support that one can supply for
it
in
Newton, in developing the result

static equilibrium situations.
for dynamic situations, with forces changing from instant to
it quite clear that he regarded Eq. (9-9) as an inIn the Principia he describes an
from observattons.
experiment in which he floated a magnet and a piece of iron on
water, and released them from rest. He noted that there was no
instant,
made
ference
motion of the combined mass after the magnetic attraction had

pulled them together, and took this as a demonstration of what
he himself called the third law of motion. His description of his
pendulum collision cxperiments, also in the Principia, is couched
same terms.
Kaving introduced these forces of interaction, we can now
relate them to the changes of momentum of the individual
in the
314
objects in a collision.
and F 2
Thus,
At
if
is
the duration of the collision
a constant force exerted by
is
the change of
momentum Api
particle 2
of particle
on
particle
1,
in the collision is
given by
F21A/ = Api
More
generally,
if
some short time

generates
any constant force F
interval A/, the
on a
acts
change of
particle for
momentum
that
it
given by
is
FA/ = Ap
As we noted in Chapter 6, Newton's own approach to dynamics

was rooted in this equation rather than in F = ma. We also
introduced the terminology by which the product
the impulse of the force in A/. If F
is
F At
is
called
varying in magnitude and/or
direction during the time span At, one can proceed to the limit
of vanishingly small time and so obtain the following equation:
F =
(Newton's law reformulated)
(9-10)
at
This eguation, written on the assumption that
is
the net force
acting on a particle, then becomes the basic statement of Newtonian

It is, in a sense, broader in scope than F = ma, or
more emcient statement of it. For example, a given
force applied in turn to a number of different masses causes the
same rate of change of momentum in each but not the same
acceleration. In short, we come to recognize that momentum is
a valuable single quantity to be accepted in its own right and
most importantly for its property of being conserued in an isolated
dynamics.
at least a
system of interacting particles.

In our earlier discussion of the collision problem,
the forces of interaction as being constant in time.
that
would be quite
unrealistic.
It is
In
we took
most cases
easy to see, however, that
through the integration of Eq. (9-10) we obtain the net
mentum change caused by

a force has
the
some
arbitrary variation between
momentum change
Ap =
mo-
a varying force. Thus, for example,
that
it
generates
is
and
if
At,
given by
Fdt
(9-11)
Jo
In a two-body collision, the duration of which
315
Action, rcaction. and impulse
is
Ar, all that
we
is
actually observe
is
equal to the total
that the total
momentum
momentum after the collision
before the collision.
In terms
of the impulses Api and Ap 2 given to the separate objects
Api
From
this
Ap 2 =
we
F2
this
by the condition
result is expressed
infer that
dt
= -
Pu
dt
In principle, Fi a and F 2 could have quite unrelated values at

any particular instant, as long as the above integrals are equal.
i
However,
failing
any evidence to the contrary we assume that
they are equal and opposite at each and every instant.
a one-dimensional
collision the
Thus
in
graphs of these forces as a func-
tion of time, whatever their exact form, are taken to be mirror
images of each other as shown in Fig. 9-3.

realize,
true!
however, that this
There
is
no
is
a postulate.
difficulty as far as
It is
And
important to
it is
not always
"contact" collisions between
ordinary objects are concerned. But in situations in which objects

influence one another at a distance, as for
example through the
long-range forces of electricity or gravitation,
Newton's
law may cease to apply.
transmitted in-
stantaneously, and
if
For no
interaction
is
the propagation time cannot be ignored in
comparison with the time

instantaneous action and
scale of the motion, the concept of
reaction can
no longer be used.
simple mechanical model of such a delayed interaction
is
Fn
O
Fig.
9-3
action
and
Corresponding variatioiis of
reaction forces during the
course of a collision.
316
Collisions
third
and conservation laws
A/
A/
A
sug-
Fig.
9-4
Interaction wilh a time delay, mediated by
particles trauersing the
gap between two separated
objects.
gested in Fig. 9-4.
At a
of bullets with speed V.

cart, B, carrying a
A, carries a gun that
cart,
block
a stream
is
a second
bullets are caught.
Suppose
distance
which the
in
fires off
there
L away
momentum, thanks
that the bullets carry plenty of
to a large
value of V, but are so Iight that they represent a negligible transfer
of mass from the

they are invisible
Suppose further that

to an observer standing some distance away.
cart to the second.
first
(We might make them extremely

black and
bullets
is
fired off
from A, we
time
L/V
is,
later
does
in effect, a
and reaction
them
a brief burst of
if
see this cart begin to recoil, ap-
B remains
parently spontaneously, whilc
There
small, or perhaps paint
up a dark background.) Then
set
at rest.
Not
until a
begin to recoil in the opposite direction.
breakdown of the equality between action
in such a case.
the time the whole interaction
By
we
has been completed, with all the bullets reabsorbed in B,

recognize that
one
momentum
has ultimately been conserved, but
restricts attention to the carts
it
if
does not appear to be con-
served, instant by instant, during the interaction.
The above example may seem
we
artificial
because, after
could save the action-reaction principle by looking
closely
and observing the
striking B.
Nevertheless,
bullets at the instant of leaving

it
offers
all,
more
or
an interesting parallel to what
those
are probably the most important delayed interactions
of electromagnetism.
We know
that the interaction between
separated charges takcs place via the electromagnetic
field,
two
and
the propagation of such a field takes place at a speed which,
although extremely large,

transfer of
let
us say,
is still
finite the speed of light.
momentum from one
The
charge to another (resulting,
from a sudden movement of the
first
charge) involves
a time lag equal to the distance between them divided by
c.
If
we
looked at the charged particles alone, we would see a sudden
change
317
in
the
momentum
of the
first
Action, reaction. and impulse
charge without an equal and
opposite change in the
momentum
There would thus appear

by
tion, instant
to bc a failure of
is
we
unless
instant,
with the electromagnetic

that
of the other at the same time.
field
momentum conservasome momentum

the interaction. And
associate
that carries
more
vivid
when we introduce
tion of the electromagnetic field
momentum and an
have associated a
There
is
we
the quantiza-
and recognize that radiation
carried in the form of photons, or light quanta.
individually,
The
what electromagnetic theory suggests.
precisely
picture becomes even
By
the time
is
we
energy with each photon
are remarkably close to our mechanical model.
even a well-developed theoretical description of the
between
static interaction
electric
charges in terms of a continual
exchange of so-called "virtual photons."
In this case, however,
since the forces are constant in time, the equality of action
reaction holds good at every instant,
and the existence of a
and
finite
time for propagating the interaction ceases to be apparent.
EXTENDING THE PRINCIPLE OF MOMENTUM CONSERVATION 2

perhaps worth amplifying the remarks of the
It is
We have
little.
tion of
There
momentum
is,
last section a
seen how, in Newton's view, the law of conservais
closely tied in with the action-reaction idea.
however, an alternative approach to simple collisions
which loosens
connection and eases the transition to non-
this
Newtonian mechanics.
This approach can be defined in terms of a question
do we
actually observe in a collision experiment?
What
The answer
is
measurements
that our observations are purely kinematic ones
of the velocities of the two objects before and after impact.
Suppose that two
u2
respectively, collide
velocities Vj
and
objects,
v2
In
and B, with
initial velocities n,,
and
with one another and afterward have

any individual collision of this type, it is
always possible to find a
set of
four scalar multiples (a) that
permit one to write an equation of the following form:

<*iui
+ a2U2 =
'In circumstances
same time"
:vi
where such
i.e.,
itself
comes into question.
section
recommended
approached
318
in
may
concept of "the
It is
just here that
ceases to be adequate and the revised formulation
of dynamics according to special

2This
(9-12)
elfects are important, the very
simultaneity
Newtonian mechanics
a 4 \2
relativity
becomes
essential.
be omitled without destroying the continuity, but
it
is
you want to see how the bases of classical mechanics can be

more than one way.
if
This as
stands
it
ments for
is
But experi-
a quite uninteresting statement.
of values of u x and u 2 reveal the remarkable

two given objects, we can
all sorts
result that in every such collision, for
(a scalar
<*! = a 3 = aA
corresponding
scalar
prop(a
obtain a vector identity by putting
property of A)
and a 2 =
on
= aB
In other words, the purely kinematic observations
erty of B).
on
a collision process permit us to introduce a unique dynamical
property of each object.

to hold
if
any of
Notice that this simple situation ceases
the velocities involved
In that case
that of light.
it is still
become comparable to
possible to construct a vector
balance equation in the form of Eq. (9-12), but only
made
parameters a are
if
the
explicit functions of speed. In fact,
we
arrive at the relativistic formula for the variation of
speed [Eq. (6-3)].

Let us return
at low velocities.
mass with
now
to the results of experiments
The
basic statement of these results
two given
the impact of any
objects, the velocity
on
collisions
is
that, in
change of one
always bears a constant, negative ratio to the velocity change of

the other:
V2
= const(vi m)
u2
It is precisely
come out
(9-13)
because this ratio of velocity changes
same
to the
duration of the interaction between the objects, that

that
it
provides a measure of
We
objects themselves.
One can
1, 2, 3,
up an
set
is
found to
value, whatever the type, strength, or
some
we can
infer
property of the
intrinsic
define this property as the inertial mass.
inertial
mass
scale for a
number of
objects
... by finding the velocity changes pairwise in such inter-
action processes
of objects
and
mm
|Av[i
II
|Av|2
and defining
2,
|Av'|i
m\
|Av'|.3
and so on.
If
mass
ratio, let us say
by
Similarly for objects
rm _
the inertial
is
and
3,
the Standard kilogram,
we then have an
operation to determine the inertial masses of any other objects.

'For further discussion, see the volume Special Relaliciry
319
Exlending ihe principle of
momentum
in this series.
conservation
We
must however, do more.
If
we
let
and 3
objects 2
interact,
then the ratio
m3 _
|AT"| a
m2
|Av"| 3
must be
consistent with the
two measurements.
In fact
same
it is,
from the
ratio obtained
and
consistency then allows us to use the values
m m
2,
first
experimental
this internal
z,
mea-
... as
sures of the inertial masses of the respective objects.
Having
set
up a consistent measure of inertial mass

in the form
in this
way, we can then rewrite Eq. (9-13)

vi
El
V2
U2
mi
(9-14)
which when rearranged gives us
mim +
wi2U2
Thus an equation
mm
(9-15)
I2V2
identical in
appearance with the usual mo-
how
mentum-conservation relation emerges, but notice

trasts with the
Newtonian
analysis.
We
this
con-
have used the collision
processes themselves to define mass ratios through Eq. (9-13).
Once this has been done, the terms in Eq. (9-15) automatically
add up to the same total before and after the collision.
What we have done here, in effect, is to give primacy of
place to momentum conservation. The question as to whether or
not action equals reaction does not
For when one
valuable.
interactions
(i.e.,
is
arise.
And
this
can be very
confronted with non-Newtonian
those for which action and reaction are not
equal opposite forces at each instant) one faces the problem of

how to incorporate them into physics whether to abandon the
law of momentum conservation in its limited form or to extend

the idea of momentum and retain the conservation law. The
momentum-conservation
principle
has
proved
so
extremely
powerful that the latter course has been chosen, and conservation
of linear momentum is a central feature of relativistic dynamics.
This
way of analyzing
cesses exposes
the
the basic results of collision pro-
very intimate relation that exists between
kinematics and dynamics. If we changc our description of space,
and motion, then we can expect that our dynamics must be

changed also. This is, in fact, precisely the situation as we make
time,
the transition from the kinematics of Galileo and
Newton
kinematics of Einstein's special theory of relativity.
320
to the
THE FORCE EXERTED BY A STREAM OF PARTICLES

The impact of a stream of
provides an
the conservation of linear
momentum.
of particles, each having mass
m and
solid surface
and
Suppose that a stream
speed
M [Fig. 9-5(a)] and that the particles
mass
on a
particles or fluid
instructive application of the laws of collision
Let the rate
(i.e.,
number
through an imaginary
v, strikes
all
per second) at
a block of
lodge in the block.
which
particles pass
fixed plane at right angles to the
stream
be denoted by R.
We know that momentum
must be conserved, although if the
block were extremely massive one might, in watching the process,

receive the impression that the
particles
was simply destroyed, because the
unnoticeably small.
when the first particle

time At the number of particles
momentum
brought in by the
velocity acquired is
Suppose, for example, that the block
stationary
carrying
momentum
hits
it.
At
that has arrived
mv. If the stream were cut
is
restrained in
cerned).
any way as
By conservation
RmvAt = (M
far as its horizontal
of linear
motion
+ AM)u
AM = Rm At
(o)
Stream of individual particles
striking a
massive object. (b) Initial phase ofbuilding up to a

constant average force produced by the particle stream.
321
The
is
is
momentum and mass we
where
9-5
move with
velocity u (we are assuming that the block
have
Fig.
RAt, each
off at this instant,
the block and the particles together would continue to
some constant
is
the end of a short
forec cxerted by a stream of particles
not
conthen
Letting At approach zero,
we
two equations that describe
arrive at
mass of the block:
the acceleration and the rate of increase of
d
- Rm -
at
(9-17)
where we introduce the

of transport of mass
symbol n to denote the mean rate
single
the
in
beam.
is sufficiently
rest; its
displacement
Clearly, if
appear to remain at
large, the block will
and
its
increase of velocity can remain negligible for
But
in
any event,
force
if
on
exerted
the block
it
is
stationary at
some
some
time.
instant, the
at that instant must be equal to
M du/dt.
Hence from Eq. (9-16) we have
F =*
M~rat
Rme -
Thus a strcam of
exerts
an average
fo'rce
(9-18)
po
particles striking a stationary surface
on
it
stream as truly continuous,

calculating F.
But
this
is
Our
we
At
let
in
a purely mathematical step that does

reality.
the impact of individual discrete
is
calculation treats the
in the sense that
not correspond to the physical
short time scale
The word
given by Eq. (9-18).
"average" should be emphasized.
we might be
The
particles,
force
is
produced by
and on a
able to detect this.
sufficiently
Figure 9-5(b)
an attempt to portray the hypothetical results of such observa-
tions on the basis of the following very simple model.
that each individual particle,
a constant
this time
upon
deceleration that brings
it
Suppose
striking the surface, undergoes

it
to rest in a time T.
During
must be subjected to a force,/, given by
S- T
If the force exerted
on the block as a
result of the arrival of
one
would then be a
particle were plotted as a function of time,
it
rectangle of height/and width T, as indicated
by the small shaded
area in Fig. 9-5(b).
The
force
would suddenly come into existence
a certain instant and, a time T later, it would suddenly fail

to zero. Suppose now that we consider what happens as a function of time after the beam of particles is first turned on (e.g., by
at
'The correctness of Eqs. (9-16) and (9-17) depends, in fact, on this condition.
which the particles strike it is reduced
from R to R{\ u/6), and the values of du/dt and dM/dt are reduced
If the block has a speed u, the rate at
accordingly
322
see Problem 9-13.
Collisions
opening a shutter that was previously preventing them from

reaching the block). Then as successive particles arrive, each
adds
/ to
contribution
its
the total force, which thus rises in an
However, at a time
irregular stepwise fashion.
of the
the
particle,
first
latter's
after arrival
contribution to the total force
would vanish. Thereafter there would be no net increase in the

total force, because on the average the earlier particles drop aut
of the picture as fast as the new ones appear.
thus levels off at
tions about that
constant
some
mean
total force
value
F but
value.
The
force will appear to be almost
the effects of the individual particles overlap con-
if
shown
siderably in time, as
making
The
will exhibit statistical fluctua-
in the figure.
This corresponds to
the average time interval between successive particles
very short compared to the average time that
it
takes for an
individual particle to be brought to rest.
We
can use the above microscopic picture to recalculate
the total force F.
It is
equal to the force per particle,/, multiplied
number of particles that are effective at any one instant.

This number is equal to the total number of particles that arrive
by the
within one deceleration period, T.

Since the rate of arrival
this clear.]
[Figure 9-5(b) should

is
R, this
number
is
make
just
RT.
Thus we can put
F =
{RT)f
RT
i.e.,
F = Rmu
as before.
It is
noteworthy that the average force the beam exerts
against the plate (and hence also the average force the plate
exerts against the
beam
of atoms)
is
quite independent of the
actual magnitude of the deceleration that each
The average
mentum of
force
the
is
atom undergoes.
mo-
simply equal to the rate of change of
beam.
This force exerted by a stream of particles has been exploited
of a
by W. Paul and G. Wessel to measure the average speed

silver atoms.
A beam of atoms, evaporated from
beam of
'
downward onto
the pan of a very delicate

an "oven," was directed
balance. The force exerted on the balance pan was thus made
up of two parts: a steady force, as given by Eq. (9-18), and a
'W. Paul and G. Wessel, Z. Phys. 124, 691 (1948).
323
The
force exerted by a stream of particles
Force on
balance pan
Fig.
9-6
Time dependence of
a total force due t o the mo-
mentum
tveight
and
transfer
-Time
the
of a stream ofparan object.
Beamturned on
ticles striking
at this instant
force increasing linearly with time, due to the increasing
mass as
given by Eq. (9-17) (see Fig. 9-6):
^total
+ M'
= V
The forces involved were equivalent to the weight of a small

number of micrograms. The experimental values for an oven
temperature of 1363K (= 1090C) were approximately as
follows:
tiv
M =
3.4
5.6
10- 7
10- ,0 kg/sec
leading to a value for the average speed,
v,
of
silver
atoms
at
1363K:
v = 600
m/sec
REACTION FROM A FLUID JET

on a surface produces
a push, so the production of such a stream in the first place must
cause a force of reaction on the system that gives the stream its
Just as the impact of a stream of particles
momentum.
In a
of the stream
is
normal jet of liquid or
gas, the basic granularity
too fine to be noticed, and any device that sends
out such a jet will experience a steady force of reaction, as given
by Eq.
(9-18).
Thus
if
we imagine
a bench test of a rocket engine,
for example, with the engine clamped to a rigid structure, then
the burnt fuel

in Fig. 9-7(a),
thrown out backward with speed vq, as shown

and the forward push, P, exerted on the rocket is
is
given by
324
Sehemat ic diagrams o/a lest-bed arrange-
Fig. 9-7
ment of(a) a roeket englne and
(b) a jet engine with air
intake at the front.
P=
One
l*VO
sees this
same
work on a smaller
principle at
scale in garden
sprinklers, fire hoses, and so on.

A jet engine of an aireraft presents a somewhat more com-
plicated application of these dynamical results.

air that enters at the front of the engine,
exhaust gases
process of
that
is
an important role
at the rear, plays
momentum
in the over-all
The main funetion of
transfer.
carried with the plane
In this case the
and leaves as part of the

the fuel
to give the ejected gases a high
is
speed with respect to the plane, and most of the moving mass
supplied by the
It is very
air.
is
convenient to analyze the dynamics
of this system from the standpoint of a reference frame in which

the engine
is
instantaneously at
forward at a velocity
v,
the air
rest.
If the
plane
the front with an equal and opposite velocity, as
velocity v a in
at the rate
total
/x fucI
Thus,
if air
(kg/sec)
and
this frame.
through the engine at the
shown
rear, all the ejected material has a
Fig. 9-7(b). Then, at the
ward
traveling
is
seen as entering the engine at
is
rate
/x ftir
the total rate of change of
is
in
back-
being carried
fuel is being
momentum
burnt
defines a
forward foree on the engine according to the following
equation:
P=
")
(9-19)
A jet aireraft
is
traveling at a speed of 250 m/sec.
Wuel0
Example.
H\t{O0
Each of its engines takes
in 100
of air per second, correspond-
ing to a mass of 50 kg of air per second at the plane's flying

altitude.
the gases
The air is used to burn 3 kg of fuel per second, and all

coming from the combustion chamber are ejected with
a speed of 500 m/sec relative to the aireraft.
of each engine?
325
What
Substituting directly in Eq. (9-19)
Reaction from a
fluid jet
is
the thrust
wc have
P =
=
1.4
500
10
+
4
50(500
250)
Four engincs of this type would thus give a total driving force
of about 12,000 lb, a more or less realistic figure.
The most spectacular manifestation of these reaction forces,

man-made systems, is of course the initial thrust from
rocket engincs in a launching at Cape Kennedy (Fig. 9-8).
at least in
the
Fig.
9-8
Launching
of a Saturn
V rocket.
(N.A.S.A. photograph.)
326
Collisions
and conscrvalion laws
The following approximate

on the
first
Total mass
2.5
=
=
=
lb
from thesc
2
quarter of the
process
initial
as
itself,
total
10
10
kg/sec
kg
initial acceleration is
puli
down
is
one must
on the rocket!)
fuel
have
to only about a
analysis of the accelerative
continually
is
X
X
about 2250 tons of
mass
The
value.
mass
3.4
that in a vcrtical liftoff
the end of the first-stagc burn,
been consumed, and the
10
figures that the speed of the ejected
(Remember
2.8
overcome the downward gravitational
first
1.4
=150sec
min
about 2500 m/sec and that the
is
about 2 m/sec
By
10
3100 tons
at liftoff
Burntime
gases
7.6
infer
system:
15tons/sec
Total thrust
One can
stage of the Saturn
Rate of burning
on published data 1
figurcs are based
lost,
the subject of the
is
next section.
ROCKET PROPULSION
This has bccome such a very large subject
lying
in recent years that
do no morc than touch upon the underdynamical principles. For anything like a substantial dis-
clear that
it is
we
shall
cussion you should look elsewhere.
The
fact remains,
however,
any rocket does depend on the basic laws of

conservation of momentum, as applied to a system made up of the
rocket and its ejected fuel. For simplicity, let us consider the
that the operation of
motion of a rocket out n a region of space where the

i
gravity are sufficiently small to be ignored in the

tion.
Under
of the rocket
this
is
shown
plus
its
NASA
2
+ At,
1960;
S.
remaining
Facts: Space
L.
Am
a mass
The
of fuel
fuel at /
Launch
M. Barrere
m
At,
is
Between time
burnt and becomes sep-
the total
and o
and after ejection

mass of the rocket
is its
velocity at time
t.
Vehicles.
et al.,
Rocket Propuhion, Elsevier, Amsterdam,
Bragg, Rocket Engines, Geo. Newnes, London, 1962; G. P.
Sulton, Rocket Propuhion Elements, Wiley,
327
is
situations before
in Fig. 9-9, where
Scc, for cxamplc,
of
the thrust from the ejected fuel. Suppose that the
arated from the rocket.

are
effects
approxima-
assumption, the only force acting on the body
burnt fuel has a speed v n relative to the rocket.
and time
first
Rocket propulsion
New
York, 1963.
MM|mnBMH|BnnH
N/
'Vi'
time
(b)
f/g.
9-9
tion
of an element
Situalions jusi before
The
(w
+ Am)u =
m(v
is
a kind of inelastic collision in
the masses
By conservation of
velocity.
after the ejec-
rocket.
ejection of the fuel
since initially
reverse,
and jusi
Am ofmass by a
and
Am
have the same
momentum we have
linear
+ Av) + Am(v
vo)
Therefore,
mo
+ u Am = mo + mAv + o Am voAm
Therefore,
mAv = voAm
or
Ao =
This equation
(9-20)
not quite exact.
is
(Why?) But as we
let
At ap-
proach zero, the error approaches zero. As long as Au/t?o is

much less than unity, Eq. (9-20) is an excellent approximation.
Given the
final
initial total
mass w/ of
mass w, of the rocket plus
rocket can be evaluated.
If the initial
the rocket are i\ and v f Eq. (9-20)

,
Vi
fuel,
and the
the rocket at burnout, the velocity gained
tells
and
by the
final velocities
of
us that
2 ~ Am
numerically, by drawing a graph

l/m against m, and finding the area (shaded)
between the limits m/ and m,. This is a pure number, which
The answer could be obtained

(Fig. 9-10) of
when
if
multiplied by v
is
fuel) at
328
gives the increase of velocity. Analytically,
used to denote the mass of the rocket (plus
any
instant,
it is
more
its
satisfactory to interpret
Collisions and conservation lavvs
remaining
dm
as the
Craph of l/m versus m. The

relatlve measure of
Ihe gain of velocity resulling from a
given mass ehange.
Fig.
9-10
shaded area giues a
change of mass of the rocket
dm
in a
time
di.
actually a negative quantity, which
is
in this
way,
integrated
from
Defined
when
the beginning to the end of the burning process gives the value
of
m;
In these terms the change of velocity can be
rrii(< 0).
written as the following integral in closed form:
"/
You
Vi
= 00 /f
J mi
m =
dm
(m.\
Poin
(9-21)
\mf J
should satisfy yourself that this
is
indeed equivalent to the
of the numerical-graphical method described above.

Notice that the time does not enter into the calculation at
final result
all,
although of course
it
would do so
if
we wanted
to consider
the rate of increase of v or the magnitude of the thrust.
Notice also that we would be entitled, at each and every

instant, to look at the situation
the rocket
always just
It is
The
first
from the frame of reference of
In this frame the velocity of the ejected fuel
itself.
,
worth examining some of the implications of Eq. (9-21).

thing to notice
is
that the gain of velocity
Thus
proportional to the speed of the ejected gases.
make
through
is
and Eq. (9-20) follows immediately.
as great as possible.
chemical
5000 m/sec, and

other losses,
it is
in
burning
The
highest values of v
processes
are
of
the
is
directly
it
pays to
attainable
order
of
practice, because of incomplete burning and
hard to do better than about
50%
of the ideal
a given fuel (cf. the figure of 2500 m/sec for

These
the LOX-kerosene mixture of Saturn V, first stage).
they
are
in
ordinary
terms,
but
of
course,
very
high
velocities are,
theoretical value for
small compared to the velocities that can be given to charged
329
Rocket propulsion
"
particles
by
electrical acceleration.
Hence the
interest in develop-
ing ion-gun engines, or even using the highest available speed
by making an exhaust jet of radiation. The trouble
(that of light)
with both of these, however,
is
the very small rate of ejection of
mass, which makes the attainable thrust very small.
The other main
feature of Eq. (9-21)
is
the
way
in
the increase of velocity varies logarithmically with the

ratio.
fuel
which
mass
This places rapidly increasing demands on the amount of
needed to confer larger and larger
final velocities
on a given
Suppose, for example, that we wanted to attain a
payload.
the exhaust velocity v
velocity equal to
starting
from
rest.
Then, by Eq. (9-21) we have
v/
V(
vo
foln
Therefore,
-.
-2.718...
m,
But to attain twice
this velocity,
we need
to have
-fe)
i.c,
=
m,
Uli
- .
7.4
Table 9-1 presents the results of such calculations in more convenient form.
The
last
column represents
the extra
mass needed,
TABLE 9-1
v,
vt
mi/m,
(w<
m,)/mf
vo
2o
2.7
1.7
7.4
6.4
3uo
20.1
19.1
4o
54.5
53.5
as a multiple of the payload.
The
practical
problems of producing
very large mass ratios are prohibitive, but the use of multistage
rockets (which also have other advantages) avoids this difficulty
(see
330
Problem 9-12,
p. 359).
A
is
may seem
result that
surprising at
sight
first
is
that there
nothing, in principle, to prevent us from giving a rocket a
forward velocity that

of the exhaust gases.
is
considerably greater than the speed v
Thus
at a late stage in the
motion one
see both the rocket and the ejected material moving forward with respect to the frame in which the rocket started out
from rest. No violation of dynamical principles would be involved, and if one made a detailed accounting of the motion
of all the material that was in the rocket initially, one would find
that the total momentum of the system had remained at zero
would
(as long as the effects of external forces, including gravity, could
should of course be emphasized that our whole

analysis would hold good, as it stands, only in the absence of
be ignored).
gravity
It
and of
resistive forces
due to the
air.
COLLISIONS AND FRAMES OF REFERENCE

The seventeenth-century
which
momentum
investigations of collision processes,
conservation was established, were chiefly
experimental. But one of the
men
involved
Christian Huygens
applied the spirit of twentieth-century physics in a

analysis
bound.
by
brilliant
of the particular case of two objects with perfect reHe based his argument on symmetry and on the equiv-
alence of frames related by a constant velocity.
The
analysis
is
simple but of great intrinsic interest.
Figure 9-1
ground to the
provides a suitably seventeenth-century back-
situation.
But though the picture may appear
quaint and archaic, the thinking
is
sharp and fresh.
Huygens
imagines two equal elastic masses, colliding with equal and

opposite speeds u.
velocity
is
He assumes
exactly reversed; this
that they
is
rebound so that each
a symmetry argument.
Huygens imagines a precisely similar collision

boat that is itself moving with speed v relative
Next,
to take place
on a
to the shore. This
viewed by a man on terra firma, appears as a stationary

mass being struck by a mass with velocity 2v. After the impact,
collision,
From Ernst Mach, The Science of Mechanics, trans. T. J. McCormack, Open

Court Publishing Co., La Salle, 111., 1960. The original figure comes from
Huygens' Ireatise on impact (ca. 1700). Mach's book (which is extremely
readable and uses a minimum of mathematics) is itself a landmark in the
discussion of the fundamental principles of physics. His speculations on the
origin of inertia were a significant part of the background to Einstein's thinking about general relativity and cosmology (see Chapter 12).
331
Collisions and frames of rcfcrcnce
m* m
O
Fig.
9-11
Huygens'
visualization of a n
elaslic collision be-
tween two equal

masses, as shown 'm
his book,
De Motu
Corporum
ex Per-
cussione (1703).
(Reprinled in Vol. 16
ofC. Huygens,
Oeuvres Completes,
Marlinus Nijhoff, The
Hague, Netherlands,
1940.)
the
is
first
mass has acquired the
velocity 2v,
and the second mass
stationary.
More
generally,
if
the boat has a speed
from
u, different
v,
the velocities exchange as follows:
Body
Body 2
Before impact:
Afler impact:
Thus Huygens
on
predicts,
theoretical grounds, the results of all
possible one-dimensional experiments

collision of
two
identical masses.
on the
The
perfectly elastic
common
feature
to
all
of them is that the magnitude of the relative velocity has the

same value after the collision as it had before the collision.
Huygens went even further. Again using a kind of symmetry
argument, he deduced a general property of perfectly elastic

collisions
between unegual masses.
If a
moving object A
strikes
an unequal stationary object B, then after the collision they

be moving with
Imagine that
velocities v
this
is
and w as indicated
will
in Fig. 9-12(a).
viewed from a boat moving to the right with
moving
Huygens
argues that the exact reversal of the motion of B, as seen from
this second frame, must also imply the exact reversal of the motion
of A in this perfectly elastic process. Thus the final velocity of A
must be (m w/2) n this frame. But this velocity is also
equal to v w/2, because the final velocity of A as seen from
velocity w/2.
to the
left,
Then before
with velocity
collision the object
332
Collisions
is
seen
w/2, as shown in Fig. 9-12(b).

After
Before
Fig.9-12 Elastic
collision between two
Seen from
(a)
unequal objects as
laboratory frame,
and
O-
Seen from
seen (d) from the
O^
the shore
(b)
the boat
O*-
-*o
""2
{b) from a frame in
which both celocities

or: v
are simply reversed.
the shore
Hence we have
is v.
- (u -
- -x
=
=
w/2)
w/2
(9-22)
u
that in the elastic collision of
Thus Huygens concludes
any two
objects whatsoever, the magnitude of the relatioe velocity remains
Notice, however, that something beyond the con-
unaltered.
momentum
servation of linear
thing
involved here.
is
what we have learned to
is
call
The
extra some-
kinetic energy,
and
conservation defines a very special class of collisions.
its
Let us
consider this further.
KINETIC ENERGY IN COLLISIONS

Suppose that a one-dimensional
in Fig. 9-1 3(a).
If this
system
we have conservation of
fluences
m\U\.
W22 =
WlJ-'l
collision takes place as
is
shown
effectively free of external in-
linear
momentum:
12 2
1-"
Suppose further that the
collision is perfectly elastic, in the sense
defined by Eq. (9-22).
In the present problem this implies the
following relationship:
Ml
M2
t>2
Di
We
can solve these two equations for the
v2
The
"i
1$
results are
11 12
r "i +
11 + 2
2ii
I
IW2
Kinetic energy
2I2
r
- 2
11
333
11
12
mi
mi
U-2
12
in collisions
final velocities,
v y and
Using these values of Vi and v 2
it is
a straightforward piece of
algebra to arrive at the following result:
mivi 2
You
W2^2 2 = miui 2
/W2W2 2
(9-23)
will recognize that this equation, apart
from the absence of
factors of \ throughout, corresponds to a statement that the
energy after the collision
total kinetic
energy
We
initially.
have arrived
equal to the kinetic
is
at this result
symmetry considerations and without any
We
of forces or work.
basis of
mention
shall bring these latter concepts into the
picture in Chapter 10, but for the
Some of
on the
explicit
moment we do
not need them.
the early workers in mcchanics recognized the con-
servation property represented by Eq. (9-23) for perfectly elastic
and
collisions,
referred to the quantity
(Latin, vis vioa)
Having,
of a moving
in
mv 2
as the "living force"
object.
introduced kinetic energy into the de-
effect,
we shall now develop an imporgood whether or not the total kinetic energy
scription of collision processes,
tant result that holds

is
Suppose that Fig. 9-13(a) represents an arbitrary
conserved.
one-dimensional collision as observed in a reference frame S.
Let us consider
this
same
collision
from the standpoint of another
frame S' that has the velocity v with respect to
5 and
words,
We
then have
u\
v\
We
(In other
S.
S' are related by the Galilean transformations.)
=
=
shall
initial
U2
Pl
PJ
now show
and
=
=
U2
V2
that the change of kinetic energy between
final states is
an invariant
i. e.,
it
has the same value
in both frames.
In S:
înitial
#fii.al
= hm u 2 +
= i'Wlfl 2 +
>
AK =K,-
4"22 2
Ki
'M2U2 2
= (imim 2 + im 2
(^wiwi 2
(.-2
2
)
2
Jm22 )
In S':
^'initial
^'final
AK'
= il(Ml - V) 2 + \tm(M2 - V) 2
= il(d - V) 2 + im 2 (V2 - v) 2
= (%mivi 2 + fffttoa 2) (2"ii 2
334
VftmiVl
W2f2>
(miUi
i"J22
7M22)]
2
)
Fig.
9-13
Arbilrary
(a)
InS:
(b)
ms'-.
one-dimensional collision
as seen in two
different
frames
related by
fW
a velocity v.
By momentum
0*r
o*r
conservation, for a;> kind of collision, the
bination of terms in squarc brackets in
is
if
is
com-
zero. It follows that
AK
AK' =
Thus,
AK'
the change of kinetic energy for a given collision process
one frame,
specified in
it
has the same value in
quantity, and the
fact of
Given a knowledge of this

conservation, we can predict the values of u, and v>
dimensional collision process for which the
all
frames.
momentum
in
any one-
initial velocities
wi
and u> are specified. The value of AK may be positive, negative,

or zero. The first of these corresponds to an explosive process,
in
which extra kinetic energy
as a result of the interaction.
is
given to the separating particles
The second and
third possibilities
correspond to inelastic and elastic collisions, respectively,

sense in which
we have already been using
in the
these terms.
THE ZERO-MOMENTUM FRAME

The momentum of a
particle or of a system of particles is not
depends on the frame of reference in which one

observes the motion. If, however, one compares the descriptions
of the motion in two different inertial frames, related by a conan invariant;
it
stant velocity, the difference between the
momentum
frame
is
is
always a constant vector of magnitude
m is the mass of the particle and v is the velocity of one
m\, where
frame
of a particle
measured values of the
One can always find

momentum of any particle
relative to the other.

in
which the
total
evidently a frame in which the particle
of time one determines
its
is
zero,
and
this
it
at rest at the instant
momentum. One can
reference frame in which the total

particles
is
a reference
vanishes;
momentum
likewise find a
of any system of
zero-momentum frame of reference
is
of
great importance, not only as a convenience for looking at collisions
335
and interaetions
in general
but also, as
we
shall
show
Fig.
9-14
Basis of
defining the zero-
momenlum
{center-of-
mass) reference frame.
shortly, for its
To
dynamical implications.
see
how we
identify
zero-momentum framc, let us start with a simple example;

two particles /n, and m 2 move along the x axis with constant
velocities t>i and v% in a frame of reference S (Fig. 9-14). Our
this
task
is
to find the velocity D of a reference frame S' relative to
such that
momentum m\v\
in S' the total
+ m-iv'i
'
s ecl ua ' to
zero.
Let O' be the origin of S' moving with velocity v relative to

O.
From
relative to
v\
v'2
=
=
9-14 we see that the
Fig.
are given
c\
02
and
if this is
(/Ml
/M2C2
miL-i
to be zero,
m2)v = /Hll
Equation (9-24)
relative to
trary.
We
m2
rrtiU
particles in S' is
/W202
mzv
we must have
(9-24)
OT2l>2
fixes the velocity
of the reference frame S'
but leaves the choice of the position (x) of O' arbi-
use this freedom to choose the location of O' relative
to the positions of m, and
Eq. (9-24)
of tn^ and
by
Hence the momentum of the two

miv'i
velocities
in the
m 2 as simply as possible.
If
werewrite
equivalent form
or better as
[(mi + m 2 )x]
dt
evidently the simplest
336
[mixi + m 2 X2]
di
way of
satisfying this is to equate the
Collisions and conscrvalion laws
two
Fig.
9-15
Basis ofdefining the cenler of granity, not
necessarily identical
"llg
sets of
m *t
center ofmass.
tvilli tJte
The
square brackets.
difference between
them must be a
constant and we choose the constant equal to zero.
We then
have
for the position of O' in S,
_ = misi
mi
+ m2x2
(9_25)
+ m2
The origin of a zero-momentum reference frame chosen in

way is called the center of mass of the two-particle system
made up of W] and m 2 You will recognize that Eq. (9-25) also
defines what we are accustomed to calling the center of gravity
of two objects (cf. Fig. 9-15). In principle, however, these need
not be identical points. The center of gravity is literally the point
through which a single force, equal to the sum of the gravitational
forces on the separate objects, effectively acts. If the values of g
at the positions of the two objects were not quite identical, then
this
Fgi
the forces
and
Fg2
would not be
proportional to
strictly
m!
m 2 in which case the center of gravity and the center of

mass would not quite coincide. The difference is negligible for
ordinary purposes, but it should be recognized that the center of
and
mass, as given by Eq. (9-25),
is
defined without reference to the
uniformity or even the existence of gravitational forces. Perhaps
you recognized that we have already used the zero-momentum

frame in our earlier section on collisions and frames of reference.
When Huygens wanted to apply symmetry arguments to colBut now we have
lisions, this was the frame he started with.
it in a much more explicit fashion.
The introduction of the zero-momentum or center-of-mass
(CM) frame leads to a very important and immensely useful way
identified
of analyzing the dynamics of a system of particles.

the essential idea in the simplest possible
way we
consider a one-dimensional system of two particles.

(let
us suppose that this
is
the frame defined
the particles have velocities Vi and v 2
frame (S') they have
=
=
l/l
V2
where
15
D]
V2
is
velocities v[
develop
shall again
In frame
by our laboratory)
In the
zero-momentum
and v'2 given by
v
C
defined
by Eq.
(9-24).
can put
337
To
Putting
m\
+ tn%
= M, we
where
in
any
^^
P is
the total linear
(9-26)
momentum, which remains unchanged
collision proccss:
P =
ntyvi
We now
HtaD2
(9-27)
const.
proceed to express thc total kinetic energy K, as mea-
sured in the laboratory frame, in terms of the center-of-mass
and the
velocity v
CM. We
the
K=
velocities v[
ImM + df + im
2 (o'2
2
(wiid'i
+ JTJttPa ) +
+ Kmi + w 2 )0 2
Now, by
and
v 2 of
mi and
relative to
have
+ vf
+ m2
(miv'i
v'2 )o
(9-28)
zero-momentum frame, we
the very definition of the
have
miv'i
miv'y
Hence the middle term on the right-hand side of Eq. (9-28) is

automatically zero!
The first term we recognize as the total
kinetic energy K' of the two individual particles relative to the
CM; the last

of mass
term
is
equal to thc kinetic energy of a single particle
M moving with the velocity
i;
of the
CM. Thus we
can
write
K=
This
is
K'
n
+ \Ml -
(9-29)
such an important result that
we
shall express
it
in
words
also:
The
kinetic energy of a system of
two
particles is equal to the
kinetic energy of motion relative to the center of
mass of the system
(the internal kinetic energy), plus the kinetic energy of a single

particle of
mass equal to the
total
mass of the system moving with
the center of mass.
The
into
great importance of this separation of the kinetic energy
two parts
and
the
way
to
the possibility
to the
CM)
as a whole.
note well that
it
works only
is
the
the
new
of analyzing
the internal
motion of a system {relative
without reference to the bodily motion of the system
(We
shall
show
shortly that the result holds
only for one-dimensional motions, but in general.)
338
if
zero-momentum frame is that it opens

a very powerful and simplifying procedure. We have
reference frame
Collisions and conscrvnlion laws
good not
One of the
implications of Eq. (9-29)
of kinetic energy
locked up, as
is
it
that a certain
is
amount
were, in the motion of the
In the absence of external forces the velocity v
center of mass.
remains constant throughout the course of a collision process,

2
and the kinetic energy %Md must Iikewise remain unchanged.
This means that in the collision of two objects, only a certain
fraction of their total kinetic energy, as measured in the laboratory, is available for conversion to other purposes. The amount
of this available kinetic energy
can calculate
K-
=
=
K'
is,
in fact, identical with K'.
We
with the help of Eq. (9-29):
it
$Mo 2
(imivi
\m2v2)
from Eq.
Substituting for d
\{m\
/2)0
(9-20), this leads
by simple algebra
to the following result:
-22?-
K'
\
2 mi
(c 2
Bl
rri2
(9-30a)
The value of K', as expressed by this equation, is thus the kinetic

energy of what can be regarded as being effectively a single mass,
of magnitude m m 2 /(m + m 2 ), moving at a velocity equal to
the relative velocity of the colliding particles. The effective mass
l
is
called the
is given the symbol

more compact form
reducedmass of the system and
Thus we may
write Eq. (9-30a) in the
K,
K' =
y..
(9-30b)
where
u
Prel
m\m2
mi
ni2
02
1>1
For example,
if
- -o':
moving
ary object of mass

is
02
object of
unit,
mass 2
units strikes a station-
two thirds of the
initial kinetic
available for the purpose of producing deformations,
when
TWO DIMENSIONS
In general the velocity vectors of

plane,
is
and so on,
the objects collide.
COLLISION PROCESSES IN
and
collision
339
energy
locked up in center-of-mass motion, and only one third
it
is
two
colliding objects define a
therefore important to extend our analysis of
processes into two-dimensional space.
Collision processes in
two dimcnsions
Actually one
+M>
+.w
Fig.
9-16
(a) Collision
seen as occurring in
one dimension. (b) As
seen in another refer-
ence frame, the
colli-
sion appears two-
dimensionat.
must stand ready
to
go
all
the
way
into three dimensions, because
the plane defined by the velocity veetors of
two
partieles after
may not be the same as that defined by the initial

velocities.
Many collision processes are, however, purely twodimensional, and for simplicity we shall limit ourselves to such
a collision
cases in diseussing specific examples, even though the theory

applies equally well to three-dimensional problems.
One
thing that
is
worth recognizing
at the outset
is
that
the analysis of purely one-dimensional problems, of the type
have diseussed so
far,
can
in faet lead to
we
predietions about
certain types of two-dimensional collisions, because
we can turn
a two-dimensional one by
a
Consider, for example, an
of
view.
simply changing our point
imperfectly elastic collision between two identical spheres that
one-dimensional
collision
into
approach one another along the y axis with equal and opposite
velocities, u [see Fig. 9-16(a)]. Suppose that as a result of this
collision they recoil
(symmetry
would appear
requires that these final velocities
Figure 9-16(b) then shows
opposite).
the
back along the y axis with reduced
to
how
velocities
be equal and
the same collision
an observer who had a velocity
parallel to
This defines a whole class of oblique collision probof which can be solved with reference to the simple
axis.
lems, all
head-on collision of Fig. 9-16(a). One can go even further yet,

by viewing the collision of Fig. 9-16(b) from a reference frame
that has some velocity parallel to the y direetion. This removes
all
the apparent symmetry, yct
it is
All the collisions for which, at the
basically the
moment of
same
collision.
impaet, the two
spheres have a relative velocity ofgiven magnitude along the line

joining their centers are dynamically equivalent.
340
This suggests a
important way of simplifying the
vcry
Imagine yourself
analysis of collision problems.
which the
most simply described;
collision is
in the
frame
in
be the
this will
center-of-mass frame, in which by definition the colliding particles
approach one another along a straight
opposite momenta.
Solve the problem
line with equal
in this
CM
and
frame, and
frame by means of a Galilean
transfer the result to the laboratory
transformation.
The grcat simplicity of a collision process as viewed in the

zero-momentum frame is illustrated in Fig. 9-17. Since the
momentum
total
in this
frame
well as approach, with equal

Fig. 9-17(a).
is
zero, the particles separate, as
and opposite momenta,
Also the magnitudes of the
as
shown
momentum
final
in
vectors
are independent of their direction in the
CM
shown
p'2/ can be represented
in Fig. 9-17(b), the vectors
p[/ and
frame.
Thus, as
with their tips lying at opposite ends of the diameter of a
The
relative directions
of
p{,-
circle.
and p[/ can be anything, de-
pending on the details of the interaction.
The
relative lengths
of these vectors also depend, of course, on the detailed mechanism.

In a perfectly elastic collision
inelastic collision
we have
p'f
we have p) =
0.
p'i.
(In an cxplosive process, for
example rocket propulsion, we have the converse

p'i
0,
p}
processes
To
>
0.)
we may
begin with,
let
And
find
in
p}
(a)
An
less than,
equal to, or greater than
We
are defining
an
ar-
bilrary collision as
described by equal and

opposite
momentum
vectors in the
CM
frame. (b) In the
CM
frame, the end poinls
of the momentum
vectors
lie
on
circles.
341
where
p\.
us look at one or two examples of perfectly
the center-of-mass frame.
9-17
situation,
atomic, chemical or nuclear reaction
elastic collisions so as to appreciate the beauties
Fig.
In a completely
Collision processes in
two climcnsions
of a view from
elastic collision
here as one in which the magnitude of the relative velocity
unchanged by the
collision.
As we have
seen, this
to saying that the total kinetic energy, as well as the

is
conserved.
tion will later
is
is
equivalent
momentum,
The definition in terms of kinetic energy conservabecome the dominant one.
ELASTIC NUCLEAR COLLISIONS

The
One
nuclear physicist livcs in two worlds.
the other
collisions
is
is
his laboratory,
the center-of-mass frame of the particles
and interactions he
is
By
studying.
whose
learning to skip
nimbly from one frame to the other he gets the best of both
worlds.
Let us see how.
Proton-proton collisions
Figure 9-18 shows a collision between two protons, as recorded
in a photographic emulsion.
hydrogen atom
in
One
of the protons belonged to a
the emulsion and was effectively stationary
before the collision took place; the other entered the emulsion
with a kinetic energy of about 5
The most notable
MeV.
feature of the collision
of the two protons after collision
is
angle of 90 with each
make an
/
9-18
Fig.
collision
Elastic
between an
incident proton
and an
initially stationary
proton
in
a photo-
graphic emulsion.
.
{From C. F. Powell
and G.P.S. Occhialini,
...
Ox-
ford Unicersity Press,
New
York, 1947.)
342
/
.
-%.,..; ...^...
Nuclear Physics
in Photographs,
that the paths
othcr.
This
we
up
get
true for all such proton-proton collisions, until
is
to energies so high that
Newtonian mechanics
longer adequate to describe the situation.

the center-of-mass frame
we can
By
first
no
is
looking into
readily understand this.
Let
the velocity of the incident proton as observed in the laboratory
be
Then
v.
this
the
zero-momentum frame has
opposite velocities as
shown
emerges from the collision

is
at
velocity v/2,
and
in
frame the protons approach and recede with equal and
ir
B'
on the other
in Fig. 9-19(a).
in the direction
Suppose one proton

d',
so that the other
side of the line of approach.
To
get
back to the laboratory frame we add the velocity v/2 to each

proton, parallel to the original line of motion, as shown in
Fig. 9-I9(b). But the triangles ABC and A EF are both isosceles,
so the directions 0i
and
8 2 of the protons as observed in the
laboratory are given by

$i
6' /2
02
(ir
6')/2
62
r/2
Therefore,
0i
Moreover, we can easily
find the laboratory velocities of the
protons after the collision, for we have

ui
v2
Fig.
9-19
collision
=
=
2(y/2)cos0i
2(u/2)cos0 2
=
=
ucosfli
wsinfli
(a) Elastic
between two
eaual masses, as seen

in the
(b)
CM frame.
Transformation to
the laboratory frame,
showing a 90 angle
between the final
velocities.
343
two
We
any such
see that in
collision the total kinetic energy is con-
served, because
KE =
Final KE =
Initial
\mv 2
m(t>cosfli) 2
= /wt; 2 (cos 2 6i
= %mv 2
+ \m(o cos
+ sin 2 0,)
2)
Figure 9-20 shows a similar collision between equal macroscopic

objects (billiard balls);
it is
not perfectly
elastic,
but
it is
impres-
sively close.
Neutron-nucleus collisions
In nuclear fission processes, neutrons are ejected with a variety
of energies, but the average energy
Fig.
9-20
collision
is
of the order of
Slroboscopic pholograph of an almost perfectly elastic
between equal masses. (Front
PSSC
Physics, D. C.
Heath, Lexington, Massachusetts, 1965.)
344
Collisions and conscrvation laws
MeV.
These neutrons are however, most
effective in causing further

reduced to energies of the order of 10~ 2 or
fissions if they are
10
-1
eV
slow-neutron reactor
And
Thus an essential feature of every

means of slowing down the neutrons.
(thermal energies).
is a
of neutrons with other nuclei (those com-
elastic collisions
posing the moderator material of the reactor) do most of the job.

Suppose that a neutron of mass m makes an elastic collision
with a nucleus of mass
in the laboratory be v
assumed stationary.
M.
Let the
in this
Figure 9-21 (a) shows the collision as seen
in the center-of-mass frame,
the laboratory frame given
M+
initial velocity of the neutron

frame the struck nucleus will be
which has a velocity v
(9-31)
If the collision turns the neutron
momentum
vector v
frame,
shown
velocities, as
of
d',
its final
and
through an angle
in Fig. 9-21 (b).
measured
d' in
the zero-
velocity in the laboratory frame
The magnitudes of the
in the laboratory, for
are readily calculated.
yourself,
relative to
by Eq. (9-24):
(Exercise:
Do
is
the
final
any given value
this calculation for
verify that in this case, as with
two equal masses,
the total kinetic energy, as measured in the laboratory, remains
unchanged as a
The
result of the collision.)
biggest energy loss for a neutron as seen
oratory frame occurs if it

In this case
i;(t)
Fig.
9-21
is
scattered straight
we have
D
(v
B)
= -(to -
{a) Elastic
collision between
two
uneaual masses, as
seen in the
CMframe.
(b) Transformation to
the laboratory frame;

the angle between the
velocities is different
from
90.
345
2v)
n the lab-
backward
(d'
x).
--*(i-jjF?y
M- m
For
e'
the neutron loses
Thus
collision is this?)
no energy at
all.
(What
sort of
the kinetic energy of the neutron after
the collision lies between the following limits:
mtiX
Since
= ^mvo
Kmax is independent of the mass M of a moderator nucleus,
is most
mKn that tells us what value of
neutron
average
reduction
of
the
greatest
lead
to
the
likely to
it is
the expression for
And we
energy.
see that
cannot do as well as
makes
Kmin
equal to zero;
any other value of M, whether
this for
it
we
be
if no other considerations were

would make the best moderator,
(the proton mass) is equal to m within about
Thus
bigger or smaller than m.
involved, ordinary hydrogen

since in this case
Protons, however, also capture slow neutrons

rather effectively, thereby making them unavailable for causing
further fissions, and it turns out that certain other light nuclei
1
part in 10
deuterium, beryllium, and carbon) offer a better compromise between moderating and trapping of the fission neutrons.
(e.g.,
INELASTIC
AND EXPLOSIVE PROCESSES

may be a
net
loss or gain of kinetic energy as a result of the collision.
In
We
now
shall turn
to processes in which there
analyzing such processes,
change of
and
that the result
collision
first
total kinetic
it
is
energy
important to confirm that the

is
we obtained on
does hold good
indeed an invariant quantity,

the basis of
in general.
redevelop Eq. (9-29) for two
particles
directions. Let the particles have masses
vj and v 2 in the laboratory frame (5).
CM frame (S')
_
is
show this, we
moving in arbitrary
and m 2 and velocities
Then
the velocity, v, of the
defined by the equation
wiivi
>"2V2
mi
mz
If the velocities of the particles as
346
a one-dimensional
In order to
(9-33)
measured
in 5' are v[
and
v'2
we then have
Vl
v'i
v2
v'2
We now
+v
+v
write
down
the total kinetic energy in S, using the fact
$mv 2 of a
that the kinetic energy
as Jm(v
particle
can also be expressed
terms of the scalar product of the vector v

y),
with itself. Thus we have
K=
mi(vi
}i(Ti
Now
in
i.e.,
+ m (v v2 )
(v| + v) + $m 2
vi)
+ v)
(v'2
v)
(v 2
v)
consider one of these scalar products, using the distributive
and commutative laws that apply to the dot products of vectors:
+ v)
(v'i
Using
(v',
this result
above expression
8
(Jmii/i
K=
+ v)
and
for
=
= v?
v',
its
vi
2v',
+
v
counterpart in the second term of the
K, we have
+ im 2 02) +
But again we note
2v'i
that,
by the
+ m2v2
(miT ,
definition of the
frame, the second term on the right
is
+ i(m, + m2 )D
zero-momentum
zero, so that
we come back
to the simple result of Eq. (9-29):
= K'
Applying
this to the states
after collision,
Ki
K,
We
A/B 2
=
=
of a two-particle system before and
we have
K'i
2
+ iMV
K}
+ %Md 2
assume that the
total
mass remains unchanged and,
absence of external forces, so does
D.
Thus we again
in the
arrive at
the result
K/
where
Ki
is
= K} - Ki- Q
the
amount by which
the final kinetic energy exceeds
(algebraically) the initial kinetic energy.
The
actual value of
may, of course, be negative.
The
virtually
347
results
of the above analysis can be extended, with
no modification,
Inelastic
to such processes as nuclear reactions,
and explosive processes
which the actual identity of the
in
particies in the final state
may
be quite different from what one has at the beginning. Suppose,

for example, that there is a collision between two nuclei, of masses
m 2 which
m 3 and m
and
masses
two
react to produce
Then we can
different nuclei,
of
write the following statements
of conservation
my
Mass:
Momentum:
Thus
the
initial
+ 14
ms
/W2
/wivi
W2V2
= W3V3
mi\4
wiv'i
i2V2
= W3V3
mnv'n
and
kinetic energies
final
= Mv
=
can be written as
follows:
Ki
Kf =
im^f + \m f + MD
ImM? + kmiMf + \Mo
Kf -
with
Ki
Q.
Example: The
reactions
nuclear
2 {o'2
D D
(and
One
reaction.
an
important
of energy generation by nuclear fusion)

nuclei of deuterium (hydrogen 2) to
of the most famous
one
is
for
the
process
the reaction of
two
form a helium 3 nucleus and
a neutron '
?H
+ ?H
2He
i/i
+ 3.27 MeV
The 3.27 MeV represents the extra amount of kinetic energy, Q,

made available because the masses of the product particies (their
rest masses, to be precise) add up to a little less than the masses
of the initial particies; the total energy, including mass equivalents,
remains constant, of course.
Suppose now that a deuteron with a
What
strikes a stationary deuteron.
as viewed in the
CM
culate the velocity D.

10" 27
about3.34
frame?
is
kinetic energy of
MeV
the final state of affairs
(See Fig. 9-22.)
First, let
us cal-
The mass of a deuteron is about 2 amu, or

MeV = 1.6 X KT 13 J. Therekg. Now,
1
forc,
D,
- (HiJ
1.0
10
m/sec
'In this equation, the subscript before the letter for
number of protons and the superscript shows

and ?H both stand for a deuteron.
the
348
a given nucleus denotes

number of nucleons.
the total
Before
m,
m,
After
After
Fig.
9-22
(o)
Reac-
tion process, in which
the collision ofthe

particles
and
m,
m2
O'"
leads to the formation
oftwo
ticles,
(6)
different par-
m z and m,.
Same process as
CMframe.
seen in the
Laboratory frame
In
CM
In
(b)
(a)
m2 =
Since
In the
ffli
d i/2
m2
and
0.5
frame
is initially
at rest,
we have
10 7 m/sec
CM frame the deuterons have equal and opposite velocities
of magnitude equal to
Kinitial
Kfnitiai
= hKx =
Hence we have
C.
%miC 2 =
/HU>l
i.e.,
[We
MeV
0.5
see here a particular application of Eq. (9-30).
If
moving
object collides with a stationary one of equal mass, only half the
energy
initial kinetic
is
available for their relative motion in the
CM frame.]
Now
consider the result of the nuclear reaction.
total kinetic
=
=
Kfinal
energy i n the
Kinitiol
3.77
CM frame
3.27
MeV =
is
way
that the
momenta
m 4 and V4,
3v'j
respectively,
+
a
4
349
Inelastic
W4V4
10" ,3
final
He and
the neutron in such a
are numerically equal.
masses and velocities ofthe
The
given by
McV
6.03
partitioned between the
This
is
Denoting the
He and the neutron as m 3 and v'3 and
we have
,./
and cxplosivc processes
Then
= |m 3 (,'3)
Putting
and so
^(^)W
^+ W
m
3
I4) ,
, ,.2
>
amu and m 4
amu,
this gives us
2.3
thus have a
full
picture of the final situation as viewed
U4
We
W3( ffl3
(=
3!)
10 m/sec.
CM
frame for any specified direction 9 of the outgoing

neutron. To go back to the laboratory frame we have simply to
in the
add the
CM velocity v to each of the vectors V3 and v 4

great advantage of using the CM frame in this
.
The
that, regardless
of the
final
directions as specified
by
way
is
the
4,
magnitudes of V3 and v^ always have the same values, whereas in

the laboratory frame v 3 (and also v 4 ) has a different magnitude
for each direction. This
does not mean, however, that
desirable or necessary to
go into the
may
What
wish to answer the question:
emitted at some given direction
CM frame.
4 in
work
momenta
ft
directly
always
the speed of a neutron
the laboratory with respect
beam?
to the initial direction of a deuteron

easiest to
is
it is
For example, one
In such a case
from the equations
for energies
it is
and
as measured in the laboratory:
+ Q = *8 + K<
Pl
P3
(934)
P4
first equation Q represents the amount by which ATflnal

from Alitlah so that in the example we have just considered we have Q = +3.27 MeV. Q may be positive, negative,
(In the
differs
or zero; the
Note
last
of these represents an elastic collision.)
that Eq. (9-34) represents three independent equations
(one for kinetic energy, and two for

a two-dimensional problem).
In
momentum
treating
this as
the final state there are four
unknowns: a magnitude and a direction for each of the vectors

The situation is indeterminate unless we put in one
v 3 and v 4
more piece of information, as for example the direction of one of
.
the particles.
350
is
here taken to be a
known
quantity (as are
and p O, but one could deduce

ments of v 3 and V4.
WHAT
IS
it
from a complete
set
of measure-
A COLLISION?
We
are so used to associating the
abrupt, violent event that

results
it
may
word
"collision" with
some
be well to point out that the
we have developed can be applied to other,

The only essential features are these:
quite gentle
interactions.
1.
within
That the interaction
some
is
confined, for
all
limited interval of time, so that
it
practical purposes,
can be said to have
a beginning and an end.

2.
That over the duration of the
collision, the effect
of any
external forces can be ignored, so that the system behaves as
though
it
were isolated.
Figure 9-23 shows stroboscopic photographs of a collision
between two
mounted
in the
Fig.
frictionless
vertically
pucks carrying permanent magnets,
so as to repel each other. There
usual sense, but this
9-23
(a)
is
certainly
collision
"soft" collision, with no contact in the
permanent magnets.
(b)
The
identical
photographed by a camera moving with the
ofmass of the two objects. (From the PSSC

"Moving with the Center of Mass", by Herman R.
center
film,
Branson, Education Development Center Film Sudio,
Newton, Mass., 1965.)
(a)
351
Whal
(b)
is
a collision?
no contact
collision within the
ordinary sense, occurring between two objects (2:1 mass

ratio) carrying
is
meaning of the term. One can see that the velocities are
magnitude and direction except over the
physicist's
effectively constant in
limited region of close approach of the objects.
INTERACTING PARTICLES SUBJECT TO EXTERNAL FORCES

Having discussed the conservation of
linear
momentum, and the

momentum, we can
general relation of force to rate of change of
now
consider the motion of a system of interacting particles that
This
are not free of external influence.
of course, a very im-
is,
portant extension of our ideas, because in practice a system

never completely isolated from
It
look
will suffice to
tension to any
particles,
and
two-particle system.
The
ex-
particles is quite simple but will
Let
m, and
m2
by
particle 2,
and
f2
the force exerted
the force exerted
f i2
be
be the masses of the two
Fi and F 2 the external forces acting on them, and
particle
is
surroundings.
f 12 the internal interaction forces
particle
by
at a
number of
deferred to Chapter 14.
its
on
on
particle 2
I.
Newton's law of motion applied to the
particles individually
states that
Fi
F2
+
+
f21
fi2
=
=
/wi
-7-
(9-35)
t/v 2
nt2
7-
Newtonian, and we
If the interaetions are
case, then the third
fl2
Adding
f21
shall consider this the
law of Newton requires that
=
we then
the two equations (vectorially),
Fi
F 2 = mi
Fi
F2 =
+m
get
-j-
or
(mi vi
(9-36)
/n 2 v 2 )
and
f2
equation states that the resultant of
all
in
on
which the internal forces
f1 2
have disappeared. This
the external forces acting
the system equals the rate of change of the total veetor
mentum of
352
-at
the system.
mo-
We
can express
this result in another,
very compact
way by
introducing the concept of the center of mass of the system.
If
the individual positions of the two particles are given by the
drawn from some
vectors r! and ra,

center of mass
.
/rnri
m\
This
is
origin, the position of the
given by
is
+w
+
2r2
(g_ 37)
rri2
the three-dimensional analogue of (9-25) and corresponds
to the vector velocity of the center of
mass as already defined by
Eq. (9-33), so that
lVl
where
cordingly,
F,
and
/W2V2
= Mv
(= m\ +
we have
+ F2
2)
is
the total
mass of the system.
M^
di
= F =
Ac-
(9-38)
proves the result we are after:
this
The motion of the center of mass of a system of two particles is

the same as the motion of a single particle of mass equal to the
total
mass of the system acted on by the resultant of all the ex ternal

on the individual particles.
forces which act
The implications of
this
suggests that a fundamental
system of particles
is
of (1) the motion of
result are significant.
method
to analyze
its
center of
its
for treating the
saw
motion of the system,
earlier.
is
it
motion as the combination
mass and
particles relative to their center of mass.
internal
First,
motion of a
(2) the
The
motions of the
latter
motion, the
one of zero momentum, as we
Furthermore, Eq. (9-38) allows us to treat some
aspects of the motions of extended objects by the laws of dy-
namics
object
for a simple particle.
moves
In particular,
in translation, i.e.,
when there
is
when an extended
no motion of any
particle in the object relative to the center of mass, Eq. (9-38)

tells
the
whole story.
We
shall return to
such questions
in
Chap-
ter 14.
Incidentally, Eqs. (9-36)
and (9-38) also provide a
basis for
a criterion as to whether or not a system of colliding particles

effectively isolated.
lision process holds
The conservation of momentum

good only to the extent that the
external forces can be ignored.
If external
present, the duration A/ of the collision
353
forces
in
is
a col-
effect of
any
are indeed
must bc so short that
Intcracting particles subject to cxternal forces
the product
At
same condition
different
way of
stating this
that the forces of interaction between the
is
colliding particles
negligible.
is
must be much greater than any external forces
which may be acting.
THE PRESSURE OF A GAS

As our
we
transfers
on the
example of
last
processes and
collision
momentum
of a gas,
shall take the calculation of the pressure
basis that this
is
due
to the perfectly elastic collisions
of
the molecules of the gas with the atoms that comprise the wali
of the container.
We
of mass
makes
assume that the gas
shall
wi
is
made up
of n particles, each
P er urut volume. The most naive possible calculation
the following assumptions:
1.
Ali the particles have the
2.
The
them were,
particles
at
any
same speed,
instant, traveling parallel to a given direction
in space, with the other
two
thirds traveling parallel to
directions, perpendicular to each other
The gas
3.
is
v.
can be regarded as though one third of
and
two other
to the first direction.
in a rectangular container with perfectly flat,
hard walls.
None
The
first
container
of these assumptions
two are
we
shall
an
stands.
not flat and hard. Nevertheless, the calculamake, using these assumptions, comes very close to
with the huge number

is
it
the choice of a rectangular
sticky,
yielding the correct result.
there
in the least realistic as
very special, and on an atomic scale the walls are
is
knobbly and
tion
certainly
is
false,
essential
The reason
is
that, on the average,
of particles present in a sample of gas,
symmetry
in the
aggregate motion and an
effectively exact conservation of the total kinetic energy.
individual molecule
may
strike the wali, sit there
An
a short while,
a different angle with a different speed

perhaps faster, perhaps slower. But on the average, we may
treat the collisions as perfectly elastic because the kinetic energy
and jump
off again at
of the gas as a whole neither increases nor decreases with time.

On this basis, we make the following very simple calculation.
Consider an element of area

vessel (Fig. 9-24).
the normal to
AA
AA
in
one wali of the containing
Resolve the motions of the molecules so that

is one of the three mutually perpendicular
directions along which the molecules are
354
Collisions
and conservalion laws
assumed to move. Any
[ t>Af
Fig.
9-24 Simplest possible approach to calculating

of a gas. D uring a time At the elemen! of
can be reached only by molecules that lle
the pressure
AA
wali
AA
cylinder oflengtk v At.
inilially within the
one molecule approaches the wali with
momentum m Q v;
coils with
How many
all
it
momentum
molecules strike A A in a time Ali
of them have the same speed
from the wali cannot
v and re-
thus provides an impulse 2moU.
v,
If
we assume
arrive until after the time
Ar has elapsed.
our attention is limited to molecules within a cylinder of
Thus
cross section
AA and
unit volume.
Hence
length v A/.
number of molecules within
There are n molecules per
cylinder
nv Ar AA
But of these, only one sixth are moving, not just along a
perpendicular to AA, but specifically approaching
receding from
it.
impulse communicated
total
AA
line
instead of
This, then, gives us
AA
to AA
number of impacts with
But the average force

Ar.
that
molecules farther than d At
AF exerted
in A/
in
Ar
on AA
is
= \no At AA
= 2mov X 5/J0 A; AA
= $nmov 2 AtAA
the impulse divided by
Hence
AF =
The mean
wali, is
^nmov 2 AA
force per unit area, exerted normal to the containing
what we
call the pressure, p.
'
Thus we
arrive at the
result
P =
Since
^=
nm
density p,
nro
the total
is
we can
(9-39)
mass of gas per unit volume, which
is its
alternatively put
P = hpv
or
"
'In this section,
355
The
1/2
p always
(<M0)
refers to pressure, not
pressure of a gas
momentum.
Thus,
our calculation
if
is
we can
justified,
infer the speed of
the invisible molecules from perfectly straightforward measure-
ments of the bulk properties of the

ordinary atmospheric pressure and
Takung nitrogen
gas.
room temperature,
at
for ex-
ample, we have
p
p
10 5
N/m 2 =
1.15
kg/m 3
kg/m-sec 2
10
Therefore,
v
500 m/sec
How
is
defensible
Eq. (9-39)?
is
We
clearly called for.
more
careful calculation
have seen experimental evidence (Chap-
molecules of a gas at a given temperature have a
ter 3) that the
So the v 2
wide spread of speeds.
in
our formula should be
placed by some kind of an average squared speed, u
we could
much faith in
re-
And
calculation,
although
the rigorous
not,
place
the numerical factor 3

in fact.
it,
,.
on the strength of our own
certainly
theory confirms
An
acceptable treatment of the prob-
lem must investigate the consequences of having molecules

approaching the wali in quite arbitrary directions;
it is
accident that this does not change the result in detail.

if
we considered
the numbers of particles striking
only an
(It
would,
AA, instead of
Nevertheless, the simple analysis that
the force they exert.)
we
have presented gives us a remarkably useful beginning for the

understanding of bulk properties in microscopic terms.
since the detailed kinetic theory of gases
we
cern,
shall rest
is
And,
not our present con-
content with that.
THE NEUTRINO
At the beginning of
this chapter
we pointed out
servation law or conservation principle in physics
but that
then
its
if,
in
status
the face of apparent
may
failure,
it is
be greatly strengthened.
that any conis
provisional,
finally vindicated,
The most dramatic
success of the conservation laws of dynamics took place in
connection
with
the
neutrino
that
elusive,
emitted in the process of radioactive beta decay.
neutral
The
particle
prediction
stemmed from an apparent nonconservation of

energy and angular momentum, but perhaps the most beautiful
and direct dynamical evidence for it is furnished by the apparent
of
its
existence
nonconservation of linear
356
momentum.
Fig.
9-25
The
visible tracks
Evidence for the neutrino.
of the electron and
the recoiling lithium 6 nucleus in the
beta decay of helium 6 in a eloud-
chamber are not
[Front J.
collinear.
Csikai and A. Szalay, Soviet Physics
JETP,
8,
749 (1959).]
The
situation
can be simply stated as follows:
It is
known
that the process of beta decay involves the ejection of an electron
from a nucleus, as a result of which the nuclear charge goes up

by one unit (if the electron is an ordinary negative electron). If
no other particles were involved, the process could be written
A-B +
where
is
e~
the initial nucleus
effectively isolated,
momentum
and
and B the
final nucleus.
initially stationary,
If
were
our belief in linear
conservation would lead us to predict that, whatever
the direction (or energy) of the ejected electron, the nucleus
would
from
inevitably recoil in the opposite direction.

this,
regardless of
involvement of another
all
Any
other details, would
departure
demand
the
particle.
Figure 9-25 shows a cloud-chamber photograph of the beta
The decay takes place at the position of the

sharp knee near the top of the picture. The short stubby track
decay of helium
6.
pointing in a "northwesterly" direction
of lithium 6; the other track
another particle
the
neutrino
is
the recoiling nucleus
the electron.
if
the final
There must be
momentum
vectors
up to have the same resultant i.e., zero as the

stationary He nucleus. It fails to reveal itself because
are to add
initially
is
lack of charge, or of almost any other interaction, allows
its
escape unnoticed
only about
so
in 10
12
readily, in fact, that the
of
its
it
to
chance would be
interacting with any matter in passing
right through the earth.
PROBLEMS
9-1
particle
of mass m, traveling with vclocity vq, makes a com-
pletely inelastic collision with
357
Problcms
an
initially stationary particle
of mass
Make
M.
a graph of the final velocity o as a function of the ratio
m/ M from m/ M =
9-2
ball
how
Consider
bouncing
m/
to
M=
10.
momentum
conscrvation of linear
applies to a
off a wali.
is placed upon a
movements of the box over
the table? Just what maneuvers could the mouse make the box perform? If you were such a mouse, and your object were to elude
pursuers, would you prefer that the table have a large, small, or
9-3
mouse
put into a small closed box that
is
Could a
table.
clever
mouse
control the
negligible coefficient of friction?
9-4
In the Phncipia,
Newton mentions
one
that in
set of collision
experiments he found that the relative velocity of separation of two
was
objects of a certain kind of material
Suppose
velocity of approach.
mass 3wo, of
this material
traveling with
an
an
that
was struck by a similar object of mass

Find the
velocity Do-
initial
of their relative
five ninths
initially stationary object,
final velocities
of
2/wo,
of both
objects.
9-5
of mass mo, traveling at speed do. strikes a stationary
particle
mass 2mo. As a
particle of
through 45 and has a

tion of the particle of
result, the particle
final
mass
speed of uo/2.
of mass
mo
is
deflected
Find the speed and direc-
Was
2/wo after this collision.
kinetic energy
conserved ?
Two
9-6
skaters (A
and
B), both of
one another, each with a speed of
mass 70
m/sec.
kg, are approaching
carries a
bowling
ball
with a mass of 10 kg. Both skaters can toss the ball at 5 m/sec relative
to themselves.
forth
two
To avoid
when they
tosses,
i. e.,
are 10
collision they start tossing the ball
apart.
gets the ball
but they can throw twice as

the entire incident
on
the
is
initial
back?
fast,
about
weighs half as
much
If the ball
how many
back and
How
one toss enough?

tosses
do they need?
Plot
a time versus displacement graph, in which the
positions of the skaters are
of time
Is
marked along
the abseissa,
and
the advance
(Mark
and include the
represented by the increasing value of the ordinate.

positions of the skaters at
space-time record of the ball's motion
x =
in the
5 m,
diagram.) This situation
model of the present view of interaetions (repulsive,

An attractive
in the above examplc) between elementary particles.
exchange
supposing
that
the
skaters
interaetion can be simulated by
serves as a simple
a boomerang instead of a
ball.
sented by F. Reines and
J.
P.
[Thcse theorctical models were preF. Sellschop in
an
artiele entitled
"Neutrinos from the Atmosphere and Beyond," Sci. Am., 214, 40

(Fcb. 1966).]
9-7
Find the average recoil foree on a machine gun firing 240 rounds
if the mass of each bullet is 10 g and the muzzle
(shots) per minute,
velocity
358
is
900 m/sec.
9-8
Water emerges
in a vertical jet
from a nozzle mounted on one
end of a long horizontal metal tube, clamped at
enough
thin
The
to be rather flexible.
other end and
its
of 2.5
jet rises to a height
above the nozzle, and the
rate of water flow is 2 liter/min.
been previously found by
static
experiments that the nozzle
an amount proportional
mass of 10 g, hung upon it, causes
pressed vertically by
and that a
It
has
is
de-
to the applied force,
a depression of
cm.
How far is the nozzle depressed by the reaction force from the water jet ?
[This
problem
9-9
based on a demonstration experiment described by
is
Am.
E. F. Schrader,
"standard
784 (1965).]
J. Phys., 33,
fire
stream" employed by a city
70
on
ft
a building
whose base
fire
department
minute and can attain a height of
delivers 250 gallons of water per
63
is
ft
from the nozzle.
Neglecting
air resistance:
What
(a)
is
the nozzle velocity of the stream?
(b) If directed horizontally against a vertical wali,
what force
would the stream exert? (Assume that the water sprcads out over the
surface of the wali without any rebound, so that the collision is effectively inelastic.)
9-10
helicopter has a total
mass M.
Its
main rotor blade sweeps
out a circle of radius R, and air over this whole circular area
in
from above the rotor and driven
i>o-
The
vertically
is
pulled
downward with a speed
density of air is p.
(a) If the helicopter
hovers
at
some
what must be
fixed height,
the value of to?
One
(b)
of the largest helicopters of the type described above
weighs about 10 tons and has

thiscasc? Take p
9-11
1.3
rockct of initial mass
rate \dM/dt\
y.
and
^ 10 m.
kg/m 3
What
is
to for hovering in
Mo
ejects its burnt fuel at a constant
at a speed po relative to the rocket.
(a) Calculate the initial acceleration of the rocket if
upward from
vertically
(b) If vo
its
2000 m/sec,
how many
kilograms of
ejected per second to give such a rocket, of
upward
it
starts
launch pad.
acceleration equal to 0.5
mass 1000
fuel
tons,
must be
an
initial
g?
9-12 This rather complicated problem
is
designed to illustrate the
advantage that can be obtained by the use of multiple-stage instead

of single-stage rockets as launching vehicles.
load
(e.g.,
Suppose
rocket (see the figure).

the payload
is
Nm.
payload, after first-stagc burnout and separation,

stage the ratio of burnout
fuel) is r,
(a)
359
that the pay-
mass m and is mounted on a two-stage

The total mass both rockets fully fueled, plus
The mass of the second-stage rocket plus the
a space capsule) has
and
the exhaust speed
Show
Problem*
mass
that
(casing) to initial
is
nm.
In each
mass (casing plus
is vo-
the velocity
ij
gained from first-stage burn,
C
c
A>m
from
starting
ln
r /V
(b)
given by
is
A'
vi
(and ignoring gravity),
rest
+ (1 -
r).
Obtain a corresponding expression for the additional velocity,
from thc second-stage burn.

Adding u i and i>2, you have the payload velocity v in terms
of N, n, and r. Taking A' and r as constants, find the value of n for
which f is a maximum.
V2, gained
(c)
(d)
Show
value of
and
o,
scribed by r
maximum
that the condition for v to be a
to having equal gains of velocity in the

verify that
and
it
two
stages.
makes sense
corresponds
Find the
maximum
for the limiting cases de-
Find an expression for the payload velocity of a single-stage

same values of A', r, and vo-
(e)
rocket with the
Suppose that
(f)
it
is
desired to obtain a payload velocity of
km/sec and r
0.1.
that the job can be done with a two-stage rocket but
is
im-
10 km/sec, using rockets for which vo
Show
possible,
2.5
however large the value of N, with a
you are ambitious,

number of stages. It is
single-stage rocket.
an arbi-
try extending the analysis to
(g) If
trary
show that once again the

initial mass is obtained if the
possible to
greatest payload velocity for a given total
stages are so designcd that the velocity increment contributed
stage
is
by each
the same.
A block of mass m, initially at rest on a frictionless surface, is

bombarded by a succession of particles each of mass bm (<<C m) and
of initial speed t>o in the positive x direction. The collisions are perfectly elastic and each particle bounces back in the negative x direction.
9-13
Show
that the speed acquired by the block after the th particle has
struck
it
is
given very nearly by v
Consider the validity of
fluid
On
(b)
360
this
rebounded
model,
elastically
an object
is
fluid
traveling
(supposedly
struck by the object.

would vary as some power,
the value of n'!
Suppose that a flat-ended object of cross-sectional area
at speed v
through a
fluid
oo
when
the resistive force
What
2Sm/m.
as well as for an
resistive force for
n, of the speed o of the object.
moving
an
by supposing that the particles of the
initially stationary)
(a)
e" an ), wherea =
i>o(l
this result for
9-14 Newton calculated the

through a
of density
p.
By
is
picturing the fluid
as composed of n particles, each of mass m, per unit volume (such

that nm = p), obtain an explicit expression for the resistive force if
each particle that
struck by the object recoils elastically from
is
sphere of radius
r,
it.
of being flat-ended, were a massive
(c) If the object, instead
medium
traveling at speed v through a
of density
p,
what would the magnitude of the resistive force be? The whole calculation can be carried out from the standpoint of a frame attached
to the sphere, so that the fluid particles approach
it
with the velocity
-v. Assume that in this frame the fluid particles are reflected as by a
mirror angle of reflection equals angle of incidence (see the figure).
You must consider the surface of the sphere as divided up into circular
zones corresponding to small angular increments dd
possible valucs of
9-15
various
0.
particle of
particle of
at the
mass mi and
mass mi.
The
initial velocity
collision
that after the collision the particles
is
i strikes a stationary
perfectly elastic.
It is
have equal and opposite
observed
velocities.
Find
(a)
(b)
(c)
The
The
The
ratio 012/011.
velocity of the center of mass.

total kinetic energy of the
two
particles in the center
2
of mass frame expressed as a fraction of %m\Ui
(d)
9-16
The
mass
final kinetic
energy of 011 in the lab frame.
/1 collides with
a mass
Define relative velocity
012.
as the velocity of 011 observed in the rest frame of 0*2.
Show
the
equivalence of the following two statements

(1)
Total kinetic energy
(2)
The magnitude of
suggested that
(It is
is
conserved.
the relative velocity
you
unchanged.
is
solve the problem for a one-dimensional
collision, at least in the first instance.)
9-17
collision
pended so
appa ratus
is
made of a
with one another (see the figure).
f 2 mo,
first
of n graded masses sus-
and not quite in contact

mass is jmo, the second is
is
The
first
and so on, so that the last mass

struck by a particle of mass 010 traveling
the third
mass
set
that they are in a horizontal line
0!o,
hfma.
This produccs a succession of collisions along the line of masses.
361
Problem s
The
at a speed vo.
".
Om o6666666iifm
A
fm
Assuming that all the collisions are perfectly

mass flies off with a speed o given by
(a)
elastic,
show
that the last
i>o
/,
Hence show
(b)
written as
that, if
e (with e
is
close to unity, so that
<JC 1), this
virtually all the kinetic energy of the incident
even for large
mass to the
last one,
n.
For
/=
energy of the
last
(c)
can be
it
system can be used to transfer
0.9,
n =
20, calculate the mass, speed,
mass in the
line in terms
kinetic energy of the incident particle.
and
kinetic
of the mass, speed, and
Compare
this
with the result
of a direct collision between the incident mass and the
last
mass
in
the line.
9-18
2-kg and an 8-kg mass collide elastically, compressing a

bumper on one of them; the bumper returns to its original
length as the masses separate. Assume that the collision takes place
along a single line and that you can cause the collision to occur in
different ways, each having the same initial energy:
Case A: The 8-kg mass has 16 J of kinetic energy and hits the staspring
tionary 2-kg mass.
Case B: The 2-kg mass has 16
of kinetic energy and hits the sta-
tionary 8-kg mass.

(a)
Which way of causing
the collision to occur will result
the greater compression of the spring? Arrive at your choice without

actually solving for the compression of the spring.
(b)
16 J,
Keeping the condition of a
how
should
this
total initial kinetic
energy of
energy be divided between the two masses to
obtain the greatest possible compression of the spring?
9-19 In a certain road accident
(this is
based on an actual case) a car
of mass 2000 kg, traveling south, collided

section with a truck of
mass 6000
locked and skidded off the road along a
Southwest.
in the
middle of an
kg, traveling west.

line
The
inter-
vehicles
pointing almost exactly
witness claimed that the truck had entered the inter-
mph.
you believe the witness?
Whether or not you believe him, what
section at 50
(a)
(b)
362
Do
fraction of the total
was converted
kinetic energy
initial
forms of energy by
into other
thecollision?
9-20
nucleus
of mass 2m, traveling with a velocity u, collides
with a stationary nucleus of mass 10/w.
to be traveling with speed Pi at 90 to
and B
The
collision results in
its
is
a change
observed
original direction of motion,
traveling with speed Da at angle 8 (sin 6
is
After collision the nucleus
of the total kinetic energy.
3/5) to the original
direction of motion of A.
What
What
(a)
(b)
are the magnitudes of vi
and U2?
fraction of the initial kinetic energy
gained or lost
is
as a result of the interaction?
9-21
particle of
mass
with a particle of mass

the particle of mass
The
to /\/3.
m is
initial velocity
u collides
elastically
As a result of the collision

through 90 and its speed is reduced
deflected
particle of
mass
the original direction of m.

in the
and
initially at rest.
recoils with speed p at
(Ali speeds
and angles
an angle 6 to
are those observed
laboratory system.)
Find
(a)
in
terms of m, and v
in
terms of
Find also the
u.
angle 0.
At what angles are
(b)
the particles deflected in the center-of-
mass system?
Make measurements on
9-22
the stroboscopic photographs of a col-
lision of
two magnetized pucks
of linear
momentum and
three time units)
(first
(Fig. 9-23) to test the conservation
total kinetic
and
energy between the
initial state
the final state (last three time units).
mass 2m and of velocity u strikes a second particle

As a result of the collision, a particle of
mass m is produced which moves off at 45 with respect to the initial
direction of the incident particle. The other product of this rearrangement collision is a particle of mass 3m. Assuming that this collision
involves no significant change of total kinetic energy, calculate the
speed and direction of the particle of mass 3/w in the Lab and in the
9-23
particle of
2m
of mass
CM
initially at rest.
frame.
9-24 In a
historic piecc
of research, James Chadwick
a value for the mass of the neutron by studying
in
neutrons with nuclei of hydrogen and nitrogen.
fast
the
maximum
was
3.3
14 nuclei
does
10
was
this tell
(a)
(b)
recoil velocity of
hydrogen nuclei
maximum
m/sec, and that the

4.7
10
1932 obtained
elastic collisions
He found
of
that
(initially stationary)
recoil velocity of nitrogen
m/sec with an uncertainty of
10%. What
you about
The mass of a neutron ?

The initial velocity of the neutrons used?
(Take the uncertainty of the nitrogen measurement into account.
Take
363
the mass of an
Problems
nucleus as
amu and
the mass of a nitrogen 14
nucleus as 14 amu.)
9-25
cloud-chamber photograph showed an alpha particle of mass
4 amu with an
of 1.90
initial velocity
The
nucleus in the gas of the chamber.
10
m/sec colliding with a

changed the direction
collision
of motion of the alpha particle by 12 and reduced

10
m/sec. The other particle,
of 2.98
10
initially stationary,
its
speed to 1.18
acquired a velocity
m/sec at 18 with respect to the initial forward direcWhat was this second particle ? Was the
tion of the alpha particle.
fact that these
take account of the
results,
cloud-chamber measurements of speeds and angles are
subject to errors of
9-26
your
(In interpreting
collision elastic?
up
to a few percent.)
nuclear reactor has a moderator of graphite.
atoms of
nuclei in the
by
free to recoil if struck
fast
The carbon
can be regarded as
this crystal lattice
effectively
neutrons, although they cannot be
knocked out of place by thermal neutrons.
A fast
neutron, of kinetic
MeV, collides elastically with a stationary carbon 12 nucleus.

(a) What is the initial speed of each particle in the center of
energy
mass frame?
As measured
(b)
carbon nucleus
is
in the center-of-mass frame, the velocity of the
turned through 135 by the collision.
What
are the
speed and direction of the neutron as measured in the lab frame?
final
About how many
(c)
collisions,
elastic
involving
random
changes of direction, must a neutron make with carbon nuclei
mean energy
the
loss is
MeV
if its
keV? Assume that

midway between maximum and minimum
kinetic energy is to be reduced
from
to
values.
9-27
(a)
moving
mass
particle of
with a stationary particle of
mass
m <
collides perfectly elastically
M. Show
that the
maximum
possible angle through which the incident particle can be deflected is

-1 (/w/M). (Use of the vector diagrams of the collision in Lab and
sin
CM
systems will be found helpful.)
(b)
particle
stationary particle of
of mass
mass
collides perfectly elastically with a
M > m.
The
incident particle
through 90. At what angle d with the original direction of
more massive
9-28 The
is
text (p. 348) gives
an examplc of the analysis of the dynamics
Another possible reac-
the following:
?H
In
deflected
m does the
particle recoil?
of a nuclear reaction between two deuterons.

tion
is
fH
- !H + ]H +
this case the reaction
4.0
MeV
products are a proton and a triton (the latter
being the nucleus of the unstable isotope hydrogen 3 or tritium).
Suppose
that a stationary deuteron
of kinetic energy
364
Collisions
is
struck by an incident deuteron
MeV.
and conscrvation laws
What
(a)
(b)
maximum and minimum
are the
proton produced in
kinetic energy of the
What
is
maximum
the
angle (as observed in the laboratory)
make
that the direction of the triton can
incident deuteron?
oratory
when
is
it
What
is its
possible values of the
this reaction?
with the direction of the
kinetic energy as
emitted in this direction?
conveniently handled with the use of
measured in the lab-
(This problem can be
amu and MeV
as units through-
out.)
9-29
boat of mass
man
tionary; a
M and
m
of mass
length
is
at the
is sitting
floating in the water, sta-
bow.
The man stands up,
and sits down again.

assumed to offer no resistance
walks to the stern of the boat,

water
(a) If the
how
of the boat,
far
is
does the boat move as a
at all to
result of the
motion
man's
trip
from bow to stern?

(b)
More
realistically,
resistance given
Show
of the boat.
assume that the water offers a viscous

A: is a constant and o is the velocity
by kv, where
that in this case
one has the remarkable
the boat should eventually return to

(c)
its initial
result that
position.
Consider the paradox presented by the fact
that,
according
to (b), any nonzero value of k, however small, implies that the boat
ends up at
its
starting point, but a strictly zero value implies that
How
it
do you explain this discontinuous jump

in the final position when the variation of k can be imagined as continuous, down to zero? For enlightenment see the short and clear
ends up somewhere
analysis by
365
D.
Problcms
else.
Tilley.
Am.
J.
Phys., 35, 546 (1967).
Conservation of Energy as a principle
fundamental
role, the
quantum mechanics.
which
is
thefirst law
has played a
most fundamental as some would
say,
of classical physics, and since then
in the last half-century

in
Yet
it is
curiosity that this,
of thermodynamics, should have so
watered the stonier, the more austere terrain of
fruitfully
mechanics.
C. G. GILLISPIE,
It
may be
discussion
The Edge of Objedivity (1960)
thought strange that
of the foundations of mechanics sofar with
hardly a mention ofenergy.
desire to slight the significance
wished
is
to
we have brought our
indeed had no
of this concept, but have
emphasize that the logical foundation of mechanics
quite possible without
it.
why then should
This
what we wish to discuss.
it
The guestion at once
have been introduced at all?
arises:
is
We have
R. B.
LINDSAY AND H. MARGENAU,
Foundations of Physics (1936)
'
10
Energy conservation
in
dynamics; vibrational
motions
INTRODUCTION
of all the physical concepts, that of energy
is
perhaps the most
far-reaching. Everyone, whether a scientist or not, has an aware-
ness of energy and what
it
means. Energy
for in order to get things done.
the background, but
we
is
The word
what we have to pay

itself may remain in
recognize that each gallon of gasoline,
each Btu of heating gas, each kilowatt-hour of
electricity,
car battery, each calorie of food value, represents, in one

another, the wherewithal for doing what
not think
in
call
work.
terms of paying for force, or acceleration, or
Energy
tum.
we
is
each
way
or
We
do
momen-
the universal currency that exists in apparently
countless denominations;
and physical processes represent a
conversion from one denomination to another.
The above remarks do not really define energy. No matter.

worth recalling once more the opinion that H. A. Kramers
expressed: "The most important and most fruitful concepts are
It is
those to which
The
it is
impossible to attach a well-defined meaning."
immense value of energy as a concept lies in its

transformation. It is consewed that is the point. Although we
may not be able to define energy in general, that does not mean
clue to the
'See p. 62, where
cussion
ofi
we quoted Kramers' remark
in
connection with our dis-
the concept of time.
367
that
only a vague, qualitative idea.
it is
We have set
up quantita-
tive measures of various specific kinds of energy: gravitational,
which
situation has arisen in
peared,
And whenever
magnetic, elastic, kinetic, and so on.
electrical,
it
has always been possible to recognize and define a
it
seemed that energy had disap-
new
form of energy that permits us to save the conservation law. And

conservation laws, as we remarked at the beginning of Chapter 9,
represent one of the physicist's most powerful tools for organizing
his description of nature.
In this
book we
shall
be dealing only with the two main cate-
gories of energy that are relevant to classical mechanics
the
kinetic energy associated with the bodily motion of objects, and
the potential energy associated with elastic deformations, gravitational attractions, electrical interactions,
and the
like. If
energy
should be transferred from one or another of these forms into

Chemical energy, radiation, or the random molecular and atomic
motion we
lost.
This
restrict
then from the standpoint of mechanics
call heat,
is
a very important feature, because
it
means
it is
that, if
we
our attention to the purely mechanical aspects, the conis not binding; it must not be blindly assumed.
servation of energy
Nevertheless, as
we
shall see, there are
many
physical situations
for which the conservation of the total mechanical energy holds
good, and
in
such contexts
it is
of enormous value in the analysis
of physical problems.
It
is
an
interesting historical sidelight that in pursuing the
we are temporarily parting company with Newalthough not with what we may properly call Newtonian
subject of energy
ton,
mechanics.
In the whole of the Principia, with
its
awe-inspiring
elucidation of the dynamics of the universe, the concept of energy

is
never once used or even referred
was enough. But we shall see

rooted in
F =
ma, has
its
own
how
to!
'
For Newton,
special contributions to
shall begin with the quantitative
F = ma
the energy concept, although
make.
We
connection between work and
kinetic energy.
INTEGRALS OF MOTION
In Chapter 6
we
briefly presented the basic notion
of the work
'As we remarked in Chapter 9, however, some of Newton's contemporaries,

particularly Huygens and Leibnitz, did recognize the importance of an energylike quantity the "vis viva" mo 2 \a certain contexts, such as collisions and
pendulum motions.
368
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
done by a force acting on an
object,
producing a corresponding
We shall now return
increase in the kinetic energy of the object.
to this topic and develop
it
considerably further.
Let us again take, for a start, the simple and familiar case of
an object of mass m acted on by a constant force F (we shall begin
by assuming a straight-line motion for which vector symbols are
Then by Newton's law we have
unnecessary).
F =
= m do
dt
do
ma
di
Let the force act for a time
from Vi to v 2
Fl
during which the velocity changes
Then we have
= mal = m(o 2 -
(10-la)
ui)
This expresses the fact that the impulse of

of linear
momentum. But suppose we
distance over which
F is equal to
the change
multiply the force by the
instead of by the time. In this case
it acts,
we
obtain
Fx = max = ma
VI
+ V2
+u
m(ar)(Di
= im(v 2 -
2)
ui)(ui
Wl)
Therefore,
Fx = \mv2 2
00-2a)
J/wi 2
This expresses the fact that the work done by
change of kinetic energy.
We
is
equal to the
have no reason to declare a prefer-
ence between Eqs. (10-la) and (10-2a) as statements of the effect

of the force.
In fact, they will in general
But before amplifying that

restriction to constant force
sary.
last
tell
remark,
let
us different things.
us note that the
and constant acceleration
is
unneces-
For we have
F- m d
Multiplying by dt and integrating gives us
r 2
'2
F di = m
/;
do
= m(o 2 -
ci)
J Vl
Multiplying by dx and integrating gives us
369
Integrals of
motion
(10-lb)
'*%*
But
dv
dx
di
dt
rdx rdo = vav

Thus
*!
Fdx
The
vdv =
left-hand side of Eq. (10-1 b)
and the left-hand
side
work done by the
total
j((?2
is
the total impulse of the force,
of Eq. (10-2b)
force.
(10-2b)
Ci )
is
of course defined as the
Each of these integrals can be repre-
sented as the area under the appropriate graph of
F against
x between ccrtain limits (see Fig. 10-1).

The general similarity of Eqs. (10-lb) and (10-2b)
deceptive, because force, displacement,
quantities.
The
depends very much on
its
seen, a net force
momentum
is
velocity are vector
a given magnitude
it
acts.
Thus
in circular
motion, as
(also a vector) changes continuously, but the
situation
becomes
clear
if
we
return to the proper
dt
It is still possible to integrate directly
with respect to
10-1 (a) Force
Fig.
that varies linearly
with time.
The area
under the curve measures the total impulse.

(b)
The same force
plotted as afunction of
displacement.
The
area under the curve
measures the
total
work.
370
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
mag-
all.
vector statement of Newton's law:
F = m
however,
continually applied to an object, the
nitude of the velocity docs not change at
The
or
direction relative to the direction of
motion of the object on which
we have
and
result of applying a force of
is,
/:
dt = m(v2
The
vi)
left-hand side of the expression
is
an instruction that,
the
if
we must form the appropriate vector sum of all the small impulses F A/ applied in sucThat is exactly how
cessive time intervals At between t\ and / 2
Newton himself conceived the action of the varying force to which
direction of the force changes with time,
a planet, for example, finds
around the sun
orbit
itself
Chapter
(cf.
it
moves along
its
But what about integrating
the elements of distance along a path, where these elements
F over
(Ar) are themselves vectors? This
We
not a mathematical one.
applying a force at
some
is
essentially a physical question,
are asking:
What
the effect of
is
arbitrary direction to the motion of an
Figure 10-2 helps to supply the answer.
object?
is
exposed as
13).
applied at right angles to v for
a force F!
If
some very short time
At,
it
changes the direction of the velocity without appreciably changing

magnitude.
its
it
If
F2
a force
is
applied along the direction of
v,
changes the magnitude of v without changing the direction.
if we want to fix our attention on changes in the magnitude

we should restrict ourselves to forces or force components
along the direction of v. If the net force F acts at an angle d to v,
we have its component along v given by
Thus
of
v,
|F|
cos 6
where Av
10-2(c)].
is
|Av| cos d
At
the vector change in v, equal to
The element of
At/m
distance traveled during At
is
[cf.
Fig.
given by
Ar = vA/
Fig.
10-2 (a) Velocity change due to an impulse perpendicular to
v.
(b) Velocity
change due
to
an arbitrary
change due
to
an impulse parallel to
impulse.
371
Integrals of
motion
v.
(c) Velocity
by the
Hence the
definition of the vclocity vector.
ponent along
multiplicd by the displacement,
v,
The above
cos d
|F| [Ar|
|v|
we have suppressed
we use
com-
all reference
changing the direction of v and are
in
To
information about the magnitude only.

neatly
force
given by
|Av| cos 6
a scalar equation;
is
to the effect of
is
left
with
express this more
the notation of the "dot product" (or scalar product)
of two vectors
a b =
|a; |b|
In this notation,
cos e
= ab cos e
we have
F Ar = m(y Av)
But we can now play a neat (and valuable) trick. Consider the
quantity v v. This is a scalar, and its magnitude is just the square
of
|v|, i.e.,
o
v
we have, by
differentiation,
= Av
(This last step
is
A(u 2 )
vectors
i.e.,
Av =
2v
Av
possible because the scalar product of
indepcndent of the order
the commutative law holds.)

v
It
is
But since
simply.
in
two
which the factors come
Hence
Av = J A(u 2 )
follows that
we have
F-Ar = Jmift) 2 )
integrating over any path that the
So now,
lowed under the aetion of the
W=
2
F- Jt = lm(02
\
-'
force,
we
body may have
fol-
find the relation
- d')
(10-3)
r
i
which deseribes
in general
terms the relation between the work
change of kinetic energy.

Figure 10-3 illustrates what is involved in evaluating the
work integral of Eq. (10-3), in going from a point A (r0 to a
done and
point
372
the
(r 2) in
a two-dimcnsional displacement.
Enerev conservalion
in
dynamies
Fig.
10-3
tion
of work done
Calcula-
along a given path.
Equation (10-3) displays the most important property of
work and energy: They are

if it
were traveling horizontally
vector
An
scalar quantities.
moving
object
speed v has cxactly the same kinetic energy as
vertically with a
momentum would
at this
same speed, although
its
be quite different. This scalar property
of energy will be exp!oited repeatedly
in
our future work.
WORK, ENERGY, AND POWER

This chapter
conccrned with dcveloping some general
chiefly
is
dynamical methods based upon the concepts of work and mechanical energy.
The
methods will, however,
practical use of these
involve numerical measures of these quantities in terms of appro-
The purpose
priate units.
of this section
to introduce
is
some
of these units for future reference.
Our
unit of
1
If the
basic unit, already introduced in Chapter 6, will be the
work or energy
CGS
erg
N-m =
in the
dyn-cm
system
the joule:
kg-m 2 /sec 2
system of units
1
MKS
10
Before going any further,
is
-7
wc
uscd, the unit of energy
is
the erg:
shall introduce a
seeming diversion
the concept of power, defined as the rate of doing work:

power
dW
dt
(For a mechanical system, putting dW
v.)
Power
is
importance, because the time that
373
= F
t/r,
we have power =
concept (and a quantity) of great practical
Work, energy, and power
it
takes to perform
some
given
"
amount of work may be a

small electric motor
may
vital consideration.
For example, a
be just as capable of driving a hoist as a
big one (given, perhaps, a few extra gear wheels), but

quite unacceptable because the job
Power
far
essentially a practical engineering concept ;
is
be using
would take
it
it
may
be
too long.
we
shall not
our development of the principles of dynamics. But
in
one of our accepted measures of work is often expressed in terms

of a unit of power the watt. In terms of mechanical quantities,
W-sec =
J/sec
i.e.,
The most
familiar use of the watt
the relation watts

realize that
venient
it
volts
energy unit
lkWh =
3.6
it
is
through
important to
'
con-
domestic purposes (especially one's
for
10 J
and thermal calculations the Standard unit
Calorie, defined as the
ofwaterfrom
amperes, but
electrical,
the kilowatt-hour (kWh):
is
In chemical
of course,
not a specifically electrical quantity.
is
electricity bill)
is,
amount of energy required
the
is
to raise
kg
15 to 16C:
Cal = 4.2
10
:i
In atomic and nuclear physics, energy measurements are usually
expressed in terms of the electron volt (eV) or
keV
the
(10
3
),
MeV
leV =
and
),
GeV
(10
9
).
The
its
related units
electron volt
is
of energy required to raise one elementary charge
amount
through
(10
of electric potential difference:

1.6
10-
19
Finally, as Einstein first suggested
and as innumerable observa-
'The other familiar unit of power is of course the horsepower. About this
say only that 1 hp = 746 W, so that (as a very rough rule of thumb)
one can say that it takes about 1 kw to drive a 1 hp electric motor.
Most of the power levels of practical importance can be conveniently
6
W,
described using power units based on the wattmicrowatts (10
3
3
typical of very weak radio signals), milliwatts (10~ W), kilowatts (10 W),
and megawatts (10 W, useful as a unit in generating-plant specifications).
It is worth noticing, for comparison, that the sun's power output is about
we shall
3.8
374
X 10" W!
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
TABLE
10-1:
THE ENERGY OF THINGS
- - 10" J
Energy equivalenl of sun's mass
10"J
(fi
= mc')
Daily cncrgy oulpui of our galaxy
Kinelic energy of earth* orbital molion (relalive lo sun)
Daily energy oulpui of sun
- - io^J
Kinelic energy of moon's orbital motion (relalive lo earth)
Solar energy received per day on earth
- -
I0>J
World uscof cncrgy
in
1950 <I0 M J/y)
Kinelic energy of a eyelone
Daily energy oulput of Hoover Dam

Solar energy per day on 2 square miles
Burning of 7000 tons of coal

Energy released in complete
U 05
fission of
kg of
Energy equivalent (
m< *) of g of malter
Energy of explosion of I ton of TNT
I
- - I0"J
Energy conlenl of average
One
daily diet
kilowatt-hour
Kinelic energy of
rifle
bullet
I0M
Oneerg(IO-'J)
--io-"> J
Energy cquivalcnt (K
Energy produced by
Energy equivalent
(<')
of one atomic mass unil
fission (slow neutrons) of
("
i< *)
Average energy lo produce one ion pair
--io-j
Energy
lo
break a
DNA
molecule
Kinetic energy per molecule
one nueleus of
of one cleclron mass
ai
in
in air
- 35 e V)
two (-0.1 eV)
room temperature (0.025 eV)
Energy of a photon a I radio broadeast frequencies
--10--J
Kinetic energy of an electron moving al
m/sec
or Pu
tions have confirmed, there
is
an equivalence between what we
customarily call mass and what we customarily call energy.
In
classical
mcchanics thcsc arc trcated as entirely separate concepts,
but
perhaps worth quoting this equivalence here, so that we
it is
have our selection of energy measures

1
kg of mass
cquivalent to 9
is
For the sake of
10
we show
interest,
all in
16
one place:
in
Table 10-1 some repre-
sentative physical cxamplcs involving different orders of magni-
tude of energy,
all
expressed in terms of our basic mechanical
unit, the joule.
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY
Wc shall
begin with a simple and very familiar problem.
has been thrown vertically upward and

losing speed as
it
is
Let us take a y
goes higher.
An
moving under
object
gravity,
axis, positive
ward, and suppose that the object passes the horizontal
= yi
with velocity u
= y2
level
with velocity v 2
Thcn the purely kinematic deseription of the motion
(Fig. 10-4).
is
and reaches y
up-
given by
v2
m2 +
2a0> 2
.yi)
with
a- -g
leading to the familiar result
.2
V2
_
=
,,,2
2
v\
2g(yz
yi)
Now let us consider this in
terms of work and energy. The changc
of the kinetie energy (K) between
K2
K\ = Jmi>2 a
>>i
and y 2
Now
K\ =
mgiyz
the quantity
mg
given
by
\mv\ z
Using the preceding kinematic equation
K2
is
is
this
can be written
yi)
just the constant gravitational foree,
Remember, we have defined g as a positice number equal to ihe magnilude

of the local gravitational acceleration in any units that may be chosen.
376
Energy conservalion
in
dynamics
10-4
Fig.
-yt
u%
Velocity change associated with vertkal
motion under gramty.
on the object as it moves up from y\ to y 2 (see Fig.

Thus we see that the change of K is precisely equal to the
work donc by the gravitational force, in conformity with the
F, that acts
10-4).
general rcsult expressed by Eq. (10-3):
K2 - K =
x
We
F,0 2
- yi)
are going to rewrite this equation in a different way,
such that the quantities referring to the position y
on one
side,
and the quantities referring
at
first
y = y2
what may seem
to be a clumsy fashion, but the reason will quickly appear.
Our new statement of the
K2 +
(-Fy 2 )
rcsult is
-Xi +
What we have done

same valuc
at
two
(.-F yi)
here
matical statement in such a

the
y\ appear
to the position
We shall express the result in
appear on the other.
to deliberately frame the mathe-
is
way
(10-4)
that the
sum of two quantities has
different positions.
That
is
the formal basis
We define the potential
of the statement of conscrvation of cnergy.
energy U(y) at any given value of y through the cquation

l/GO
(thus
= -F,y
G0-5)
U =
y = 0). Notice particularly that U(y) is

work done by the gravitational force. Sub-
making
the negalive of the
at
'
stituting this definition of the potential energy into
we
Eq. (10-4)
thus gct
E = K2 + U2 =
where
is
tf ,
(10-6)
Ui
the total mechanical energy.
Putting
Fe mg
in
Eq. (10-5), we have the well-known result

/(/,)
= mgh
for an object at height h
above the ground (or other horizontal
level that is defined as the zero
'We
shall use the
symbol
is
for potential energy
widely uscd also, but
use t's (large
377
symbol
of potential energy). For this case
and small) to denote
we
shall avoid
velocities.
Gravitational potentiaJ energy
throughout
it
this
here because
book. The
we
so often
Fig.
10-5
Energy
diagram for vertical

motion above a horizontal surface.
the energy-conservation statement can be simply represented as

in Fig. 10-5.
We shall have more to say about such
graphs shortly.
undoubtedly be familiar with another way of interpreting a potential encrgy such as U(h) in the last equation. It
represents exactly the amount of work that we would have to do
You
will
in order to raise
an object through a distance
tational puli, without giving
it
h, against the gravi-
any kinetic energy.
In order to
achieve this, we must supply an exlernal force, Fext if this is

insignificantly greater than mg, the object will move upward with
negligibly small acceleration (F nct 0), thus arriving at some
;
higher level (Fig. 10-6) with almost zero velocity.
Fig.
10-6
If the object
Use ofan exterrtal
force to move an object in the

direction
of increasing gravita-
tionai potential energy.
bigger
'To make it even more precise, wc could apply a force just a shade
then
moving,
the
object
beginning,
to
get
the
brief
time
at
than mg for a
change to F t exactly equal to mg for most of the trip (the object thus continuing to move upward at constant velocity under zero net force), and
just before the
finally let F, become a shade less than mg for a brief time
point.
end, so that the object finishes up at rest at height /i above its starting
378
Energy conservation
in
clynamics
is
subsequently released, then the
tational force
work done on
by the gravi-
it
given to the object as kinetic energy (corre-
is
sponding to traveling from y
h to y
in Fig. 10-5).
Many
devices (pile drivers are a particularly clear example) operate in

precisely this way.
MORE ABOUT ONE-DIMENSIONAL SITUATIONS

Equation (10-6)
total
a compact statement of the conservation of
is
mechanical energy in any one-dimensional problem for which
the force acting on
an
object,
only on the object's position.
more
result
due to
To
derive this energy-conservation
Equating
K2 -
F(x)dx
this
work to
Ki
is
this
given by
we have
F(x)dx
but
The work done by
the change of kinetic energy,
(10-7)
In order to cast this into the
we
x.
moves from xi to x 2
any arbitrary way
in
has a unique value at any given value of
W=
environment supplies a
generally, suppose that the
force F(x) that varies with position
force as an object
environment, depends
its
form of a conservation statement,
introduce an arbitrary reference point
x and express
the
work
integral as follows:
r 'z
r*i
/
F(x)dx =
r 'i
F{x)dx-
Substituting this in Eq. (10-7),
K2 +
We
F(x) dx
\-J
F(x)dx
(10-8)
Jx
Jx
i,
we have
- Ki
+ -/
1
F(x) dx\
then define the potential energy U(x) at any point x by the
following equation:
U(x)
U(x
= -
F(x)dx
(10-9)
Jx
Notice once again the minus sign on the
right.
energy at a point, relative to the reference point,
379
More about one-dimensional
situations
is
The
potential
always defined
as the negatioe of the
work done by
the force as the object
from the reference point to the point considered.
U(x
the potential energy at the reference point
),
set equal to zero if
we
moves
The value of
can be
itself,
any actual problem we

of potential energy between
please, because in
are concerned only with differences
one point and another, and the associated changes of kinetic

energy.
we took
In obtaining Eq. (10-9)
the force as the primary
quantity and the potential energy as the secondary one.
Increas-
however, as one goes deeper into mechanics, potential
ingly,
and force becomes the derived

indeed, because by differentiation of both
energy takcs over the primary
quantity literally
so,
role,
sides of Eq. (10-9) with respect to x,
= -
F(x)
we
obtain
(10-10)
This inversion of the roles
not just a formal one (although
is
does prove to be valuable theoretically) for there are
it
many
energy differences
which one's only measurements are of

between two very distinct states, and in which
one has no
knowledge of the forces
physical situations in
direct
work function of a metal,
example, and
for
The
acting.
electronic
the dissociation
energy of a molecule, represent the only directly observable

quantities in these processes of removing a particle to infinity
from some
may
point
initial location.
not be
known
How
well
the force varies
perhaps not at
from point to
all.
We shall often be spelling out the kinetic energy K in terms

of m and v, so that the equation of energy conservation in one
dimension
$mv2
is
written as follows:
U(x)
= E
(10-11)
Suppose we choose any particular value of x. Then Eq. (10-11)

becomes a quadratic equation for v with two equal and opposite
roots:
D(x)
This
is
(^^)"
dO-12)
the expression of a familiar result, which
we can
discuss
an object were observed to

vertically
upward with speed v,
traveling
pass a certain point,
air
resistance
could be ignored)
then (to the approximation that
in terms of motion under gravity.
it
380
would be observed, a
little later,
Energy conservation
in
If
to pass the
dynamics
same
point, traveling
downward
at the
same speed
The
v.
direction of the velocity has
been reversed, but there has becn no loss or gain of kinetic energy.
In such a case the force
from Eq. (10-12) that
this result will hold as
unique function of x.
It
through any given point
same
at
it
It will certainly
direction of
long as U(x)
is
passes through that point again.
Under what conditions does

on the
can see
means that a particle, after passing

any speed, will be found to have the
kinetic energy every time
property?
We
said to be conseruatiue.
is
the force have this conservative
not be conservative if F(x) depends
motion of the object
which
to
it is
applied.
Consider, for example, the addition of a resistive force to the

gravitational force in the vertical
object goes
upward through a
motion of an
As
object.
the
on
certain point, the net force
it
(downward) is greater than F. After it reaches its highest point

and begins moving down, the net force on it (again downward)
is less than F. Hence the net negative work done on it as it rises is
numerically greater than the net positive work as
desccnds.
it
Thus on balance negative work has been done and
the kinetic
energy as the object passes back through the designated point

less
than
initially.
The
done by F(x) should be zero
ending at any given value of x\ only
is,
indeed, that the net
if this
can one define a potential-energy function.

equivalent condition
that
is
condition
is
In two- and three-
correct.
dimensional situations, howevcr, as we shall see

1),
the condition that
later
be a single-valued function of
The condition of zero
sary but not sufficient.
is satisfied
might seem that an
It
be a unique function of position.
In one-dimensional situations this
is
work
over any journey beginning and
crucial feature
closed path defines a conservative force in all
(Chapter
r is
neces-
work over any

circumstances and
net
should be remembered as a basic definition.
THE ENERGY METHOD FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTIONS

The use of energy diagrams, such as that of Fig. 10-5, provides
an excellent way of obtaining a complete, although pcrhaps qualitative, picture
of possible motions
in a
one-dimensional system.
Frequently the information so obtained suffices for obtaining

physical insight into situations for which analytic solutions are
complicated or even unobtainable.
In
fact,
even when analytic
solutions can be obtained in terms of unfamiliar functions, they
often are of
teristics
381
little
help
in
of the motion.
The energy meihocl
revealing the essential physical charac-
The general scheme
is
as follows:
for one-dimensional motions
We
i.
:<
Fig.
c6
10-7
-E,
X<f
Hypothetical energy diagram for a one-dimen-
sional system.
plot U(x) as a function of x,
and on the same plot draw horizontal

In Fig. 10-7
corresponding to different total energies.
lines
shown such a potential-energy curve and
is
several values of the
total energy.
The
kinetic energy
K of a
particle is equal to
(E
U),
i.e.,
to the vertical distance from one of the lines of constant energy

to the curve U(x) at any point x. For a low energy E u U(x) is
would simply imply a

value of v. Such a
hence
an
imaginary
and
negative value of K
although it must
mechanics
situation has no place in classical
greater than
for all values of x; this
not be discarded so lightly when one comes to atomic and nuclear

systems requiring the use of quantum mechanics. For a higher
E2
two regions, between x%

represent
two quite separate
These
and
x&.
and x 4 or between x 7
from
one region to the
situations, because a particle cannot escape
total energy
other as long as
seeing this
is,
the motion can occur in
its
energy
is
E 2 One way
held at the value
of
of course, in terms of the impossible negative value
K between x 4 and x 7
But there is another way which is valuhow

one "reads" such an energy diagram.
example
of
able as an
Suppose that our particle, with total energy 2 is at the
of
point
x = x3
point
is
at
some
Its potential
equal to the total energy, for this
of U(x) and the line
382
instant.
E = E 2 intersect.
Energy conservation
energy U(x 3 ) at this

is
Thus the
in dynami.cs
where the curve

particle
has zero
kinetic energy
and hence
there
on
is
a force
is
The
+x
force
direction.
on
rest.
However,
and hence F(x 3 ) is positive

Thus the particle accelerates to the
negative
and hence
it,
instantaneously at
it:
At x = x 3 dU/dx
in the
is
acceleration, decreases as the slope
its
of the U(x) curve decreases, falling to zero at the value of
which U(x)
is
i.e.,
right.
at
minimum. At this point the speed of the particle

maximum,
a
and as it moves further in the +x direction (with
d(J/dx
>
is
0)
now
it
diagram displays
approaches x 4
but there
kinetic energy
experiences a force in the
information before
all this
direction.
us,
and shows the
The
continuing to decrease as the particle
Finally, at
x4
itself,
the velocity has fallen to zero
-x direction. What happens? The particle picks up speed again, traveling to the left, until
it reaches x 3 with its velocity reduced to zero.
This whole cycle
is still
a force acting in the
of motion will continue to repeat

total
energy does not decrease.
motion, of which
we can
without solving a
energy diagram has to

is
discern
single
tell
as long as the
itself indefinitely
We
have, in short, a periodic
many
of the principal features
equationjust by seeing what the

us. The motion between x 7 and x 8
likewise periodic.
We can dispose
of the other possibilities more
indicated the method.
For a
still
higher energy
briefly,
E3
having
two kinds of
motion are possible; either a periodic motion between X2 and x 5

or the unbounded motion of a particle coming in from large
x s then slowing down and

x 6 moving ofT to the right and
the changes of speed on the way in. Finally, for
values of x, speeding up as
reversing
its
duplicating
the
still
it
passes
direction of motion at
all
larger energy
E4
the only possible motion
is
unbounded;
a particle coming in from large values of x, speeding up, slowing
down, speeding up, slowing down again, and reversing its direction of motion at x lt after which it proceeds inexorab!y in the
For each of these motions, the

speed at any point can be obtained graphically by measuring the
direction of ever-increasing x.
vertical distance
from the appropriate
the corresponding point
Caution:
It
line
of constant energy to
on the potential-energy curve.
The curve of U(x)
in Fig.
10-7
is
slopes and up the peak Iike a roller coaster.
383
almost too graphic.
tends to conjure up a picture of a particle sliding
The energy method
Do
down
the
not forget that
for one-dimensional motions
it is
The
a one-dimensional motion that

vertical scale
is
the subject of the analysis.
energy, and has nothing necessarily to
is
do
with altitude.
After this general introduction,
let
us consider
some
specific
examples of one-dimensional motions as analyzed by the energy

method.
SOME EXAMPLES OF THE ENERGY METHOD

Bouncing ball
Suppose that a
ball,
moving along a
peatedly on a horizontal floor. Let us

dissipation
(loss)
vertical line,
first
bounces
imagine that there
is
re-
no
of mechanical energy, so that this energy
remains constant at some value E.
We shall use>> to denote the

(CG) of the
ball,
and take y =
of the ball with the floor.
correspond to
is
0.
For y
We
>
by the
first
contaet
shall take this configuration to
the potential energy of the ball
given by
U(y)
= mgy
Now y =
Fig.
{y
does not,
>
in
0)
any
real physical situation, represent the
10-8 (a) Energy diagram for a ball bouncing ver-
lically.
wliicli
(b) Idealizalion
the impaet at
wlrich there is
384
U=
position of the center of gravity

to be defined
some
y =
of(a)
is
10 represent
a situation in
completely rigid bu t in
dissipation
Energy conservation
of energy at each bounce.
in
dynamics
lowest point rcached by the

exert any force
An
slightly.
on the
The
of the ball.
floor does not
(the floor) has been
it
compressed
made about the ball. Thus

region y < 0. As it does this,
equivalent remark can be
the ball certainly
however,
CG
ball until
moves
into the
experiences a positive (upward) force that increases
it
extremely rapidly as y becomes more negative, and completely
overwhelms the (negative) gravitational force that exists, of course,

at all values of y.
This large positive force gives
increase of U(y) with
for
<
rise to a
very
steep.
[see Fig. 10-8(a)].
For any given value of the
total energy, therefore, the ball
between positions y t and y-i as shown in the figure.

The motion is periodic that is, there is some well-defined time T
oscillates
between successive passages
the
in
same direction of the ball
through any given point.
Now
to
y2
might
in practice
For instance,
easily
y may be numerically very small compared

if a steel ball bounces on a glass plate, we
x
have y x of the order of 0.01 cm and y 2 of the order

many purposes we can approximate the plot of
of 10 cm. Thus for
<
U(y) against y for y
by a
vertical line, coinciding with the
energy axis of Fig. 10-8(a). This represents the physically unreal

property of perfect rigidity
an
arbitrarily large force is called
However,
into play for zero deformation.
use this approximation,
description of the situation.
and
is
we can
justifiably
The motion
is
confined to
>
defined by
i/w, 2
mgy =
The maximum height h

h
if
then we have a simple quantitative
(y>
is,
(10-13)
0)
of course, defined by putting vu
mg
To
0:
(10-14)
find the period
for the ball to travel
T of the
from y =
motion we can calculate the time

to
y = h and then double
it.
That is, we have the following relation
[a
2
J =0
dy
(10-15)
Vy
because the elementary contribution dt to the time of

equal to dy divided by the speed v y at any given point.
Now
385
from Eq. (10-13) we have
Some cxamples of the energy mcthod
flight is
OU
2(
- mgy) "'
m
*r
Taking the positive root, to correspond to upward motion, we

have, from Eq. (10-15),
r*
Ti/a
J
r=2/ Us-2
/o L2( - Oj
6-
g7o
m/ mg)-
y]
can simplify this by noting that /wg

height h [Eq. (10-14)]. Thus we have
We
r- J*'
/Wo
This
is
is
just the
maximum
(A->-) 1/2
an elementary integral (change the variable to w
y)
yielding the result
You
will,
of course, recognize the correctness of this result from
the simple kinematic problem of an object falling with constant
and could reasonably object that this is another

of those cases in which we have used a sledgehammer to kill a
fly. But it is the method that you should focus attention on, and
acceleration,
perhaps the use of a familiar example will
It
facilitate this.
should not be forgotten that most motions involve varying accelerations, so that the Standard kinematic formulas for motion with
constant acceleration
do not
But Eq. (10-15), in which v
apply.
any
is defined at any point by the energy equation, can be used for
numerically
if
one-dimensional motion and can be integrated
necessary.
Before leaving this example,
let
us use
it
other instructive feature of the energy diagram.
to illustrate
one
We know
that
the total mechanical energy of a bouncing ball does not in fact
Although there
stay constant but decreases quite rapidly.

little
loss of energy while the ball
loss at
each bounce.
is
is
in flight, there is a substantial
Figure 10-8(b) shows
how
this behavior
can be displayed on the energy diagram. Starting at the point A,

the history of the whole motion
arrows.
386
The
is
obtained by following the
successive decreases in the
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
maximum
height of
bounce, and the inevitable death of the motion at y
apparent by inspection of the
Mass on a
figure.
many
physical
systems not
chanical systems, but also atomic systems,
ones that can be analyzed by analogy

The reason
for this lies in
mass
analogues
0, are quite
spring
There are very
1.
two
just ordinary
and even
me-
electrical
with a mass on a spring.
features:
typifies the property of inertia,
which has
its
systems and which acts as a repository of
in diverse
kinetic energy.
2.
spring represents a
means of storing
potential energy
according to a particular law of force that has
its
counterparts
in all kinds of physical interactions.
We
have already studied
harmonic oscillator
of Newton's law, but
in
this
problem
the
problem of the
some detail (in Chapter7) as an application

well worth analyzing the problem again
it is
from the standpoint of energy conservation
in part as
an
illus-
method but chiefly because the description in terms

of energy opens the way to a far wider range of situations. Not
only does it provide a pattern for the handling of more complex
tration of this
problems in
oscillatory
classical
mechanics;
it
also supplies the
foundation for formulating equivalent problems in quantum

theory.
Our
starting point will again be the restoring force of
ideal spring as described
F = -kx
where x
is
(10-16)
the position of the free end of the spring relative to
relaxed position,
in
N/m, and
this
the negative sign gives the direction of the force,
0-
387
jo
F(x) exerted
Within the
extension x.
stored in the spring
U(x)
real spring
can be exprcssed by a graph such as Fig. 10-9(a),
which represents the force

its
No
law over more than a limited range. The propertics of a
real spring
of
its
k the "force constant" of the spring, measurable
opposite to the displacement of the free end.
obeys
an
by Hooke's law:
is,
linear
by the spring
as a function
range the potential energy
according to Eq. (10-9),
F{x)dx=
kxdx = '^-
Sonic cxamplcs of the energy melhod
(10-17)
Fig.
10-9 (a) Restor-
ing force versus dis-
placement for a
spring.
(b) Potential-
energy diagram associated with (a).

(c)
Graph ofapplied
force versus extension

in
a stalic deformalion
ofa
spring.
where wc havc chosen
U=
relaxed. Figure 10-9(b)
shows
x.
for
x =
0, i.e.,
this potential
when
the spring
is
energy plotted against
Since the potential-energy change can be calculated as the
work done by a
force
itself,
force
FCKl
just sufficient to
overcome the spring
the increase of potential energy in the spring for any
given increase of extension can be obtained as the area, between

given limits, under a graph of
Fcxt
against
[sec Fig. 10-9(c)].
F^t can be mcasurcd as the force needed to maintain the spring

at constant extension for various values of x. Outsidc the linear
region (whose boundaries arc indicated by dashed lines) F(x) can
be integrated graphically so as to obtain numerically the potential
388
Energy conservalion
in
dynamics
Fig.
10-10
Mechanical hysteresis.
energy for an arbitrary displacement.
we examine motion under
Before
consider briefly what
would happen
example were made of

Compression
spring from
much
very
its
this spring force,
it
let
us
the spring employcd in our
As we compress such a
lead, for example.
original length,
in the
in Fig. 10-10.
if
will exert a force that
behaves
way shown in Fig. 10-9(a) and by the line OQ

if we now remove the extcrnal agency,
However,
the spring will not return to
its
original length but will acquire a
permanent deformation represented by point x r

Clearly, such a spring exerts a force that
is
in Fig.
10-10.
not conservative.
The value of the force depends not only on the compression but
also on the past history. At the value x of the compression in
Fig. 10-10, we find two values of the force, one as the spring is
x
shortened and the other as

is
called hysteresis
Let us
now
and
it is
This type of behavior
released.
results in dissipation
consider in more detail the
of mechanical energy.
way
in
which the use of
the energy diagram helps us to analyze the straight-line motion of
energy
U=
\kx
shown the potential

and two different total ener-
In Fig. 10-11 are
a harmonic oscillator.
plotted against x,
Ei and E 2
For a given energy E\, as we have already discussed, tne
vertical distance from the horizontal line E x to the curve U =
gies,
%kx 2
Fig.
10-11
for
any value of a:
is
equal to the kinetic energy of the particle
Energy
diagram for a spring

that obeys
Hooke's
law.
389
Somc examplcs of the
energy method
This
at x.
maximum
is
and the
kinetic
at
x =
0; at this point all the energy
maximum
particle attains its
The
speed.
is
kinetic
energy and hence the particle speed decreases for positions on

either side of the equilibrium position
and
reduced to zero
is
x = .A\. For values of x to the right of +A x or

2
to the Ieft of A
(Ei U) becomes negative v is negative and
there exists no real value of v. This is the region into which the
particle never moves (at least in classical mechanics); thus the
at the points
i ,
positions
x =
are turning points of the motion, which
is
clearly oscillatory.
The amplitude A
energy E\.
x =
of the motion
Since the kinetic energy
is
determined by the total
Ki (=1
U)
is
zero at
Au we have
=
$kAi2
Ei
or
,1/2
- -
(10-18)
(fJ
For a larger energy,
the amplitude
larger in the ratio
is
(E2/E1) " 2 , but the qualitative features of the motion are the
same.
It
is
interesting to note that the general character of the
motion as inferred from the energy diagram would be the same for
any potential-energy curve that has a minimum at x
and
symmetrical about the vertical axis through this point.

tions of this sort are periodic but differ
All
is
mo-
one from the other
in
the dependence of speed on position and the de-
detail, e.g.,
pendence of the period on amplitude. Suppose that the period of

the motion
is
Then
T.
we can imagine
for
any symmetrical potential-energy
dia-
up into four equal portions, any one of which contains the essential information about
the motion. For suppose that, at t = 0, the particle is traveling
gram,
this time divided
x =
through the point
particle will
at
its
and u
have during
maximum
0. It
its
motion.
it is
At
positive displacement (x
then retraces
its
the positive
in
velocity at this instant be called v m
steps,
= T/4
(x
390
= A) and
T/4
at
it
goes to
= T
Energy conservation
is
its
its
the particle
is
+A
in Fig. 10-11),
after a further
rcaching*
time T/4 and passing through this point with v

further intervals
Let
direction.
the biggest velocity the
= vm
In
two
extreme negative displacement
once again passing through the point
in
dynarnics
Fig.
10-12
Sinus-
oidal variation
velocity with
of
timefor
a particle subjected to
a restoring force
proportional to dis-
placement.
The mo-
tion during the first
quarter-period suffices
of
to define the rest

the curve.
x = O with v = v m This sequence will repeat itself indefinitely.

Furthermore, knowing the symmetry of the problem, we could
construct the complete graph of v against t from a detailed graph
.
for the
first
quarter-period alone (see Fig. 10-12, in which the
basic quarter period is
drawn with a heavier line than the rest).

we shall go beyond this rather general
In the next section
examination of the mass-spring system, including nonlinear

restoring forces,
that,
and
shall redevelop the rest of the detailed
apply to the ideal harmonic oscillator. Before doing
results that
however, we shall consider one more simple example that
illustrates the usefulness
of the energy method.
Dynamics of a catapult
The catapult is an ancient and
effective device for launching stones
or other missiles with quite high velocities, by converting the

potential energy of a stretched elastic cord into the kinetic energy
of a mass.
n Fig. 10-13(a)
we show
the essentials of the arrange-
Fig. 10-13 (a) Initial
and final
f the
stages o
launching of an object
by a
catapult,
(b) In-
termediale state,
showing the instantaneous force acting.
391
Somc examples of
the energy
method
An
ment.
of natural (unstretched) length 2/
elastic cord,
attached to fixed supports at the points
An
/ ).
mass
object of
is
and drawn back to point

travels along the line
flight
with speed
A and
(A C
is
= CD =
placed at the midpoint of the cord
B.
BC, and
When
it
is
released, the object
at the point
it
begins
its
free
o.
Let us assume that the cord develops a tension proportional

to
its
increase of length.
Then we can use Eq. (10-17)
when
the stored energy
the mass
is
to calculate
at the initial position, B.-
Remembering that there arc two segments of cord, each of initial

and stretched length l we have
/
length
x ,
U=
i*(/i
/o)
Wi -
2
/o)
In the idealization that the cord has negligible mass and thus
does not drain off any of the elastic energy for
we can
its
own
motion,
equate the final kinetic energy of the projectile to the
initial potential
\mv* =
energy as given above. Thus
/o) 2
(/i
/c(/i
we have
and so
,1/2
-(S)
/o)
This example displays particularly well the advantage of
making the
calculation with the help of the scalar quantity, energy,
instead of the vector quantity, force.

calculate the final velocity of the
F =
For suppose we wanted
mass by
to
direct application of
we should have to
when the mass
= I. The tensuch
that
AP
was at some point P between B and C
/ ), and the instansion in each half of the cord would be k(l
ma. Then, as indicated
in Fig. 10-1 3(b),
consider the state of affairs at an arbitrary instant
taneous acceleration
would be obtained by resolving these

BC:
tension forces along the line
m^- = Fx =
2k(l
/o) cos d
at
This equation for do/dt would then have to be integrated
B and C. Or, alternatively, we could calculate

work done by the varying force Fx along the path BC. In
between the points

the total
either case, this
is
a far harder road to the final result than
direct application of conservation of mechanical energy.
392
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
is
the
THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR BY THE ENERGY METHOD

We
now
shall
return to the analysis of the oscillatory motion of
an object attached to a spring that obeys Hooke's law.
The
mass on a spring with a restoring
basic energy equation for a
forcc proportional to displaccmcnt
/w 2
where
is
is
\kx 2 =
(10-19)
some constant value of the
Since v
total energy.
dx/dt, this can be rcwritten as
hm
(4j?\
= E
**2
(!0-20)
Equation (10-19) already gives us v as a function of

have a
full
we must
description of the motion
x (and hence
so as to obtain
Our way
v) as functions of
r.
of dealing with Eq. (10-20) will appeal to the
knowledge of trigonometric functions and

one develops
x, but to
solve Eq. (10-20)
at
their derivatives that
an early stage of any calculus course.
We
start
out by dividing the equation throughout by E. Then we get

ni
(dx\
We
k_
2E\dt/
2E
notice that this
x2
is
(10-21)
sum
of two terms involving the square of
a variable (x) and the square of
The sum
is
equal to
its
derivative (with respect to
Now we can
t).
relate this to a very familiar
relationship involving trigonometric functions: If 5
sin
/>,
then
ds
and
s2
cos2
<p
sin2
p =
(10-22)
Equations (10-21) and (10-22) are exactly similar
must be able
to
2E\dt)
in
form!
match them, term by term:
W/
2
The second of
393
these
The harmonic
is satisfied
by putting
oscillator by the energy
meihod
We
X =
What
'">-*>
(t)""' - (t)"'***
We can
is ^s?
find
it
by evaluating dx/dt by differentiation
of both sides of Eq. (10-24) with respect to
= /2EV
dx
dip
cos-
\k)
dt
But the
equation of (10-23)
first
* m (2g\V **
\m/
dt
Comparing
d(f>
these
condition on
that
by putting
U*
m (2\
\m)
QM
two expressions for dx/dt we
Y"
is
is satisfied
find the following
<p:
= (*
J
dt
\m/
where w
t:
- u
(10-25)
the angular velocity (also called the circular frequency)
we met
in
problem (Ch.
our previous solution of the harmonic oscillator
7, p.
226), starting from
F=
ma.
Integrating the last equation with respect to
(p
where
wt
<po is
we thus
get
ipo
the
initial
Substituting this expression for
phase.
)
we note that (2E/k) u2 is equal to the amplitude A of the motion

[Eq. (10-18)] we arrive finally at the same equation for x(t) that
we found in Chapter 7 [Eq. (7-42)].
[If you have some prior knowledge of differential equations,
you may regard our method of solution above as being rather
If
cumbersome. You may
prefer to proceed at
once to the recogni-
tion that Eq. (10-20) leads to the relationship
(I)
f)'
and hence
to the following solution by direct integration:
2.1/2
,2 X)
di'"* 4 ~
dx
394
Energy conscrvation
in
clynamics
dx
,dt
ut
(4
(po
x2)I/2
-1
= A
and so x
sin
sin (ut
-J
as before.]
<p
Equations (10-25) and (10-26)
tell
us something very remark-
able indeed: The period of a harmonic oscillalor, as typified
mass on a
spring,
is
lude ofthe motion
a result that
is
not true of periodic oscillations
under any other force law. The physical consequences of
We depend
this are
heavily
on the use of vibrat-
ing systems. If the frequency v (defined as the
number of complete
tremendously important.
oscillations per second,
i.e.,
l/7"or u/2v) varied significantly with
would become
the amplitude for a given system, the situation

vastly
more complicated. Yet most
some approximation, as harmonic

described above.
SMALL OSCILLATIONS
IN
but
if
in
which an object
It is at rest at
it
to
its
in
is
what we
under
some point
displaced in any direction
tending to return
it
oscillators with properties as
GENERAL
stable equi1ibrium.
force
vibrating systems behave, to
Let us see why.
There are many situations
it
original position.
some
experiences a force
Such a
negligible displacement) will
shown
marked as x
variation with position

resting position
force, unless
is
in
.
Fig.
10-14
offorce with
10-14(a).
The normal
This force function can be inte-
(a) Variadis-
placement on either
side
of the equilibrium
position in
a one-
dimensional system.
(o) Potential-energy
curve associated
with (a).
395
Small oscillations
in
have the kind of
grated to give the potential-cnergy graph of Fig. 10-14(b).
tion
call
no net
has pathological properties (such as a discontinuous jump
value for
Fig.
by a
complelely independen! ofthe energy or ampli-
in general
One
UU)
Fig.
10-15
Potential-energy curve ofFig. 10-14(b)
referred to cm origin located at the equilibrium position.
can then form a mental picture of the object

as
were, of the potential-energy hollow, the
it
bottom,
sitting at the
minimum
of which
x = x
Now wc can fit any curve with a polynomial expansion. Let
us do this with the potential-energy funetion but let us do it
by putting
with reference to a new origin chosen at the point x
is
at
x = xo
from equilibrium.
5 is the displacement
where
energy curve,
now appearing
The
potential-
as in Fig. 10-15, can be fitted by
the following expansion
+ as +
= U
U(s)
ic 2 s
%c 3 s 3
(10-27)
(The numerical faetors are inserted for a reason that
will
appear
almost immediately.)
The
foree as a funetion of s
= _
is
obtained from the general rela-
tion
so that
we have
= Cl
F(s)
However, by
Now, whatever
will
= C2S
F(s)
css
0,
at 5
0; this
is
and so our equation for
the equilibrium
F becomes
(10-28)
C3S 2
the relative values of the constants c 2
less
than the term in
Czs/ci, which can be
small enough.
all
and
for the ratio of the two
as small as
we
c 3 , there
it
will
0)
be
we can be
some very
is
in s
is
equal to
please by choosing s
similar argument applies, even
the higher terms in the expansion.
having c 2
tions
5,
made
tential-energy funetion has
more
strongly,
Hence, unless our po-
special properties (such as
sure that for sufficicntly small oscilla-
just like the potential-energy funetion of a spring
that obeys Hookc's law.
396
always be a rangc of values of s for which the term
much
to
definition, F(s)
Hence c
position.
C2S
We
can write
Energy conservation in dynamics
U(s)
%c 2s 2
( 0-29)
which means that the
effective spring constant
equal to the constant c 2
of
We
A;
for the
motion
is
shall discuss a specific application
molecular vibration later in this chapter.
this analysis
THE LINEAR OSCILLATOR AS A TW0-B0DY PROBLEM

So far,
in all
our discussions of potential energy, we have analyzed

we had a single object exposed to given
the problems as though

forces.
A statement of our calculation on an object near the earth's
surface could well be in the form: The polen tial energy ofan object
of mass
the
raised to
a height h above the earth's surface
is
a statement is perfectly legitimate for situations in
Such
mass of a
particle
is
very small
object (or objects) with which
of mass of the system
the larger mass.
mass
is
its
it
effectively
mass of the
the
such a case, the center
determined by the position of
frame of reference anchored to
this larger
both a zero-momentum frame and a fixed frame of
ence. This
near
is
compared to
interacts. In
is
the case for the earth
surface.
any two objects
It
if
is
mgh.
which
refer-
and an ordinary object moving
also the case for interactions between
one of them
is
rigidly attached to the earth.
one
is
analyzing a two-body system (the earth and the object which
is
One must remember, however,

raised):
mgh
is
that, strictly speaking,
the increase of potential energy of the system
the separation between the earth
increased by an
amount
h.
and the object of mass
when
n other words, the potential energy
a property of the two objects jointly ;
one or the other individually.
If
it
is
is
cannot be associated with
one has two interacting
particles
of comparable mass, both will accelerate and gain or lose kinetic
energy as a result of the interaction between them.

basic
now
It is
to this
two-body aspect of the potential-energy problem that we

turn.
Suppose that we have two
particles, of
connected by a spring of negligible mass

axis (Fig. 10-16).
masses
m, and
m2
aligned parallel to the
Let the particles be at positions x t and x 2 as

,
shown, referred to some origin O. If the spring is effectively

massless, the forces on it at its two ends must be equal and opposite
(otherwise
it
would have
infinite acceleration)
and hence,
accepting the equality of action and reaction in the contacts
between the masses and the spring, the forces exerted on the
masses are also equal and oppositc.
397
The
linear oscillator as
Thus, denoting the force
a two-body problem
c
Fig.
10-16
System
"h
F, 2
Wom 700
of two masses con-
/i/l/t
nected by a spring,
i
showing ihe separale

coordinates
and
forces.
exerted on mass 2 by the spring as
mass
by the spring
We
equal to
is
shall relate the
2,
F 12
the force
F2
exerted on
changes in kinetic energy of the masses
in stored potential
to the changes
-Vs
.i
'i
energy in the spring.
The potential energy of the spring

First,
suppose that
The work done by
dW =
moves a
the spring
Fi2dx2
F2 1 dx\
Fi2(dx2
dx\)
Fi 2
d(,X2
Clearly the difference
distance dx\ while
is
m 2 moves dx 2
given by
(sinceF2i
= Fia)
Xl)
x2 x x
rather than
x x and x 2
separately,
defines the elongation of the spring (and hence the energy stored
in
it).
Let us introduce a special coordinate,
= X2
r,
to denote this:
x\
Then
dW = F 12 dr
The change of
(work done by spring)
(10-30)
potential energy of the spring is equal to
dU = (r)=
dW.
we have
Introducing the potential energy function U(r)

F12 dr
F12 dr
(10-31)
The kinetic energy of the masses
Our
discussion of
that
we should introduce
refer the
as
398
two-body systems
in
Chapter 9 suggests clearly
the ccntcr of
mass of the system and

it.
This allows us,
in the
CM frame with-
motions of the individual masses to
we have
seen, to consider the
Energy conscrvalion
in
dynamics
dynamics
By Eq.
out reference to the motion of the system as a whole.
we have
(9-29)
= K'
where K'
v[
two masses
as
measured
frame. Denoting the velocities relative to the
CM
by
and u'2 as usual, we have
= imivf
K'
We
K'
the total kinetic energy of the
is
CM
in the
A/5 2
+ \mv
(10-32)
have seen (pp. 338-339) that
it is
very convenient to express
terms of the relative velocity, v and the reduced mass,
in
of the two
Vr
V2
f'l
m\m2
M =
From
the definition of the
mio'i
Using
m
,
y.,
particles:
this,
CM
(zero-momentum) frame, we have
/2^2
together with the equation for v T ,

w2
v,T
U
;
;
m\
f
02
2
find
mi
n\2
we
"'i
"r
"i2
Substituting these values into Eq. (10-32) one arrives once again
at the result expressed
by Eq. (9-30a):
r.JJHLl-i
2mi +
Pr*
00-33)
shall be considering the
changes of kinetic energy of the
n\2
We
masses as related to the work done on them by the spring.

the assumption that
const., in
no external forces are
acting,
On
we have B =
which case
dK = dK'
The motions
At
this point
we can assemble
the foregoing results and equate
the change of kinetic energy to the
evaluated
dW [in
although, as
only
399
The
work done by the
we saw (and could have
onxa Xi,
spring.
We
Eq. (10-30)] in terms of laboratory coordinates,
which
is
predicted), the result
equal to x'2
linear oscillator as a
x[
depends
both being equal
two-body problem
to the relative coordinate
dK =
We
dK'.
we have
just seen,
can, in fact, put
= F\zdr
dK'
Likewise, as
r.
(work done by spring)
Integrating,
K'
Fl2 dr +
And now,
const.
with the help of Eq. (10-31), we can write this as a
statement of the total mechanical energy E' in the
K'
For the
U(r)
CM frame:
E'
(10-34)
specific case
of a spring of spring constant k and natural
length r
we can
U(s)
$ks2
put
s
Also
dr
ds
Thus the equation of conservation of energy
[Eq.
(10-34)]
becomes
J* (f)
+ito8-i?
00-35)
where
M =
This
is
mim-2
mi
+ m2
exactly of the
angular frequcncy
-It is
($)"*
form of the
w and
r-
its
period
linear oscillator equation;
T are
given by
(,
*(?r
to be noted that the reduced
mass
/x is
less
one of the masses
is
- 36)
than either of the
individual masses, so that for a given spring the period

free oscillation than if
its
clamped
is
shorter i n
tight.
COLLISION PROCESSES INVOLVING ENERGY STORAGE

With the help of
400
the analysis developed in the last section,
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
we can
gain further insight into certain inelastic or explosive collisions
of the type discussed in Chapter
We
9.
problem by imagining a
shall introduce the
chanical gadget that could be constructed without
little
much
me-
trouble.
The gadget is a spring equipped with a buffer that slides along a

guide and becomes lockcd iri place if the spring is compressed by
more than a
object of
For
amount
certain
mass
and
that an object of
simplicity, let us take
mi approach
If Mi
will
is
it
Suppose that
10-17(a)].
[see Fig.
(assumed to be of negligible mass)
this device
mass
is
attached to an
collides with
to be initially stationary,
and
it.
let
with a speed i.
small, the collision
be compressed a
is
The spring
perfectly elastic.
when m^
little
strikes
it,
but
it
will return
and at this instant the colThroughout the time that the
to its original unstretched condition,
comes to an end.
lision process
spring
is
at all
compressed, the mass
and
tive force to the right
is
2 is
subjected to an accelera-
subjected to a decelerative force
amount of work is done onm 2

and an equal amount of negative work is done on m\. The total
kinetic energy is the same after the collision as beforehand, but
to the
it
left.
certain positive
has been reapportioned.

If ui
the
is
increased, the situation
maximum compression
At
locking position.
to one another,
is finally
mi and
this instant
and because the spring
them apart again,
reached in which
of the spring just brings
is
+m
the way they remain. In other words,

move on as a single composite object of
collision has suddenly become completely
this
is
the
inelastic.
Fig.
10-17
(a) Collision
energy-storage device.
inooking one object with an
(b)
Same collision
of-mass frame. The collision
is elastic if
netic energy in this frame is less than the
to compress the spring
401
to the
prevented from pushing
they would continue to
mass mi
it
are at rest relative
by the
crilical
in the center-
the total ki-
work needed
amount.
Collision processes involving energy storage
What
changes from
frame the masses have a
CM
collision
We can most easily discuss this
elastic to inelastic?
from the standpoint of the

section)
which the
defines the critical condition at
frame
total kinetic
10-17(b)].
[Fig.
energy given
(cf.
In this
the previous
by
2
K' =
ivu>T
with
m\
vT
we denote the initial

as Ku we can put
If
mi
= "i
(because uz
0)
n\2
kinetic energy of
Lab frame
in the
m2
at the critical value of K x all the energy K' is used up in

compressing the spring to the Iocking position; this requires a
Now
amount of work equal to the energy,

spring in this configuration. Thus we can put
well-defined
the
K'
K, =
stored in
f/o
or
+ m2
_ mi
(10_ 37)
Uq
n\2
If
is
given, the
above equation defines
at which inelastic collisions
become
a threshold value
ofKu
and below which
possible
the collisions can only be elastic.

If
in
we
consider
then returns to that

reextension
velocity
it
and a
pushes
is
compressed beyond
critical length
Ku
higher values of
still
which the spring
and
and
we
stops.
2 apart, giving
kinetic energy of relative
obtain situations
Iocking point but
its
During
them a
motion
this partial
final relative
in the
CM frame.
The collision is still inelastic but only partially so. A well-defined

amount (C/ ) of the originally kinetic energy of the colliding
masses has been locked up
in the spring,
collision can be analyzed in these terms.
and the dynamics of the
Our
of inelastic and explosive collisions was,
analysis in Chapter 9
in fact,
made
precisely
way. The quantity Q, representing the value of K/ that we introduced there (p. 347) is in this case simply equal to
in this
-t/-
402
Energy conservation
jn
dynamics
purely classical dynamical situation described above
The
is
by many collision processes in atomic and

in which an incident particle (e.g., an electron
closely paralleled
nuclear physics,
or a proton) strikes a stationary target particle that has various

sharply defined states of higher internal energy than
"ground
The sharpness and
state."
understood
teristic states is
that
is
we
need here
is
in
normal
its
discreteness of these charac-
terms of quantum theory, but
the knowledge of their existence.
If
all
a study
the distribution of kinetic energies of the electrons or
made of
protons after they have collided with target particles of a given
about the excited energy
species, the results give information
Some examples of this
levels involved.
kind of analysis are
shown
The higher the bombarding energy of the incident

particle, the larger the number of excited states that can be stimFigure 10-18(a) shows data
ulated and detected in this way.
from the scattering of electrons by helium atoms, and Fig.
10 18(b) shows some results for the scattering of protons by the
in Fig. 10-18.
nucleus boron 10.
massive that the available kinetic energy

insignificantly different
and one must use Eq. (10-37) to
effect
so
(K')
is
that perfectly elastic collisions
may
In the
considerable
energy
difference between
and the
these atomic or nuclear scattering processes

is
is
infer the excitation
from the threshold value of Ki> One important

ones
CM
the
in
from the electron energy K\.
however, the center-of-mass
case,
latter
is
In the former case the target particle
still
classical
occur, with a
certain probability, even after the threshold energy for inelastic
processes has been exceeded.

feature of
This
an example of the general
is
quantum mechanics that one only has relative probawhen several outcomes are possible.
of events
bilities
return briefly to the classical situations once again, one
To
can of course imagine mechanisms that would provide for an

increase rather than a decrease of kinetic energy as the result of a
One
collision.
could, for example, have a spring already
pressed that would be released
by the
initial
impact.
if
com-
a trip mechanism were activated
an explosive collision
Such a process
would, like the inelastic collision with energy storage, require a

certain
minimum
comparable to
threshold energy to
this
require the firing of a detonator. It
experiment
toy pistol)
in
is
make
go.
Something very
is
possible to
do a
quantitative
which a simple percussion cap (as used
mounted on a mass
that
is free
nated by the impact of an incident object
403
it
happens with chemical explosive systems that
to recoil,
(e.g.,
in a child's
and
on an
Collision processes involving energy storage
is
deto-
air track).
180
190
Scattered electron energy,
e'
a)
">B<0.72
MeV)
Elastic scattering peak
">B(0)
w B*(2.15MeV)
C(0)
"B*(1.74 MeV)
250
Relative proton
momentum,
~
300
nJll
.350
units of Br
(b)
Fig.
Experimental resulls on elastic and inelastic collision proshowing Ihe production of characteristic excited states ofsharply
10-18
cesses,
defined energy: (a) Scattering of electrons by neutral helium atoms.
[AfterL. C. Van Alta, Phys. Rev., 38, 876 (1931).] (b) Scattering of
Some carbon was also present as an
protons by nuclei of boron 10.
unavoidable contaminant. [After C. K. Bockelman, C. P. Browne,
W. W. Buechner, and A. Sperdmo, Phys. Rcv., 92, 665 (1953).]
404
Energy conservation
in dynainics
kinetic energy required under these conditions
The threshold
significantly greater
than
if
the
cap
is
mounted on an unyielding
is
support.
THE DIATOMIC MOLECULE
The diatomic molecule, as

or Cl 2
typified
by such molecules as HC1
a system to which the methods developed in this chapter
is
can be very effectively applied.
In such molecules, the atomic
nuclei play the role of point masses (which of course they are to
an extremely good approximation, being so tiny
in
comparison
to an atomic diameter) and the outer clectron structure of the
atoms plays the role of a spring system that can store potential
energy.
We
thus have the physical basis for characteristic vibra-
tions of the nuclei along the line joining them,
possible mode
of internal
the oscillations as such,
and
this will
be a
motion of the molecule. Before discussing
we must considcr
the shape
and energy
scale of the potential energy curve for a molecule of this type.
We
there
is
begin with the knowledge that in a diatomic molecule

a fairly well defined distance betwecn the nuclei of the
two atoms.
order of
This
is
called the
angstrom (10
-10
bond length and
m).
The
fact that
is
always of the
such an equilibrium
distance exists implies that the potential-energy function U(r)
minimum at the separation r equal to the bond length.

One way of defining such a potential, while still leaving plenty
of room for empirical adjustment of the constants to experihas a
mental data,
U(r)
is
to
assume the following potential-energy function:
d_ *
where A and
(10-38)
are positivc constants, and a and b are suitably
chosen positive exponents with a

positive potential energy that falls
>
b.
away
distance and represents a rcpulsive force.
The term A/r"
is
rapidly with increasing
The term
- B/r6
is
negative potential energy, also falling off with increasing r but less
rapidly than the
first
term, and
it
represents an attractive force.
These funetions, and the U(r) curve obtained by adding them,

are
shown
Now
The
but
it
in Fig.
10-19.
from Eq. (10-38) we can define the equilibrium
remainder of this chapter can be omitled without loss of continuity,

does introduce some quile interesting fcatures in addition to the atomic
physics as such.
405
dis-
Fig. 10-19
Simple
model oflhe potentialenergy diagram
ofa
dialomic molecule,
defining an eguilib-
rium separation ro of
the nuclei.
tance;
At
it is
the distance at which
dU
aA
dr
f<>+\
bB
ro-
0:
bB
'
(10-39)
fi + 1
(10-40)
"
experimentally known, this defines one connection between
the parameters A, B,
energy
we have
aA
If r o is
dU/dr
is
a,
and
b.
Also, at r
the potential
given by
and substituting for A/r
from Eq. (10-40),
this gives
--(-l)
The energy U(r
) is
a measurable quantity, for
dissociate the molecule completely
we must add
energy, the dissociation energy D, equal

(cf. Fig. 10-19).
406
It is
typically a few eV.
Energy conservaiion
in
dynamics
if
we are
to
a quantity of
and opposite to U(r

Thus we can put
3H)
(10-41)
Equations (10-40) and (10-41) can be used to narrow

the choice of parameters
we
have
we must
Clearly, however,
unknowns.
further, independent information, or

tions, or both, to
down
two equations and four

either appeal to
make some
specific
some
assump-
have a quantitatively defined situation.
The molecular spring constant

The quantity we
really
need to know,
sidering molecular vibrations,
is
for the
purpose of con-
the effective spring constant of
the molecule for small displacements from equilibrium.
We
dis-
cussed this situation in general terms earlier in this chapter
and arrived
(p. 395),
t/(s)
at the result [Eq. (10-29)]
\C2S 2
where
s
The constant
ro
can be
c2
identified with spring constant
be deduced from the given form of
k and can
U (r):
*-(3L-(3)L
Applying
sides of
this to the present
problem, we shall differentiate both
Eq. (10-39) with respect
d U _ a(a+\)A
dr2 ~
r o+2
b(b
to r:
\)B
UW"J
r 6+2
This Iooks complicated, but for the particular value r
we can reduce
it
to
(d V\
one term with the help of Eq. (10-40):
a+
bB
_ 6(AJ+
\)B
Therefore,
This
407
still
looks rather forbidding, but
if
you compare Eq. (10-44)
with Eq. (10-41) you will see that the equation for the dissociation
energy
taking
D contains a very similar

D as known we can greatly
value of k, as follows.
(a
b)B
From
combination of factors, and

simplify our statement of the
Eq. (10-41)
we have
= aD
ro"
Substituting this result in Eq. (10-44)
we
find
= abD
(10-45a)
ro 2
Beyond this point we cannot go, even with a knowledge of

and r without assigning a value to the product ab which can
,
a single adjustable parameter, so that
be taken to play the role of
we content
oursclves with a final semiempirical equation:
C-
where
is
Fig.
10-20
(10-45b)
r 2
an empirical constant (=ab) greater than unity.

Empirical potential-energy diagram for the
molecule HCI, based on the Morse potential, with energies expressed in
408
wave numbers (cm~ ').
Energy conscrvaiion
in
dynamics
Actually a quite different analytic form of the potential

function finds favor with spectroscopists.
Morse
M.
potential (after P.
features as the one
Morse).
we have used
It
It
known
is
(see Fig. 10-20)
but
difference of exponentials rather than of simple
Like the one
we have
used,
it
as the
has the same general

is
based on a
powers of
r.
has adjustable constants that can be

Indeed, once the theory of
deduced from spectroscopic data.

molecular vibrations has been
one uses observations to
set up,
feed back the numerical values into the theoretical formulas.
a two-way
It is
traffic,
in other
-1
(cm ) on the ordinate of

back to them shortly.
units
Notice the unfamiliar
words.
Fig. 10-20;
we
shall
be coming
The molecular vibrations
The period of
vibration of a diatomic molecule with atoms of
masses /i and
is
given by combining Eqs. (10-36) and
(10-45b):
T=2xr (&)'
(--)
where/i
(10-46)
reduced mass
in vibrations
= m\m%l(jn\
+ m2
).
The frequency
v,
per second, proves to be a more interesting quantity:
-UT
Let us see what this equation might suggest with an actual mole-
We
cule.
shall take
carbon monoxide (CO) for which the follow-
ing data apply:
/m( l2 C) = 12amu =
m2(
lc
O) = 16amu =
2.7
A-
1.1
X lO-^m
D
First
10- 2C kg
-26
10
kg
X
X
1.1
lOeV =
2.0
1.6
K)
-18
we have
_m1 m3_
/Mi +- M2
12
ô
x 2? x
_
]0
20kg _
16
_2 o
1()
kg
'These values come from a tabulation of molecular constants in the

Smithsonian Physical Tables (published by the Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, D.C.)
409
Tlic diatomic molecule
Therefore,
DI
1.4
y.
10 8
m 2 /sec 2
whence
j-
If
X lO^C'^sec-
1.7
we ignored
the factor
*1.7X
1'
we would have
10 13 sec-'
Since molecular vibrations are studied mainly through spectros-
copy and the measurement of wavelengths of absorbed or emitted

radiation, let us calculate the wavelength X corresponding to v:
The
7
visible
10
-7
spectrum extends from about 4.5
That
is
mental vibrational line of
We
-7
to
we have calculated would be well

exactly where we find the spectral lines
associated with molecular vibrations.
-6
10
m, so the wavelength
into the infrared.
10
CO
Actually there
is
a funda-
with a wavelength of about 4.7
m about one quarter of the value we have just calculated.
would have obtained

This value of
Eq. (10-47).
having a
5 and b
this
value by putting
C" 2 =
in
could correspond, for example, to
3 in the original expression for
U(r)
This specific form of potential would result from

repulsive
force varying as l/r, and a longer-range
a short-range
4
We should emphasize, however,
attractive force varying as l/r
[Eq. (10-38)].
that our
model of the potential
is
a very crude one and should not
be regarded as a source of precise information about intramolecular forces. Our purpose in introducing it is simply to illustrate
the general way in which vibrations about an equilibrium configuration can be analyzed.
There
with
is
it, is
a feature
is
this is that
that we
vital feature
The energy of a quantum of the radiation

Planck's constant) and is provided by a transition
quantized.
hv (where h
is
between two sharply defined energy

hv
have ignored;
molecular vibration, and the radiation associated
states of the molecule:
= Ex - E2
(10-48)
We shall not go into this here, except to point out that the smallest
possible
410
jump between
successive vibrational energy levels does,
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
as
happens, correspond exactly to the classical oscillator
it
quency we have calculated.
It is
the basic
process, as expressed in Eq. (10-48), that
quantum nature of the

makes the frequency v
rather than the wavelength X the important quantity.
however, spectroscopists measure wavelengths
and since
simply.
custom of
To convert this to an equiva-
measurement we must use the
lent energy
Since,
in the first instance,
v is inversely proportional to X, there is a
giving results in terms of X
fre-
relation,
applying
further,
and used
any photon, that
to
E=
hv
= hc\~
This scheme of units has been extended
still
spectroscopy as a measure of energies generally, whether or
in
not photon emission
the dissociation energy
D=
cm- =
1
36,300
Using the above

J-sec,
we have
D=
For example,
involved.
is
HC1
of
3.63
relation,
is
10 6
and
in Fig.
10-20,
given as
m"
substituting h
6.62
10- 34
in this case
(6.62
10 8 )(3.63
10)
0,
10- "J
7.2
4.5
particle
10" 34 )(3
eV (approx.)
PROBLEMS
10
F whose
value at
becoming zero
at
of mass m, at
/
=
t =
rest at
10-2
What
T.
is
An
object of
mass
kg
is
subjected to a force
linearly with time,
the kinetic energy of the particle
acted on by a force that varies with
the position of the object as shown.

at the point
x = 50
is
= r?
at t
41
Fq and which decreases
is
m?
Problems
x =
0,
what
is
its
If the object starts out
speed (a) at x
from
rest
25 m, and (b) at
10-3
(a)
force
particle of
mass m,
which increases
F and
acted upon by a
initially at rest, is
F=
linearly with time:
Deduce
Cl.
the
and graph your
the particle's position x,
result.
(b)
How
initial velocity
10-4
is
the graph of
altered if the particle has
made
use of the "mechanical
versus
uo?
(a) Since antiquity
man
has
advantage" of simple machines, defined as the ratio of the load that

is
to
be raised to the applied force that can raise
work-energy relation
dW =
t/s,
it.
and appealing
By analyzing
the
to conservation of
energy, give a reasoned definition of "mechanical advantage."

(b) In terms of
your
definition, calculate the particular
"me-
chanical advantage" offered by each of the devices shown.
Radius b
10-5
(a)
The Stanford
linear accelerator
("SLAC")
of approximately 200
to electrons at the rate
IceV/ft.
delivers energy
How
does this
compare to the energy per unit length imparted to electrons by a

cathode-ray tube? By a television tube?
(b) The effects of relativity are extremely pronounced in this
examplc
that
is
(after
2 miles of travel, the electrons in

_7
within 10
that of light).
How
SLAC attain a
far
velocity
would the electrons
travel in attaining the speed of light if their kinetic energy were given
by the
classical value
10-6
while
it
railroad car
travels
which the coal
412
KE =
is
mo 2 ?
loaded with 20 tons of coal in a time of 2 sec
through a distance of 10
is
dischargcd.
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
beneath a hopper from
(a)
What average
this loading process to
extra force must be applied to the car during
keep
(b)
How much work
(c)
What
moving
it
10-7
car
between (b) and
(c).
being driven along a straight road at constant speed
is
passenger in the car hurls a ball straight ahead so that
his
hand with
(a)
is
Of
on what
A common
at a given rate
answers in
the road?
(a) to the
Satisfy yourself that
car.
forces are acting
10-8
objects, over
work done by
the passenger
you understand exactly what
what
distances.
device for measuring the power output of an engine
of revolution
is
known
as an absorption dynamometer.
small friction brake, called a Prony brake,
is
clamped
to the output
shaft of the engine (as shown), allowing the shaft to rotate,
held in position by a spring scale a
(a)
v.
leaves
the gain of energy of the ball as measured in the
(b) Relate the
and by the
it
a speed u relatiue to him.
What
reference frame of the car?
constant speed?
the increase in kinetic energy of the coal?
is
(d) Explain the discrepancy
at
does this force perform?
known
distance
and
is
away.
Derive an expression for the horsepower of the engine in
terms of the quantities R,
and
03
arm
R as the torque exerted
(the force recordcd at the spring scale),
(the angular velocity of the shaft).
(b)
You
will recognize the
product of the force
F times
its
lever
by the engine. Does your relation between
torque and horsepower agree with the data published for automobile
engines? Explain
10-9
An
why
electric
measures 30 by 20
pump
ft
may
there
and
is
be discrepancies.
used to empty a flooded basemcnt which
is
collected water to a depth of
In a rainstorm, the basement
15 ft high.
4 ft.
(a)
Find the work necessary to
(b)
Supposing that the
pump
the water out to ground
level.
50% efficiency, how

(c) If the
of 15
ft,
Problems
driven by a 1-hp motor with
depth of basement below ground werc 50
how much work would
a 4-ft flood?
413
pump was
Iong did the operation take?

ft
instead
be required of the pump, again for
Look up the current world records for shot put, discus,

and javelin. The masses of these objects are 7.15, 2.0, and 0.8 kg,
respectively. Ignoring air resistance, calculate the minimum possible
10-10
(a)
kinetic energy imparted to each
of these objects to achieve these
record throws.
(b)
What
force, exertcd over a distance of
2 m, would be
re-
quired to impart these energies?

(c)
Do
you think that the answers imply that
air resistance
imposes a serious limitation in any of these events?

10-11
down an ascending escalator, so as

same vertical level. Does the motor driving
do more work than if the man were not there?
perverse traveler walks
to remain always at the
the escalator have to

Analyze the dynamics of this situation as
10-12 The Great Pyramid of Gizeh when

lost a certain
amount of
its
length 230
block of stone of density about 2500
What
erected
(it
has since
m.
kg/m 3
high
It is effectively a solid
gravitational potential energy of the
the total
is
first
outermost layer) was about 150
and had a square base of edge

(a)
you can.
fully as
pyramid, taking as zero the potential energy of the stone at ground

level?
(b) Assume that a slave employed in the construction of the
pyramid had a food intake of about 1500Cal/day and that about
10% of this energy was available as useful work. How many man-days
would have been required, at a minimum, to construct the pyramid?

(The Greek historian Herodotus reported that the job involved
100,000
10-13
men and
It is
took 20 years.
If so,
it
was not very
claimed that a rocket would
less
chute
model
in
it
had been allowed to
see the
figure.
To
slide
a greater height if,

were ignited at a lower
rise to
instead of being ignited at ground level (A),

level (B) after
efficient.)
it
from
rest
down
a friction-
analyze this claim, consider a simplified
which the body of the rocket
is
represented by a mass
M,
the fuel is represented by a mass m, and the chemical energy released

in the burning of the fuel is represented by a compressed spring be-
tween
M and m which stores a
sufficient to eject
414
Energy
definite
amount of potential
suddenly with a velocity
corrservation. in
dynamics
relative to
energy, U,
M.
(This
corresponds to instantaneous burning and ejection of

i.e.,
the fuel
Assuming a value of g independent of height, calculate

rise if fired directly upward from rest at A.
Let B be at a distance h vertically lower than A, and suppose
(a)
how
all
an explosion.) Then proceed as follows:

high the rocket would
(b)
that the rocket
What
is
fired at
is
after sliding
the velocity of the rocket at
leased? just after the spring
To what
(c)
is
down
the frictionless chute.
just before the spring is re-
released?
height above
higher than the earlier case?
will the rocket rise
now?
Is this
By how much?
Remembering energy conservation, can you answer a

claimed that someone had been cheated of some energy?
(e) If you are ambitious, consider a more realistic case in which
the ejection of the fuel is spread out over some appreciable time.
Assume a constant rate of ejection during this time.
(d)
skeptic
10-14
who
neutral
What
vacuum.
hydrogen atom
is
electron oolts at the

number = 6
10 23
10-15
from
rest
bottom?
(1
eV =
1.6
through 100
in
kinetic energy in
its
10 -19
Avogadro's
J.
.)
spring exerts a restoring force given by
= -kiX-
F(x)
where x
falls
the order of magnitude of
is
k 2 x*
the deviation from
its
unstretched length.
The spring
rests
and a frictionless block of mass m and initial

velocity v hits a spike on the end of the spring and sticks (see the
figure). How far does the mass travel, after being impaled, before it
comes to rest? (Assume that the mass of the spring is negligible.)
on
a frictionless surface,
10-16
particle
moves along the x

is as shown in the
function of position
figure.
sketch of the force F(x) as a function of

curve.
415
Indicate
Problcms
on your graph
Its potential
axis.
Make
energy as a
a careful freehand
for this potential-energy
significant features
and
relationships.
M and
/0-77
rically
ovcr a frictionless horizontal peg of radius R.
uniform rope of mass
length
is
draped symmetthcn dis-
It is
turbed slightly and begins to slide off the peg. Find the speed of the
rope at the instant it leaves the peg completely.
10-18
Two
(a)
m,
masses are connected by a massless spring as shown.
Find the minimum downward force that must be exerted
on m\ such
that the entire assembly will barely leave the table
this force is
suddenly removed.
(b)
Consider
problem
this
when
in the time-reversed situation:
Let
the assembly bc supported abovc the table by supports attached tonil.

Lower the system until m z barely touches the table and then release
/M2
How
the supports.
knowledge of
(c)
tuilion
by
m\ drop
far will
this distance help
Now
that
(1) letting
you have
mz
you
bcfore coming to a stop?
solve the original
the answer, check
be zero and (2) letting
it
Does
problem?
against your
mi be zero.
in-
Espccially
common
in the second case, does the theoretical answer agree with your
sense? If not, discuss possible sources of error.
10-19
particle
moves
in a
region where the potential energy
is
given by
U(x)
(a)
3x 2
- x3
What
is
the
maximum
is
value of the total mechanical energy
possible?
In what range(s) of values of x
in the positive
10-20
J)
x.
such that oscillatory motion

(c)
U in
Sketch a freehand graph of the potential for both positive
and negative values of

(b)
(x in m,
is
the force
on
the particle
direetion ?
A highly elastic
ball (e.g.,
a "Superball")
is
released
from
rest
a distance // above the ground and bounces up and down. With each
bounce a fraelion /of its kinetic energy just before the bounce is lost.
Estimate the length of time the ball will continue to bounce
and / =
rtf.
10-21 The
elastic
cord of the catapult shown in the diagram has a

its ends are attached to fixed supports a
total relaxed length of 2/
distance 2b apart.
416
if
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
Show
(a)
that if the tcnsion developed in the cord
tional to the increase in
direction
its
length, the
is
propor-
component of force in the x
is
= 2kb \-}n -
-r-sr
\sin 6
sin
cos
O/
Noting that the position of the stone in the catapult is

cot 6, derive the expression for the work done in
(b)
x = b
given by
moving a distance
to find the total
dx. Then integrate this expression between do and 9

work done in extending the catapult and compare
with the result that
is
obtainable directly by considering the energy
stored in the strctched cord (p. 392). (After carrying out the calculation
that
prescribed above, you will better appreciate the advantages
way
in the
may come from
the use of energy conservation instead of a
work
integral that involves the force explicitly.)
10-22
which
What
the ball
(Take y
tion of height y.
(b)
dropped upon
r is
ky.
a graph of the potential energy of the ball as a func-
Make
(a)
M and radius
exerts a force proportional to the distance
F=
of deformation,
when
mass
perfectly rigid ball of
a deformable floor
is
as the undisturbed floor
simply resting on the floor?
is
level.)
the equilibrium position of the center of the ball
(Note that
minimum of the potential-energy curve.)

increased
By how much is the period of
this corre-
sponds to the
(c)
over
its
period
of bouncing on a perfectly rigid floor?
10-23
at time f
newtons
x =
at position
acts
m=
of mass
particle
2 kg on a
0.
on the particle from
to
(a) Plot the resulting acceleration
as functions of
= Otot =
(b)
10-24
What
is
frictionless table is at rest
force of magnitude
t
Fx =
a x , velocity o and position
in this period.
the total
work done by
the force during the period
sec?
spring of negligible mass exerts a restoring force given
F(x)
sin(ir/)
2 sec.
= -kix
by
k 2x 2
(a) Calculate the potential energy stored in the spring for
Take
displacement x.
(b)
It is
stored energy
at
x =
found that the stored energy for x
for x = +b. What
is
0.
ki
in terms
of
= b
Ari
is
twice the
and bt
(c)
Sketch the potential-energy diagram for the spring as defined
(d)
The spring
in (b).
end
fixed.
mass
in the positive
417
Problems
lies
on a smooth horizontal surface, with one

the other end and sets out at x =
2
with kinetic energy equal to k ib' /2. How
m is attached to
direction
fast is
it
moving
(e)
x = +6?
at
What
are the values of
at the
of oscillation? [Use your graph from part

10-25
An
extreme ends of (he range

(c) for this.]
mass m, moving from the region of negative x,

it experiences a
x =
with speed vo. For x >
object of
arrives at the point
force given by
= -ax 2
F(x)
How far
+x axis
along the
does
it
get?
10-26 The potential energy of a particle of mass
m as
a function of
(The discontinuous jumps in

the value of U are not physically realistic but may be assumed to
approximate a real situation.) Calculate the period of one complete
its
position along the
oscillation
if
x axis
is
as shown.
the particle has a total mechanical energy
equal to
3l/o/2.
2t/
10-27 Consider an object of mass
'h,
m constrained to travel on the x axis
(perhaps by a frictionless guide wire or frictionless tracks), atlached

to a spring of relaxed length /o and spring constant k which has its
other end fixed at
i.
(a)
Show
x =
0,
(see the figure).
that the force exerted
on
in the
direction
is
~- kx -( l+
$)
[
l
(b)
For small displacements (x

x 8 and hence
/o),
show
that the force
is
proportional to
U{x)
What
is
~ Ax*
(x
/o)
in terms of the above constants?
The period of a simple harmonic oscillator is independent

of its amplitude. How do you think the period of oscillation of the
above motion will depend on the amplitude? (An energy diagram
(c)
may be
helpful.)
10-28 Consider a particle of mass
418
Energy conservation
in
moving along
dynamics
the
axis in a
force field for which the potenlial energy of the particle
given by
is
U = Ax 2 +
Bx* (A > 0, B > 0). Draw the potential-energy curve

and, arguing from the graph, determine something about the dependence of the period of oscillation T upon the amplitude xo- Show
that, for
amplitudes sufficiently small so that
compared
tude
is
to
Ax
i
,
Bx A
is
always very small
the approximate dependence of period upon ampli-
given by
,_ A (i-g)
A
10-29
between
The
of mass
particle
potential energy
tangular
hump
is
and energy
shown,
is slightly
of height
period of oscillation
[It is
vertical walls as
i.e.,
E is
changed by introducing a
AU (
E) and width Ax.
U=
0.
tiny rec-
Show
that the
changed by approximately (m/23 ) 1/2 (Ai/AAr).
worth noting that the
effect
of the small irregularity in potential
energy depends simply on the product of

individual values of these quantities.
disturbing effects
bouncing back and forth
over a region where
This
AU
is
and Ax, not on the

typical of such small
known technically as perturbations.]
Ut -
U=
blocks of masses m and 2m rest on a frictionless horizontal
They are connected by a spring of negligible mass, equilibrium
L, and spring constant k.
By means of a massless thread
Two
10-30
table.
length
connecting the blocks the spring
The whole system
is
held compressed at a length L/2.
moving with speed y in a direction perpendicular

spring. The thread is then burned. In terms of m,
is
to the length of the
L, k, and o find
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
How
do
The total mechanical energy of the system.

The speed of the center of mass.
The maximum relative speed of the two blocks.
The period of vibration of the system.
the quantities of parts (a) through (d) change
velocity c
is
if
the initial
along, rather than perpendicular to, the length of the
spring?
10-31 The mutual potential energy of a Li + ion and an

function of their separation r
419
Problems
is
ion as a
expressed fairly well by the equation
__
2
A
= -Ke + __
/(,)
where the
values of
K=
term arises from the Coulomb interaction, and the
first
constants in
its
10
The equilibrium
Lil molecule
MKS units are
N-m 2 /C 2
On
How much work
(a)
1.6
X KT 19 C
distance ro between the centers of these ions in the
about 2.4 A.
is
the basis of this information,
eV) must be done to tear these ions
(in
completely away from each other?

ion to be fixed (because
(b) Taking the I
what
is
the frequency v
small amplitude?
2
value of d U/dr
26
as 10kg.)
10-32
-7
,
two
at r
rosee
-'
p. 407.
Take
the
k as the
mass of the Li +
to the van der Waals attractive force, which
with
"W-7T + I
M experience
atoms of mass
identical
force proportional to r
and graph your
so massive),
it is
n Hz) of the Li + ion in vibrations of very
(Calculate the effective spring constant
(a) If in addition
varies as r
(i
<"
>
7,
>6
show
a repulsive
that
>
result versus r.
(b) Calculate the equilibrium separation ro in this
molecule in
terms of the constants by requiring
dU(r)
dr
(c)
t/(r
).
The dissociation energy
What
is its
D of the molecule should be equal to
value in terms of A, n, and r ?
(d) Calculate the frequency of small vibrations of the
about the equilibrium separation
M,
Show
that
it is
the constant n, the equilibrium separation,
molecule
given by the mass
and the
dissociation
energy of the molecule, as follows:
\2nD
10-33 The potential energy of an ion in a crystal

charged ions
may
lattice
of alternatcly
be written
where A, B, and n are constants, e is the elementary charge, and r is

the distance between closest neighbors in the lattice, called the lattice
constant.
420
This potential arises from the l/r 2 force of electrostatic
Energy conservation
in
dynamics
attraction, together with a short-range repulsive force as
two adjacent
ions are brought close together.
Make a graph
(a)
of U(r) versus
what can you say about the
correctly,
r.
Making
stability
sure to identify r
of the crystal structure?
(b) Calculate the lattice constant ro in terms of A, B,
e,
and
n,
from the equilibrium condition

dU(r)
dr
(This defines the inter-ionic distance for which the energy of the lattice
as a whole
is
minimized.)
Show
(c)
that the binding energy per
No =
= NolKro)
(d)
2.8
1.7 (dimensionless) if
esu (e
4.8
value for u and
421
crystal,
A, and the exponent n
10 23 mole
result of part (b), determine
For NaCl
Problems
10
-10
is
is
esu).
-1
u in terms of r
the equilibrium lattice spacing ro is
about
10.
expressed in
Using
compare with
is
Avogadro's number
~6
Using the
mole of molecules
The constant A
centimeters and e
is
equal to
is
given in
these values, calculate a theoretical
the experimental value of 183 kcal/mole.
technique succeeds in mathematical physics, not by
clever trick, or a
happy accident, but because
some aspect ofa physical

o. G.
it
expresses
truth.
sutton, Mathematics
in
Action (1954)
11
Conservative forces and
motion in space
EXTENDING THE CONCEPT OF CONSERVATIVE FORCES

throughout chapter
simplification
motion
in
or
we
consistently applied one important
restriction,
by confining our discussion to
10
one dimension only.
This clearly prevented us from
studying some of the most interesting and important problems

i
n dynamics.
In the course of the present chapter
ourselves of this restriction
method of
To
analysis to
still
and
in the process
begin the discussion,
let
us consider a problem in motion
Suppose we have two
very smooth tubes connecting two points,
same
shall free
the energy
greater advantage.
under gravity near the earth's surface.
levels in the
we
show
and B,
vertical plane (Fig. 11-1).
at different
small particle,
placed in either of these tubes and released from rest at A, slides
down and emerges
If the
at B.
tubes are effectively frictionless,
by them on the particle are always at right

angles to the particle's motion. Hence these forces do no work
the forces exerted
Path2
Fig. 11-1
Alternatice paths between
two gtoen points for motion
in
Path
vertical plane.
423
on the
particle
may occur in its kinetic energy

What these forces do achieve is to
whatever changes
cannot be ascribed to them.
compel the
at
particle to follow a particular path so that
traveling in a designated direction.
If it follows
emerges with a velocity v t as shown;

emerges with a velocity v 2
Of course
if it
it
emerges
path
1, it
follows path 2,
it
the energy of the particle
it moves along either tube;

the gravitational
work
on
it.
But
we
observe
very
interesting fact:
doing
a
does change as
force
is
Although the directions of the

different,
and
velocities Vi
given to the particle by the gravitational force
paths beginning at
How
does
A and ending
this
the particle travels
work
dW done on
dW =
where
|F| \ds\
it is
same for
all
given by
cos 6
F ds
between the directions of F and
a constant force
is
the
is
at B.
come about? It is not difhcult to see. As

through some clement of displacement ds the
B is the angle
the force F
v 2 are quite
The kinetic energy
magnitudes are the same.
their
(i.e.,
But
ds.
the same at any position)
with the following components:
Fx
F= -mg
The element of
(we take the y axis as positive upward).
Now
placement has components (dx, dy).

tion of
dW as
dW = Fx dx +
To
cos 6
|F| \ds\
from the basic
dis-
defini-
we have
F dy
any two vectors
see this, consider
and
in
the
xy
plane,
making angles a and /3, respectively, with the x axis (Fig. 11-2).
Then if the angle between them is 6 we have, by a Standard
trigonometric theorem, that
cos 6
The
cos(/3
scalar product
S =
Fig. 11-2
|A| |B| (cos
a)
cos /3 cos a
5 (= A B)
cos
/3
is
sin/3sina
thus given by
sin/3sina)
Basis for obtainiiiR the scalar product
in terms of individual components, as

in calculaling the
work F
ds
in
A B
may be convenient
an arbilrary displace-
ment.
424
Conscrvative forces and molion
in
space
But
|A|
cosa = A x
and similarly
for the
generally,
sina
if
= A
components of B. Thus we have
+ A u By
A B = A X BX
More
|A|
(two dimensions only)
the vectors also have nonzero z components,
A B = A X B X + A y B u + A,B,
Thus
in general
dW =
In
present
the
Fy = mg,
dW
Hence
less
ds
we
shall
= Fx dx
have
Fydy
F, dz
(11-1)
two-dimensional problem,
with
Fx =
and
us
this gives
= mgdy
change of
for a
vertical coordinate
from y\ to y 2, regard-
of the change of x coordinate or of the particular path taken,
we have a change of
K2
-K
kinetic energy given
= /.
JdW= -mg(y 2 -
which exactly reproduces the

for purely vertical
by
(11-2)
yi )
result that
we derived
in
Chapter 10
motion and which permits us again to define
a gravitational potential energy U(y) equal to mgy.
This result makes for a great extension of our energy methods
we have
to situations wherc, in addition to gravity,
so-called
"forces of constraint," which control the path of an object but,
because they act always at right angles to

to change
its
energy.
Let us consider
its
some
motion, do nothing
specific
examples.
ACCELERATION OF TWO CONNECTED MASSES
We
problem which, if tacklcd by the dircct

Newton's laws, requires us to write a statement
of F = wa for each of two objects separately. The problem is to
find the magnitude of the acceleration of two connected masses,
mi and m 2 moving on smooth planes as shown in Fig. 11-3.
shall begin with a
application of
The
425
accelerations of the masses are different vectors, a!
Acceleration of two connected masses
and a 2
Fig. 1 1-3
masses
Motion ofiwo coimected
a simple example of the use
of energy-conseruation methods.
even though they have the same magnitude

statement of
F = ma
will
not
Thus a
a.
single
Using the scalar quantity
suffice.
we can exploit the fact that the magnitudes

of the displacements and their time derivatives are common to
both masses. Thus we have |vi| = [v 2 = v, so that the total
kinetic energy of the system is given simply by
energy, however,
K= J(mi +m
and
its
Now
u dt
surface
slope
in a time dt is given
change
dK =
=
2 )v
+
+
(u
{m\
mi)odv
mi)oadt
moved by each mass
the distance
is
on which
it
(y positive upward),
is
and
rides,
means a change dy
potential energy
by
for
in vertical
The
m2
parallel to the
the distance v dt
coordinate equal to
associated change
dU
down
the
v dt sin
in gravitational
thus
dU = -m2gvdtsin6
But, given conservation of total mechanical energy, assuming
friction to
dK
be absent, we have
+ dU
Thus
(mi
m)va
whence the
dt
m2go dt sin 6 =
familiar result
rri2
m\
OBJECT MOVING
IN
gsintf
/712
A VERTICAL CIRCLE
Suppose that a
particle
of mass
of a rod of negligible mass and length
426
is
/,
attached to one end
the other end of which
'
/
/
I
I
Mo
Fig. 11-4
ion
ofa simple
^-
pendulum.
is
pivoted freely at a fixed center C.
'r
"~
is
1-4).
=O
Then
at
the
conveniently described in terms of the
single angular coordinate

5
Let us take an origin
the normal resting position of the object (Fig.

position of the object
B, or, if
along the circular arc of
its
we
prefer,
path from
by the displacement
(assuming the rod to
be of invariable length).
angular displacement
If the
object
is
B,
the
y coordinate of
the
given by
is
y =
/(1
and hence
its
1/(0)
cos 0)
by
potential energy
mgl(\
(11-3)
cos 8)
Using our basic energy-conservation statement we have
Ki
K2 + U 2
t/i
any two points on the path. Substituting for

and v and for U by Eq. (11-3), we have
for
\mui 2
mgl(l
cosfli)
= \mv 2 2
mgl(\
K in terms of m
cos 02)
Therefore,
V2 2
oi
Clearly,
if
82
>
2gl(cosB 2
6
If the object
velocity v
U then v 2
<
(11-4)
cos 0,)
V\,
were started out
at the lowest point with
we should have
In a sense, therefore, the motion is one-dimensional, even though the one

dimension is not a straight line. But we shall not stress this aspect of such a
system at
427
this point.
Object moving
in a vertical circle
02*
P0*
With the help of
What
initial
-COS0 2)
2^/(1
this result
velocity
of the circle? and:
we can answer such
questions as:
needed for the object to reach the top
is
What
position does
it
reach
if
started out with
less than this velocity?
Notice the great advantage that the energy method has

over the direct use of F
the object
radial
is
= ma
in this
The
problem.
velocity of
changing in both magnitude and direction,
it
and transverse components of acceleration, there
unknown push
on
or puli
the object
from the rod
is
has
an
yet none of
these things need be considered in calculating the speed v at any
Once v has been found by Eq. (1 1^) [or perhaps

if that is more convenient], then
one can proceed to deduce the acceleration components and
given
(or y).
by going back to Eq. (11-2)
other things.
There may be subtleties
in
such problems, however.
pose, for example, that instead of a
a string to constrain the object.
works only one way;

push
radially outward.
velocity
Fig.
it
is
more or
This
is
less rigid
now
One may have
it
cannot
a situation in which the
not great enough to take the object to the top of the
Jl-5 (a) Path of the bob of a simple pendulum
Up
to
w.
(b) Stroboscopie photograph
of
a bati falling away from a circular channel at the point
where the contact force becomes zero.
(Photograph
by Jon Rosenfeld, Edueation Research Cenler, M.l.T.)
(b)
(a)
428
Sup-
we had
a constraint that
can puli radially inward but
launched with insufficient velocity to maintain a tension

in the string
rod
Conservalive
l'orccs
and molion
in
spacc
circle
(although
it
might be possible with a
rigid rod); the object
The breakaway
will fail
away
point
reached when the tension in the string just
is
in
a parabolic path [Fig.
l-5(a)].
to zero
falls
and the component of F along the radius of the circle is just

equal to the mass m times the requisite centripetal acceleration
v 2 /L An exactly similar situation can arise if an object moves
along a circular track made of grooved metal, and Fig. ll-5(b)
shows a stroboscopic photograph of an object falling away from
such a track at the point where the normal reaction supplied
by the track has

which
The angular
fallen to zero.
this occurs [cf
Fig.
l-5(a)]
is
position,
at
defined by a statement of
Newton's law
mg cos(tt -
'
<L)
nv
assumes
<e,
< r
where
u*
vo 2
2*/(l
- cos 0)
This leads to the result
COS0m =
oo
3gl
can thus deduce that a particle that starts out from O with
less than VJgl will fail to reach the top of the circle, whereas
We
o
with a rigid rod to support

suffice.
it
an
initial
speed of 2\/gl would
Notice, therefore, that the energy-conservation principle
should not be used blindly; one must always be on the alert as

to whether
satisfied at every stage
Newton's law can be
with the
particular constraining forces available.
AN EXPERIMENT BY GALILEO
It
was
(1638),
Galileo, in his Dialogues Concerning
who
first
Two New
Sciences
clearly stated the result that the speed attained
by an object descending under gravity depends only on the

vertical distance traveled.
He
applied this result to the uniformly
accelerated motion of an object

slopes, as indicated in Fig.
from Galileo's own book.
down smooth
l-6(a),
He
demonstrate the corrcctness of
which
is
plancs of different
based on a diagram
could not, however, directly

this proposition
using inclined
planes as such; instead, he performed a very clever experiment
429
An experiment by
Galileo
Fig. 11-6 (a)
Speed atlained by a block
frictionless plane depends only
traveled, not
on the
slope.
on the
sliding
down a
verlica! disiance
(b) Galileo's
pendulum ex-
periment to demonstrate the properties ofmotion on

idealized inclined planes.
with a mass swinging in a circular arc, and applied his remarkable
what he observed
scientific insight to
in this situation.
Here
is
an account of the experiment, taken with only minor changes

of notation from
modernity of
Imagine
own
Galileo's
his presentation
this
description;
the clarity and
quite striking:
is
page to represent a vertical wali, with a nail driven
and from the nail let there be suspended a lead bullet

of one or two ounces by means of a fine vertical thread, OB, say
into
it;
from four
own
to six feet long [see Fig. ll-6(b), based
sketch].
On
draw a horizontal
this wali
angles to the vertical thread
OB
Now
breadths in front of the wali).

the attached ball into position
on Galileo's
AA', at right(which hangs about two finger-
OA
observed to descend along the arc
line
bring the thread
and
set it free; first
ABA'
till it
OB
it
with
will
be
almost reaches
the horizontal AA', a slight shortage being caused by the resistance of the air
and
infer that the ball in its
momentum on
reaching
through a similar
the string.
B which was
arc BA'
Having repeated
From
this
we may
dcscent through the arc
to the
this
same
cxperiment
AB
just sufficient to carry
it
projects out
some
five
it
height.
many
times, let us
drive a nail into the wali close to the perpendicular
N, so that
rightly
acquired a
or
six
now
OB, say
at
finger-breadths in
order that the thread, again carrying the bullet through the arc
AB, may
strike
thus compel
430
it
upon
the nail
when the bullet reaches B, and

BC, described about N as
to traverse the arc
Conservative forccs and motion
in
space
'
center
Now,
gentlemen, you will observe with pleasure that
thc ball swings to the point
you would
at
see the
some lower
in the horizontal line
same thing happen
point.
if
.
.
way Galileo convinced himself
In this
quired by an object in descending any

it
different path.
He
that the speed ac-
vertical distance is suf-
equal vertical distance by a
up through an
ficient to carry
AA', and
the obstacle were placed
then added to
this the reversibility
of the
motion along any given arc and could reach his main conclusion
that the speed attained by his suspended object must be the same
whether
descends along the arc
it
on the
arc beginning
level
AB
A A' and
Finally, he could visualize such
or the arc
with
its
C B,
or any other
lowest point at B.
motion as taking place on a
continuous succession of inclined planes of different slopes, and

so formulate his proposition about uniformly accelerated motion
This was an enormously important
along different inclines.
because he was then able to make inferences about free

under gravity by observing the motion of an object rolling
result,
fail
down an
inclined
plane with a very gentle slope.
mitted him to stretch thc time scale

(a
gsin
6!)
This per-
of the whole phenomenon
and make quantitative measurements of distance
against time, using as his clock a watcr-filled container with a

hole in
it
that he could
open and close with
his
finger a
bril-
liantly simple device.
MASS ON A PARABOLIC TRACK

Suppose we bend a piece of very smooth metal track so that
it
has the shape of a parabola curving symmetrically upward with

its vertex at point O (Fig. 1 1-7). Let the equation of the parabola
be
y = JCx2
where
is
(11-5)
a constant.
Imagine an object of mass m,
ferred to
U(y)
an arbitrary zero
at
O,
is
along the track
potential energy, re-
given by
= mgy
Quoted from
Sciences (H.
the English translation of Dialogues Concerning
Crcw and A. de
Salvio, translators),
York.
431
free to slide
Its gravitational
with negligible friction.
Mass on a parabolic
track
Dover
Two New
l'ublications,
New
Fig.
11-7
Motion of a
particle
on a parabolic
track in
vertical plane.
which, by Eq. (1 1-5), we can alternatively write as a function of x:

U(x)
where k
= \mgCx 2 = \kx 2
(11-6)
a constant of the same dimensions (newtons per meter)
is
At any point {x, y) the mass has a speed v,

and by conservation of energy we
as a spring constant.
necessarily along the track,
have
+ U= E
\mv 2
(=
const.)
Denoting the x and y components of

Eq. (11-6), we have
%mv x 2
This has
by vx and
Imv,*
of the
and using
marked resemblance
(11-7)
to
energy-conservation
the
Only the presence
equation of the linear harmonic oscillator.

2
term \moy
u,
= E
ikx 2
spoils things.
This suggests to us that
if
we
had a situation in which vy were very small compared to vx the

motion of the mass on this track would closely approximate
that of a harmonic oscillator. What do we need to achieve this?
,
Common
is
sense
tells
us
more or
less
immediately that
only very slightly curved, so that y
vertical
motion
is
if the
track
at each point, the
very small compared to the horizontal and
approximately harmonic motion will occur.
Such motion can be achieved and beautifully demonstrated

1
in which a metal glider rides on a
with a "linear air track"
cushion of air blown up through holes in the track.
Because of
the low friction, the oscillation can take place even if the curvature
is
extremely small.
To
take an example, here
is
a specification
of the shape of the track in an actual demonstration (the setting
was by machine screws
at
1-ft
spacings; hence the lapse from
MKS):
'R. B.
432
Runk,
J.
L. Slull,
and O.
L.
Anderson, Am.
J.
Phys., 31, 915 (1963).
Conservativc forces and motion in space
X,
ft
&
1
4
ff
&
y,in.
Taking any pair of these values, one establishes the value of the
constant
C in
Eq. (11-5),
e.g.,
x = 4ft = 1.22 m
y - i in. = 6.35 X 10"
Thus
C =
2y/x 2
8.55
What would be
mass
K)- 3
For
the cxpected period of the motion?
and "spring" constant
= mgC.
from Eq. (11-6), k
m"
k,
we have T = 2r(m/ky 12 and,

,
Therefore,
11.9sec 2
2vTT9 21.6 sec
m/k =
(gC)"'
7"-
The measured period was within a few tenths of a second of

this and independent of amplitude to the accuracy of the measurement.
In this example (and the others of motion under gravity)
the
moving
object,
its
two-dimcnsional motion, really does
ride a contour that corresponds
against x.
Chapter
form to the graph of U(x)
These are truc two-dimensional motions; they arc
physically distinct
in
in
10.
from
To
the onc-dimensional situations discussed
appreciate the difference between them,
consider two quite realizable physical systems.

[Fig.
ll-8(a)]
resting
Fig.
is
a mass
on a smooth
table.
11-8 (o) Mass
(b)
Same
mass on a smooth
parabolic track.
(c)
Arrangements
and
to
(b)
(a)
can be made
have identical varia-
tions ofpotential
energy with x, bui the
motions are
different.
433
Mass on
first
one
attached to a horizontal spring and
The second
attached to a horizontal spring.
The
a parabolic track
[Fig. ll-8(b)]
is
an equal
mass
free to slide
on a parabolic
track.
The
strength of the
spring and the curvature of the track are adjusted so that the
systems have the same parabolic potential energy curve of U(x)

against x, as
shown
Fig.
in
the
same magnitude of
If projccted horizontally
ll-8(c).
same speed v
from the origin with the
velocity at
both masses will have
any other value of
into oscillation, both systems will be periodic.
But
x.
If set
their periods
same
show a progressive
change of period with amplitude (which way do you think it
will
be
The mass on
different.
period at
all
will be?).
amplitudes
It is
the spring will have the
the other system will
only in special situations, such as that with the
very slightly curved track, that the two motions
become essentially
the same.
THE SIMPLE PENDULUM

In diseussing the simple
pendulum, we are returning to the
problem of an object moving
in
vertical circle.
This time,
more carefully. It is an important

type of physical system, over and above its use in eloeks, and it
The simis not quite so simple as its traditional name implies.
idealized as a point mass on
plicity is primarily in its structure
howevcr, we shall go into
it
a massless, rigid rod.
As we saw
earlier [Eq. (11-3)], the potential energy, U(6),
expressed in terms of the angle that the supporting rod makes
with the vertical, can be written in the form
U=
mgl(l
cos 0)
= 2mg/sin 2
Ifwe plot this expression for
Fig.
11-9
"-
(11-8)
U as a funetion
of d,
we
Energy
diagram for a rigid

pendulum, using the
angle 6 as the coordinate.
is
The pendulum
trapped
in oseil/a-
tory motion about

6
= Oi/Eis/ess
than 2mgl.
434
Conservative forees and motion n space

i
get Fig. 11-9.
In Fig.
1-9, 6
can take
values of
between
all
values from
pendulum
ever, all positions of the
and
-\-k.
oo
to
+ cc
Howby
in space are described
Any
value of d outside this
range corresponds to one and only one angle 6 inside the range.
The
obtained by adding to or subtracting from the
latter is
former a whole-number multiple of 2r.
Two
is less
kinds of motion are possible, depending on whether
than or greater than 2mgl (referred to a zero of energy
defined by an object at rest at the lowest position of the pen-
dulum bob).
If the total
energy
figure), there are
is sufficiently
great (e.g., as for
no turning points
in the
motion;
E2
in the
8 increases
(or decreases) without limit, corresponding to continucd rotation
of the pendulum rather than oscillation.
dulum bob
minimum
is
maximum
at 6
at
tt (or 3tt, 5ir,
(or
The speed
of the pen-
2ir, 4ir, etc.) and
etc.).
It is clear
from
Fig.
11-9 that to produce such rotational motion the pendulum must
have a kinetic energy
at least equal to
2mgl at the lowest point
of the swing.
If
E<
2mgl, say
angle B changes from
However, the motion

amplitudes.
E y,
is
oscillatory
and the
6q
and back again (Fig. 11-9).

not harmonic except for sufficiently small
+6q
is
the motion
to
In the neighborhood of O, one can very nearly
match the potential-encrgy curve of
Fig.
11-9 by a parabola
(Fig. 11-10), so that for these small amplitudes the oscillations
are just those of the linear oscillator.
statement
is
One way of justifying this

made in Chapter 10,
to recall the general argument,
almost any symmetrical potential-energy curve can be

approximated by a parabola over some limited range of small
that
displacements.
Fig.
11-10
Another way
Potential-
energy diagram of a
simple pendulum.
435
The simple pendulum
is
to note that in Eq. (1 1-8), if d
is
small,
one can
set sin(0/2)
approximately equal to 0/2, so that
we have
U(8)
Imgie1
(11-9)
way depends upon using the same approximation that

Newton used when he described the moon as a falling object.
third
Applying
to the present problem,
it
the circular path
x2
(l
is
y)
and taking the
origin at
O,
(seeFig. 11-11). Therefore,
y =
2ly
/-(/ 2
x2 =
-* 2 )" 2
2\l/2
=
If
x2
<5C l
->('-i)
2
we can use
approximate
constant
result
[Compare
the binomial expansion to yield the
(11-10)
Eq. (11-5); you will then realize what the

in that equation represents. In the actual experiment
this with
described, the motion
was
like that
of a simple pendulum nearly
400ftlong!]
Equation (11-10) suggests a somewhat
different
approxima-
tion for small oscillations of the pendulum, describing
its
motion
angular one.
terms of its horizontal displacement instead of its

But whatever analysis we adopt, it is clear that the period must
depend on the amplitude. We can also argue qualitatively which
in
way
it
varies.
Looking
at Fig. 11-10,
we can
say that the curve
l-y
Fig. 11-11
Geomelry ofilisplace-
ments of a simple pendulum.
436
Conservalive forccs and motion in spacc
pendulum
of U(6) for the
describes a kind of spring that gets
Compared
"softer" at large extensions.
would hold
that
an
for
Thus one might guess
tively less at larger displacements.
the motion
increases.
room
to the parabolic behavior
ideal spring, the restoring force is rela-
that
becomes more sluggish and hence that the period

Certainly there is one extreme case that leaves" no
for doubt.
If the
exactly arrives at
pendulum
sit
would
practice this
is
energy
is
such that the pendulum just
there
is
no restoring force
jr,
upside
down
indefinitely
at all; the
although
of course an unstable equilibrium.
amplitudes short of this the increase of period
is
in
Even
If
drastic.
at
you
are interested, the section after next describes the analysis of
larger-amplitude motion.
But
we
first
shall
make
a detailed
study of the small-angle approximation.
THE PENDULUM AS A HARMONIC OSCILLATOR

The speed of
pendulum bob
the
any point
at
so that the cncrgy-conservation cquation
5^/
(^) +
U{6)
= E
is
equal to
dd/dt,
is
(exact)
'(D'
Using the approximate expression
for U(6)
from Eq. (11-9), we
have
iml
{^) +
$mgl0
= E
(approx.)
or
Tt)
(f)
const
By now we have met

can identify (g/l)
'
(n-u)
this
form of equation scveral times and
as being the quantity
that defines the
period of the oscillation:
-2r-*(i)'
[Caution:
It is
/2
(11-12)
the angular displacement
itself that
undergoes
a simple harmonic variation, described by the equation
0(0
437
O sin(oo/ 4- v,,)
The pendulurrms
harmonic
(11-13)
oseiliator
This can be confusing; the actual angular displaccment of the
pendulum
is
deseribed in terms of the sine of the purely mathe-
matical phase angle (w/

the pendulum
<p
dB/dt not
is
The
),
the
actual angular velocity of
in (ut
<p
),
which serves
merely to define the periodicity.]
The behavior of
harmonic
tion to a
ment on
it
its
so important that
is
moment
First, let us take a
we
shall
com-
to consider the
equation of motion by a direct application of
We
Newton's law.
to whether
oscillator
further.
derivation of
the simple pendulum as a elose approxima-
can do
we analyze
this in
two
different ways, according
the problem in terms of linear or angular
displacements.
Linear motion
We
consider the horizontal foree aeting on the
when
it
[Fig.
is
a horizontal distance
1 12(a)].
x from
If the tension in the
its
pendulum bob
equilibrium position
suspending string
is
FT
we have
2
m =
-Fr sin0 = -FT
-.
at*
If the vertical
small,
we
Ft
component of
bob
is
negligibly
SO that
FT mg
acceleration of the
can, however, put
cos 6
F = mg
a
For small angles
6,
cos
/2
I,
and the equation of horizontal motion becomes
Fig. 11-12
Basis for
analyzing the motion
of a simple pendulum
(a) in terms
of hori-
zontal displacements,
and
(b) in terms
of
angular displacements.
438
Conservalive forees and motion
in
space
dJ x
mg
W~~T x
leading once again to Eq. (11-12) for the period T.
Angular motion
In
(=
case we consider the transverse acceleration ae

d 2 8/dt 2 ), which is produced by the component of F in the
this
l
direction of the tangent to the circular arc along
which the pen-
dulum bob moves (see Fig. ll-12b). The magnitude of the

tension force F^ (which actually varies with time) does not enter
into this treatment of the problem.
We have, simply,
2
rf
w/- = Fsin0 = mg s'm 6
For small
0, sin
which leads
to
Eq.
(1
9,
and so we have
1-13) for
as a function of time.
It
can be
seen that the analysis in terms of the angular variables
is
"cleaner" treatment than the other, involving only the one ap-
proximation
sin 9
9.
The isochronous behavior of

that
its
period
is
over a wide range
the simple
pendulum
the fact
almost completely independent of amplitude
provides a striking example of this remarkand unique property of systems governed by restoring
able
forces proportional to the displacement
from equilibrium. Sup-
pose we had two identical pendulums, each with a string of

ft, suspended from a high support.
Each would have
a period of about 6 sec. And if we set one swinging with an
amplitude of only an inch or two, so that its motion was almost
length 30
imperceptible, and set the other swinging with an amplitude of
so that
ft,
about 5
to put
it
swept through the central position at a speed of
ft/sec, the difference in their periods
them
significantly out of step in less
would be too small
than a hundred swings
or so.
This same isochronous property of the pendulum was of
and perhaps crucial help to Newton, Huygens, et al. when

their fundamental experiments on collision phenomena
(cf. Chapter 9).
AH these experiments were done with masses
suspended from equal strings. As long as the small-amplitude
great
they
439
made
The pendulum
as a liarmonic oscillatoi
Fig.
11-13
Two pendulums ofeqnal
(a)
Icngth are re-
leasedfrom arbitrary posltions al ihe same
instan/,
The isochronous properly of ihe pendulum ensures

that ihe collision occurs w/ien bolh masses are al Ihe
(b)
boltom
politis
of iheir swing.
approximation
two masses released at the same instant
is valid,
from arbitrary positions

points at thc
same
[Fig. ll-13(a)] will rcach thcir lowcst
instant [Fig. ll-13(b)], so that the collision
occurs when each mass
is
traveling horizontally with
vclocity thc magnitude of which

(b)
simplc harmonic motion.
enough
large
t'Lx
Even
'
is
its
maximum
given by the equations of
for angular amplitudes that are
to require the use of the exact equation for
2gl{\
cos
pm
O)
the colliding masses will reach their lowest points at almost the
same
instant as long as
O is less
than 90, which
it
would have
to be for an object attached to a string rather than to a rigid rod.

section briefly discusses the detailed dependence of
The next
period on amplitude for a simple pendulum.
THE PENDULUM WITH LARGER AMPLITUDE 2

To
how
find
pendulum departs from
the period of a simple
small-amplitude value,
its ideal
we
write the equation for con-
servation of energy in the exact form
' +
where
w,,
2<oo (l
cos 0)
g/l and #o
>
tne
2coo (l
maximum
cos 8
(11-14)
angle of dcflcction from
the vertical.
The period of
7X0,,)
'You can
oscillation
thcn given by
is
dO
=
fs/2 J-t (co$8
wo"
easily vcrify that the
(11-15)
cos<?o) 1/2
magnitude of
this velocity is proportional, in
thc small-amplitude approximation, to the horizontal distance through which

a mass is initially drawn aside before bcing released. This makes analysis of
thc cxperiments very simple.
2
440
This section
may
be omitted without loss of continuity.
Conservative forces and motion
in
space
Fig.
11-14
Precise
measuremenls on the
period of a simple
pendulum, showing the

quadratic increase of
period wilh amplitude,
and the close approach

to isochronism ob-
tained by
the top
damping
endofthe
supporting wire be-
tween cycloidal jaws,

so that the free length
shortens as the ampli-
tude increases.
For small amplitudes, we of course have a period

2w/(j)o,
as discussed
the previous section.
iri
The
equal to
integral of
Eq. (11-15) cannot be carried out exactly; one has to resort to

numerical methods or to a series expansion of the integrand
which
approximation to the period, the following
gives, as a next
result:
1 +sin
7tyo) To ['+**>'(?)]
If
O is
(11-16)
not too large, another acceptable form of this
terms of the horizontal amplitude
T(A)
To
A (=
/sin 6 )
is
result, in
the formula
(11-17)
(+tf)
some precision measurements

The pendulum had a length of about
Figure 11-14 shows the results of

that verify Eq. (11-17).
3
m, and the
values of 6
greatest amplitude used
up to about
worth noting that the

greatest values of d
10
over-all
studied
is
was about
range of
O-
The graph
'M. K. Smith, Am.
441
(11-17)
is
The pendulum with
m, so that
less
It is
the least to the
than 2 parts in 1000; the in1
part in 10
5
,
and the
very nicely demonstrated over this
also
J. Pftys., 32,
T from
change of
dividual points are accurate to about

validity of Eq.
0.5
0.17 rad) are represented.
shows the
results of using a special
632 (1964).
larger amplitude
pendulum support that shortens the pendulum

such a way that the tendency for
so that the path of the pendulum
be shaped
a portion of a cycloid curve.
is
method of making an
the
almost
O >s
Ideally, the support should
completely compensated.
(Incidentally,
as 6 increases, in
to increase with
exactly isochronous
pendulum, through the use of a cycloidal suspension, was

discovered by Huygens.
In 1673 he published a great book, the
HoroJogium Oscillatoriwn,
results
were
practical
first
first
in
which many important dynamical
presented within the framework of the very
problems of clock design.)
UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION: A CONSERVATIVE CENTRAL FORCE

The problems of energy conservation
we have
that
discussed so
far have involved only the familiar force of gravity near the
earth's
surface a force which, as experienced by any given

same magnitude and the same direction
object, has effectively the
in a given locality, regardless of horizontal or vertical displace-
ments (within wide

tional interaction
distance between
their centers.
limits).
is
But, as
we know,
the basic gravita-
a force varying as the inverse square of the
two
It is
and exerted along the
particles
line joining
an example of the vcry important
class of
forces central forces which are purcly radial with respect to a

given point, the "center of force". It has the further property
of being sphcrically symmetric; that
force depends only
on the
and not on the direction.
We
shall
the magnitude of the
is,
from the center of force,
radial distance
show
that all such spherically
symmetric central forces are conservative, and shall then consider the special features of the l/r
tion
and
force that holds for gravita-
electrostaties.
If a partiele is
on
aeting
it
exposed to a central force, the force veetor
has only one component,
spherically symmetric, then
Fr
If the force is also
can be written as a funetion of
only:
We
is
(11-18)
=/(r)
shall
prove that any such sphcrically symmetric central force
conservative by showing that the
work done by the
force
on a
Recall, howcvcr, that small local variations are in Tacl detectable by sensitive
gravity survey instruments, as deseribed in Chapter 8.
442
in
space
__M_______
___)
(a)
7%. 77-75
(a)
Diagram for eonsideration ofpotential-
energy changes in a Central force field. (b) Analysis
of an arbitrary pai h into radial elements along which

work is done, and transverse elements along which no
work
is
done.
(c)
Closed path
in
a conservative central
force field.
test particle, as the latter
another point
ticular path connecting

If this result holds,
changes
its
position
II-I5(a)], does not
[Fig.
then
from a point
to
depend on the par-
and
73,
it
will
be true that the particle,
but only on these end points.

if it
went
to B by this path, and returned from B to A by any other

would have no net work done on it by the central force
and would (if no work were done on it by other forces) return
to A with the same kinetic energy that it had to start with. This
from
path,
then corresponds exactly to the conservative property as defined

for one-dimensional motions.
Let the center of force be at

the
work done by the
[Fig. ll-15(a)],
central force
F on
and consider
the test particle as
undergoes a displacement ds along the path as shown.
work
is
where a
r,
This
given by
dW =
of
it
is
ds
= F ds cos a
(11-19)
the angle between the direction of F,
and the direction of
ds.
From
i.e.,
the direction
the figure, however,
we
see
that
ds cos
where dr
a =
is
dr
the change of distance from O, resulting
displacement ds. Inserting this value of ds cos
from the
into Eq. (1 1-19),
we have
dW =
443
Fdr
Universal gravitation: a conservative central force
where the magnitude of the force [F

as indicated in Eq.
F on
(1
We
1-18).
the test object as
/(/)]
depends only on r
then have for the
moves from
it
=
A
work done by
to B,
r 'b
W=
>
Because
(11-20)
f(r)dr
/
'A
has a value that depends only on
this integral
we can conclude
and not on the path,

metric central force
is
its limits
that the spherically
sym-
This result can be arrived
conservative.
at in slightly different terms by picturing the actual path as being
up from a succession of small steps, as shown in Fig.

One component of each step is motion along an arc
built
ll-15(b).
at constant
so that the force
r,
ment and the contribution

is
to
perpendicular to the displace-
is
zero,
is
and the other component
a purely radial displacement so that the force and the
placement are
work F dr by
in the
same
direction, resulting in the
dis-
amount of
the central force.
[A converse to the result we have just derived
the following
is
important proposition
central force fleld that
is
also conservative
must be spherically
symmetric.
To show
this,
suppose that a center of force
Imagine a closed path
in Fig. ll-15(c).
short portions of
circular arcs
central,
from
it
around
two
radial lines
BC and DA.
definition, the force is purely
has no component perpendicular
at
any point.
ABCD,
it
Thus,
by very
drawn from O, and by the two

by
Since,
exists at the point
ABCD, formed
if
to the radial direction
we imagine
cxperiences no force along
a particle carried
BC
and
DA.
The
condition that the force be conservative thus requires equal and
opposite amounts of
are of equal length,
the
same on each.
work along AB and CD. Since these lines

the mean magnitude of the force must be
If
we
imagine the lengths of these elements
of path to become arbitrarily small,
we conclude
of the force at a particular scalar value of r

direction in which the vector r
is
drawn.
is
that the value
independent of the
The most important
sources of such spherically symmetric force fields are spherically
symmetric distributions of mass or

It is
electric charge.]
important to realize that a force
may be
without being central or spherically symmetric.
conservative
For example,
the combined gravitational effcct of a pair of concentrated un-
equal masses, separated by some distance, has a complicated
444
in
space
dependence on position and direction, but we know that it is

conservative because it is the superposition of two individually
conservative force fields of thc separate masses.
Given the
by Eq. (11-20), we can proceed
rcsult expressed
to define a potential energy U(r) for any object exposed to a

spherically symmetric central force:
r 'd
VB - Ua = If the kinetic
KA
KB
and
(11-21)
f(r)dr
f (r)
/
'A
energy of the object at points
respectivcly, then
(if
and
no work
is
B has the values

done by other
we have
forces)
Kg
- Ka =
Ka
+ UA - KB +
and
Ub
-B
(11-22)
Thus we have established an energy-conservation statement

an object moving under the action of any central force.
For an inverse-square
F(r)
force,
for
we have
dl-23)
^2
In such a case, therefore, Eq. (11-21) gives us

r 'n
UB - Ua
r" dr
J 'A
from which we
get
Ub- Ua-
Cl
-a)
Vb
(11-24)
There remains only the choice of the zero of potential energy.

It is
far
and
convenient to set
U=
for r
ao,
i.e.,
at points infinitely
from the source at O, since thc force vanishes at these points,

terms one can say that the existencc of either
no consequence to the other one under these conWe now apply Eq. (11-24) to the case where rA = y-,
and the potential energy of thc test particle becomcs
in colloquial
particle is of
ditions.
UA =
Ub =
0,
C/rji
or,
if
we drop
the
now redundant
subscript B,
there follows
445
Universal gravitation; a conservative central force
= -
V(r)
(11-25)
for the potential energy of a test particle as
a function of
its
position.
Equation (11-25)
is valid
pulsive force, the constant
and
(which
re-
being negative for attractive forces
positive for repulsive forces.
mass
an attractive or a
for either
In particular, for a particle of
under the gravitational attraction of a point mass
we
suppose to be fixed at the origin O) we have
shall
F(r)=-^
(.1-26)
DW--2?
01-27)
Note
were points
two objects
i.e.,
refer only to the inter-
that can be regarded as though they
their linear
As we saw
their separation.
most
two equations
that these last
action between
dimensions are small compared to
in
Chapter
8,
however, some of the
and important gravitational problems concern
interesting
the gravitational forces exerted by large spherical objects such

as the earth or the sun.
lems,
we saw
In our earlier discussion of such prob-
that the basic problem
the interaction between
is
a point particle and a thin spherical shell of material. In Chapter

8
we presented a
frontal attack
on
problem, going directly
this
to an evaluation of an integral over all contributions to*the net

force.
Now we
shall
approach the problem by way of a con-
sideration of potential energies,
the great value of the
and
in the process
we
shall see
potential energy concept in such cal-
culations.
A GRAVITATING SPHERICAL SHELL

Suppose, as
in
our earlier treatment of the problem, that we have
a thin, uniform shell of matter, of radius

11-16).
Let a particle of mass
distance r
from
R and mass
M (Fig.
be placed at
some point P a
we
deal directly in
the center of the shell.
If
terms of forces, then, as we saw, the force from material
in the
A must be resolved along the line OP.

In other words, a vector sum of all the force contributions is
necessary. If we deal in terms of potential energy, however, we
vicinity
of a point such as
can cxploit
446
its
most important propcrty: Potential energy
in
space
is
Fig.
11-16
Diagram
for considering the

gravitational potential
energy due to a circular zone
ofa
spherical shell
thin
of
matter.
We
scalar guantity.
all
can just add up the contributions to
The
parts of the shell.
from the
F
tr
As
force
on
is
U from
then obtained simply
relation
--
(11-28)
dr
in
our direct calculation of the force, we take advantage
of the symmetry of the system by considering the zone of material
marked
on the sphere between the angles
off
For
(Fig. 11-16).
area
2ir
this
and
dB
sin B dd
2wR 2 sm9d6
mass
zone we have
4jt/?2
i.e.,
dM =
iMsinddd
All of this material in
Thus the contribution

toEq. (11-27), by
dU = The
...
GMm
2
energy of
GMm
2
447
same distance, s, from P.

makes to U is given, according
at the
= -
This integral
is
dM
GmdM
total potential
U(r)
dM
that
is
to
f
J
sin 6
sin 6
dB
s
is
thus
dB
(11-29)
be evaluated, keeping
ravilating spherical shell
and
r constant,
by
from zero
to sweep
allowing
to
ir
as to include the contributions of

calculation
is
made
(s
changing accordingly) so
parts of the shell.
The
simple by the fact that, in the triangle
AOP,
all
we have
2
s
= R2
2Rrcos0
Differentiating both sides with respect to
and
r are constants for the
(11-29),
0,
remembering that
purpose of the integration in Eq.
wehave
2*^do
= 2Rrsin6
Thereforc,
sin 6
dd
ds^
Rr
But the left-hand
side of this
is
just the integrand of Eq. (1 1-29),
which thus becomes
U(r)
= -
GMm
(11-30)
ds
2Rr 7-o
Equalion (11-30)
is
the
key
result in cakulating gravitational
potenlial energies andforces due lo spherkal objecls. In evaluating
Fig.
11-17
(o) Gravi-
tational potential
energy of a point
parlicle as a function
of its distancc from

the center
of a
splierical shell
radius R.
tion
(b) Varia-
of F with
riaed from
thin
of
r,
de-
(a).
448
Conscrvative forces and motion
in
space
we must
the integral of ds, however,
Case
11-16).
The
7r
R, as in Fig.
(point oto<fe shell)
(11-31)
(i.e.,
s are defined as follows:
s,i n
giving smnx
giving
two cases:
>
outside the shell
on
limits
=
=
Point
1.
distinguish
R
+R
Hence
Smnx
Anln
2*1
U(j.)--2MH
Point
Ca.se 2.
inside the shell
(i.e.,
<
The
R).
limits
now become
8
giving s mi
/?
= x
giving smsx
/?
Hence
U(r)
These two
from them
= -
results
are,
^^
are disarmingly alike.
however, quite
calculate the forces
Case
If
The forces derived

we proceed now to
from O,
is
a constant.
that can vary.
It is
only
r,
the distance
Hence we have
1.
F =
Case
different.
from Eq. (11-28), we must remember that
(the radius of the shell)
of the mass
(11-32)
(point inside shell)
(point outside shell)
(11-33)
(point inside shell)
(11-34)
2.
Fr =
In Fig. 11-17
we show
the graphs of potential energy and
forcc as functions of the radial distance r of the test
the center of the shell.
The
discontinuities at r
mass
= R
m from
are easily
seen.
Once we have obtained
these results,
to consider a solid sphere of material.
449
gravitaling spherical shell
it is
a simple matter
A GRAVITATING SPHERE
Our primary assumption is that the sphere can be regarded as
made up of a whole succession of uniform spherical shells, even
though the density may vary with radial distance from the center.
Granted
this
assumption of symmetry, we can at once draw
some conclusions about

a sphere, of total
Case
the gravitational force cxerted by such
M and radius R.
mass
Observation point oulside the sphere
1.
each component spherical
shell acts as
though
(r
>
R). Since
whole mass
its
were at the center, the same can be said for the sphere as a
F(r)
we have
moon and
accelerations of the
already used in Chapter 8 in
famous comparison of the gravitational
discussing Newton's
Case
the apple.
Observation point inside sphere
2.
must be more
(11-35)
(point oulside sphere)
the result that
is
which the density of the ma-
in
with radius, we have
terial varies
This
way
Regardless of the
whole.
(r
<
Here we
R).
but we can at once make two clear state-
careful,
ments:
a.
For
all
the spherical shells lying oulside the observation
point, the contribution to the force

b.
For
all shells
byEq.
zero,
by Eq.
(1
lying inside the radius defined
mass
servation point, the
is
is
1-34).
by the ob-
effectively concentrated at the center,
(11-33).
To specify the force in

how much mass is enclosed
this case, therefore,
we must know
drawn
within the sphere of radius r
through the observation point.
Case
l',
(special)
The same
as case 2, but with the extra
proviso that the density of the sphere
sphere
is
homogeneous.
In this case,
of the mass contained within radius

this is the ratio of the partial
the
amount of mass
r is
i.e.,
equal to r
/R 3
because
volume to the whole volume. Hence
to be considered
tively at the center,
the
is the same for all r
we know that the fraction
a distance
is
equal to
Mr 3 /R 3
effec-
from the position of the
test
mass. This then gives us
450
(P' nt inside
homogeneous sphere)
Conservative forces and mol ion in space
(11-36)
Fig.
11-18
(a) Force
on a poinl particle as
a function of ils dislancefrom the center
ofa uniform
solid
sphere of radius R.
{b) Variation
of
mutual polential
energy with
r,
obtained
front {a) by integration.
The approxi-
mately linear increase
ofU with r jusi ouiside

r = R corresponds to
gravily as observed
near the earih's surface.
The combined
results of Eqs. (11-35)
geneous sphere are shown

struct the
in Fig. ll-18(a).
graph of potential energy versus
distance of a particle of mass
This
is
and (11-36) for a homo-
shown
in Fig.
ll-18(b).
One can
r for all
also con-
values of the
from the center of the sphere.

For
interior points (r
<
R) we
have
-w"j,"
GMm (R2 -
r2)
2R3
But we already know, by putting

U(R) =
Thus we
in
Eq. (11-31), that
- GMm
R
</(,)=
In particular, at r
= R
get
(r<R)
451
0,
-^(3K2-,2)
we have
gravitating sphere
(11-37)
3GMm
= -
1/(0)
If
2R
one imagines starting out from
0, then, as Fig.
ll-18(b)
shows, the potential energy increases parabolically with distance
up to
= R
The
and then goes over smoothly into the continued
increase of
with r that
is
variations of F(f)
good, as wc
be homogeneous.
no requirement
is
On
it
in Fig.
1-18 hold
that the sphere should
the other hand, one
that Eqs. (11-36)
must be careful to
and (11-37), for
to the special case of a sphere of the
Thus
> R
have seen, for any spherically symmetrical distribu-
tion of matter; there
remember
described by Eq. (11-31).
and U(r) for
<
R, refer only
same density throughout.
does not correctly describe the variation of gravitational
force with radial distance inside such objects as the earth
and
the sun, which have drastic variations of density with r (see

Fig. 11-19). This invalidates a favorite textbook cxercise:
that a particle
would execute simple harmonic motion
"Show
in a tunnel
bored along a diameter of the earth." The practical impossibility

of making such a tunnel may, however, be considered as a far
more powerful
objection.
used to thinking that the potential energy of an

object of mass m, a distance h above the earth's surface, is given
If
Fig.
one
11-19
earth.
is
(a)
Radial variation of density inside the
(After E. C. Bullard.) (b) Calculated variation
of density wiih radial distance
inside the sun
(I.
Iben and
Z. Abraham, M.I.T.).
452
spacc
U=
by the formula
mgh,
may seem hard
it
U(r)=-^
There
no
really
is
(r>R)
however, once one recognizes that
difficulty,
the zero of potential energy

linear
to reconcile this
by Eq. (11-31):
result with the result expressed
arbitrary
is
and that the simple
formula applies only to objects raised through distances
compared to the earth's radius. We

more general formula [i.e., Eq. (11-31)],
that are exceedingly small
have, in fact, from the
U(R
h)-U(R)=-^R + h + ^R
GMm
R2
G Mm/
Since, however,
on m,
the gravitational force
is
mg
exerted
this gives us
U(R
h)
U(R)
By putting U(R) =
energy, we see that
mgh
as an arbitrary reference level of potential
U = mgh
is
an acceptable approximation
that applies to small displacements near the earth's surface. This
approximatcly linear increase of potential energy with distance

just outside a sphere
is
indicated
on
Fig. ll-18(b).
ESCAPE VELOCITIES
Suppose we have an object
sphere, such as a planet, and
outer space so that
This problem
At
is
it
at the surface of
a large gravitating
we want to shoot the object

What speed must we
never returns.
easily considered in terms of
the surface of the planet (r
= R)
off into
give it?
energy conservation.
the potential energy
is
given
by
U(R) =
At
co
^
R
U =
The particle, to reach /=<, must

some kinetic energy .K(oo). Thus at
must have a kinetic energy K(R) defined through the
we have
0.
survive to this distance with
launch
it
conservation equation
453
Escape
velocities
Therefore,
GMm
K(R)>
The
critical
R
condition
is
reached
if
we
take the equality in the
above statcmcnt; the object would then
The minimum
zero residual speed.
just reach infinity with
escape speed at radius
is
thus given by
GMm
Therefore,
*=
(11-38)
In calculating the escape velocity from the earth's surface,
may
be convenient to state the result of Eq. (11-38)
form
force
of
in
it
another
makes use of our knowledge that the gravitational

on a mass m at r = Re can be set equal to the magnitude
that
times the local acceleration due to gravity, g:
GMm
~R^ =mg
Therefore,
GM
and
so,
from Eq. (11-38), we have
= VgR E ) v2
DO
Putting
10
in
the
(H-39)
familiar
values
g ~
9.8
m/sec 2
RE ~
6.4
m, we have
bo
11 .2
km/sec
Notice once again the remarkable implications of energy con-
For the purpose of calculating complete escape, wc

in which the eseaping
servation.
need spccify nothing about the direetion

object
is
anything
fired.
in
It
could be radially outward, or tangentially, or
between
the
same value of v u applics
to all cases
[Fig. ll-20(a)].
It is interesting
is
454
that the magnitude of the escape speed v a
exactly \/2 times as great as the orbital speed that a partiele
Conservative forees and motion
in
space
Fig. 11-20 (a)

possibility
from a
The
ofescape
gravitating
sphere depends on the
magnitude of the
velocity, not
direction.
on
(b)
its
The
escape speedfrom a
double-star system
depends on the position

of the start ing point P.
would have
if
could skim around the earth's surface in a
it
circular orbit of radius
The preceding
Rj,;.
calculation assumes that the object
which the escape takes place
is
isolated
from
from
other objects.
all
More complicated escape problems would arise if, for example,

we wanted to calculatc the escape velocity from the surface of
one member of a double-star system [Fig. 1 l-20(b)]. We should
then have to consider where the Iaunching point P was in relation
to the centers
and
of the two
stars.
But
the scalar
still
property of potential energy makes the calculation relatively

simple.
The
forward
sum
potential energy of a
And
arately.
mass
m at P
is
just the straight-
of the potential energies due to the two stars sep-
again the direction of launeh for complete escape
at the critical velocity
is
immaterial (as long as the trajectory
misses the other star!)
A
is,
particularly important
example of
11-21 (a).
schematically in Fig.
mass m,
its
If
we
This
shown
is
consider a partiele of
potential energy as a funetion of position along a
straight line joining the centers of earth
by the
type of system
this last
of course, the earth-moon combination.
ll-21(b).
full line in Fig.
and moon
Mathematically
is
it is
shown
as
given by
the formula
U(r)
= -
GM.\ r m
GMf.iti
r
where
and
is
'
(11-40)
r
the distance between the centers of earth
r is the distance of the partiele
This potential energy

tributions from earth
455
D-
Escape velocilies
is
simply the
and moon.
and moon
from the center of the
sum of
earth.
the separate con-
Effi
BBS
;[.-''- 'v
Moon
Fig.
11-21
(a)
Sche-
malic diagram of the
earth-moon system.
(b)
Form ofvariation
Ofthe total potential

energy of a particle
along Ihe line joining

the centers of earth
and moon.
The maximum value of U(f) occurs
where (dU/dr) rm
This
0.
is
the attractive forccs due to earth and

posite, so that
at the point r
r,
clearly also the point at which
moon
are equal
and op-
we can put
GMp.m
CMsttn
(.D
rm
This gives
Now
+ Wm/Mk) 11*
the value of
This represents a
center.
MM/ME
about SV. so that rm w 0.90D.

point about 24,000 milcs from the moon's
The value of U(r)
is
at this value of r
is
given, according to
Eq. (11-40), by
U(r,)
= -
GMK m
GM M m
0.923
0AD
G Me>
0.9D
1.
23GME m
D
If a spacecraft
456
is
to reach the
moon from
in
the earth along the
spacc
direct line considered,
energy hump.
an
after
If,
initial
it
would have to surmount
this potential
were to be done by simply coasting
further, this
rocket blast at the point of departure from the
earth's surface, the necessary
minimum
speed at the earth
initial
would be defined by the following equation:
GM^
Em
,
2
fwoo
Uh
...
l.23GMB m
U(rm )
This then gives us
2GMk (
l.23RK \
factor 2GMe/Re s just the square of the speed needed for

complete escape from the earth, as given by Eq. (11-39) and
The
evaluated numerically as I1.2km/sec.

2
the above expression for v
one
Putting
finds u
R E /D ~
g\y
11.1 km/sec.
in
At
minimum velocity the traveling object would just barely

surmount the potential "hill" between earth and moon and
would then fail toward the moon, reaching its surface with a
this
(You should check thesc
speed of about 2.3 km/sec.
results
for yourself.)
MORE ABOUT THE CRITERIA FOR CONSERVATIVE FORCES
In our discussions of forces and potential energy,
we have
pointed out that the fundamental criterion for a force to be

conservative
is
work done by the force be zero over
that the net
any closed path. As an aside we pointed out
that in one-dimen-
sional problems, but only in one-dimensional problems,
condition
is
of position.
how,
automatically met
We
shall
now
two dimensions,
in
if
give a simple example to illustrate
this latter
condition
A force
is
F(x, y) that is a unique function of x and

theless be nonconservative.
Our example
in the
xy plane,
is
this:
finds itself
this
the force is a unique function
Suppose that a
not
sufficient.
y may
particle, at
never-
any point
exposed to a force F given by
Fx = -ky
F
= +kx
where k
is
'This section
457
a constant and x and
may
More about
are the coordinates of the
ihc critcria for conservative forces
Fig.
11-22
Rectangular path in a plane. (b) Smooth tube shaped to
(a)
force a parlicle tofollow the palit shown in (a), (c) Closed path
up oftwo different paths between

force
is conservalive, the
particle.
llte
net work
A and B.
giuen points
made
If the
is zero.
Such a force evidently dcpends only on the position of

Now let us calculate the work done by this force
the particle.
on the
particle if the latter
closed path shown
Fig.
in
moves counterclockwise around the

ll-22(a).
would never follow
that the particle
of the force F and nothing
else,
but (as
It
this
we
may
well be objected.
path under the action
did in our
first
to potential energy at the beginning of Chapter
approach
10)
we can
by another force, supplied for

that
the
object can be freely moved
example by a spring, so
around without any net work being donc. Or, alternatively, we
can imagine a very smooth pipe, as in Fig. 1 l-22(b), which comimagine that
is
exactly balanced
pels the particle to travel
along the sides of a rectangle and yet
pipeis always at right angles to the particle's motion.
kinetic energy to carry
away from
it.
Now
Starting at O,
a to the point
by F during
W\
since
y =
the particle
by F along
458
this
We should
proviso, in this case, that the particle has
add the
also
by the
particle because the force exerted
does no work on the
it
enough
around the path even ifFistaking energy
for the caleulation.
let
with
move along the x axis a distance

coordinates x = a, y = 0. The work done
the particle
motion
is
Fx dx = -ky
everywhere on
moves from
dx =
this portion of the closed path.
to
Q{x =
a,
y =
b).
Next,
The work done
this path is
Conservative forees and motion in space
w =
Fy dy = +ka
ly-0
Jv-0
For the path from
and
W4
The
this
(0, b), the
is
done as the
is
dx = +kab
zero, since
W\
force
round
in the
particle
x and hence
moves from
Fv
is
zero every-
given by Eq.
(1
1-41)
If
k were
taken in this direction.
traveled clockwise,
amount each
Ikab
is
not conservative, although

positive, the kinetic
would be increased by 2kab
of the particle
artificial
trip is therefore
+ W% + Ws + W =
depends only on position.
circuit
work done
path
work done
W=
it
= kab
total
and the
work
to the origin
where on
to
Fx dx = -kb
finally, the
back
dy
Jo
its
for each complete
the other hand, if the particle
kinetic energy
would be decreased by
may seem and
This
time.
On
indeed
is
(1
same
this
very
this
non-
example; nevertheless, forces having precisely
conservative property [although not the
described by Eq.
energy
analytic forms as
1-40)] play an important role in physics,
especially in electromagnetism.
There
is
that
is
another way of looking at the analysis of such a
The
situation.
physical criterion for the force to be conservative
should do no net work, either positive or negative, as
it
the particle to which
around the path of
it
Fig.
is
applied makes a complete circuit
ll-22(a) in either direction.
consider a more general situation [Fig.
Let us
ll-22(c)] in which a
from a point A to a point B along one path and

returns from B to A along a dirferent path (again imagine that
particle travels
constraining forces, doing no work, are applied as necessary).
We shall
assume that the force we are studying
any constraining forces)

ticle only.
F-ds+
Path
More about
not including
a function of the position of the par-
If this force is conservative,
W=j
459
is
(i.e.,
we then have
F-ds =
Pth 2
the critcria for conservative forces
It
follows from this that
F ds = - /
Path
But now,
Path 2
if
the force
if
change the
Hence,
cis
is
a function only of position, we can interon the right and reverse its sign.
limits of the integral
is
conservative,
we must have
rB
Fds
'A
Path
Path 2
Pi
1
1
If this condition
is
satisfied
we can put
Wab=I Fds
(ll-42a)
And
without reference to the particular path.
same
for all paths
from
to B,
we can conclude
if
WAB
the
is
that the force
is
conservative and that the potential-energy function can be defined
through the equation
Vb
-Ua--Ja
In evaluating
work
(ll-42b)
ds
integrals
such as that
one may wish to resolve the force F into

F,
and resolve the element of path ds
and dy, thus getting
W
If
F,dx+
one uses
(for a
this equation,
its
in
Eq. (ll-42a),
Fx and
components
into
its
components dx
two-dimensional problem)
Fdy
however, one should always remember
that, basically, the integrals are defined as being taken along
actual designated path of the
particle.
an
This might seem to be
obvious, because the force must necessarily be applied wherever

the particle
is.
However, there are many situations in which an

it happens to be (gravitational
object experiences a force wherever

force, for example).
One can
then set up a purely mat hemat ical
statement that defines a value of

general each
component of F
unless one already
460
knows
is
for
any given x and
a function of both x and
that the force
in
is
y.
conservative,
^pace
In
y.
And
it
is
11-23
Fig.
Consideration of
work done dong a specified path

between two points.
essential to f'ollow the given path, as in Fig. 11-23,
the simpler
finding the integral of

(y
y\
along the
It is
that, in
and not take
but perhaps unjustified course of (for example)
Fx
from
by the
const.), followed
line
CB
(x
= x2 =
line
y>\
AC
to
y2
const.).
perhaps worth ending
many
x 2 along the
integral of Fy from
to
jci
with the remark
this discussion
one may usc the concept of potential
situations,
energy even when additional nonconscrvative forces act on the

particle.
For example, a
of the earth
field
may
satellite
moving
in the gravitational
be subject to the frictional drag of the
earth's upper atmosphere.
This drag
is
a dissipative force, non-
conservative, and the total mechanical energy of the motion

will
not be constant but will decrease as the motion proceeds.
Nevertheless, one
may
still
properly talk of the gravitational
potential energy that the satellite possesses at any given point.
FIELDS
The
forces that
we have
labeled gravitational,
magnetic are "action-at-a-distance" forces.

contact between interacting objects
comes
No
into play.
kind of interaction, the idea of a field of force
To
electric,
and
apparent physical
For
most
is
this
useful.
introduce this concept, consider the gravitational attraction
of the earth for a particle outside
it.
The
puli of the earth
both on the mass of the attracted particle and on

relative to the centcr of the earth.
its
depends
location
This attractive force divided
by the mass of the particle being pulled depends only on the

earth and the location of the attracted object.
We
can therefore
assign to each point of space a vector, of magnitude equal to
This
461
section
Fielcis
may
bc omitted without loss of continuity.
the earth's puli on a particle divided by
mass, and of direction
its
Thus we imagine a
identical with that of the attractive force.
collection of vectors throughout space, in general different in
magnitude and direction
at each point of space,
which define
the gravitational attraction of the earth for a test particle located

at
any arbitrary position.
The
such vectors
totality of
and the vectors themselves are called the
field,
or intensities of the
In this
field
is
called
strengths
field.
example, the gravitational
field
strength g at a point
Pis
F
The magnitude of
2
(e.g., m/sec ) and
where
point
is
the
(11 _43)
mass of the
earth, r the position vector of the
and
relative to the center of the earth,
in the direction of r.
side the surface of
One can
of acceleration
in units
given explicitly by the law of gravitation as
._ C E_ 6 e
measured
this field is
is
Equation (11-43)
is
e r the unit vector
valid at all points out-
an ideal spherical earth.
generalize this for the field produced by an arbitrary
distribution of matter, for
which the
field
strength g as a func-
tion of position describes quantitatively the gravitational field.
The
gravitational force exerted
field is
then given by
This
field
on an object of mass
by
this
F = mg.
description of forces
ing electromagnetic forces.
The
is
especially useful in specify-
electric field
produced by a
charged particle or by a collection of such charged particles
is
described by the electric field strength or intensity S, where
Z =
F
q,
is
the vector force acting on a positive test charge of magnitude
and depends on position.
charges at
rest,
As an
frequently
arbitrary
the situation
is
For
electric fields
aid to visualizing the character of a force
field,
use
is
made of the concept of a field line. Starting from an

point, we draw an infinitesimal line element in the
direction of the field at that point.
neighboring point
462
produced by
similar to the gravitational case.
in the field,
Being thus brought to a
we draw another
in
line
space
element
in
new
the direction of the field at the
making
a smooth curve,
limit of
of a force
of such
and so on.
the tangent to which, at any point,
In the
we
the line elements vanishingly short,
tion of the field at that point.
line has no
point,
This construct which
obtain
the direc-
is
the field
is
but a vivid picture of the properties
real existence,
can be obtained by drawing a whole collection
field
lines.
Hand-in-hand with the concept of a
of force goes that
line
of a line or surface of constant potential energy.
We
shall there-
fore discuss this briefly in the next section.
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES AND THE GRADIENT OF

POTENTIAL ENERGY
1
Besides
its utility in
connection with the dynamics of conservative
systems, the concept of potential energy enables us to describe
conservative fields of force quantitatively in a relatively simple
The reason
fashion.
we can use
that
is
the simple scalar field of
potential energy to calculate the relatively complicated vector
of force.
field
we know
This calculation proceeds as follows.
of space;
i.e.,
we have a
Suppose
of a test particle at each point
form
relation of the
=f(x,y,z),
where the single-valued function f(x, y, z) depends on the particular field of force under consideration. If we wish to know at
what points of space the
test particle will
potential energy, say /
we
set
U = U
have a given value of
and obtain an equation
of the form
f(x, y, z)
This
is
const.
= Uo
the equation of
an energy eguipotenlial
a surface, and
surface.
There
this surface is called
exists
a whole family of
these equipotential surfaces, one for each value of U(,.
by definition, it requires no work to move our

one point to another on the same equipotential
Since,
test particle
surface,
it
from
follows
that the lines of force are everywhere perpendicular to the equipotentials.
We
should draw attention to a distinction between two
quantities here.
Just as
(or charge, etc.) so
we
we
define field as the force per unit
define potential
per unit mass (or charge, etc).

This
463
section
may
To
(<p)
mass
as the potential energy
take the specific case of gravi-
be omilled without loss of continuity.
Equipotential surfaces; poiential-encrgy gradicnts
tation,
force
we thus have
and gravitational
(mVsec 2 ).
The complete
(or, in
the following paired quantities: gravitational
(newtons) with gravitational potential energy

field
g (m/sec
array of
2
)
may
<p
and cquipotential surfaces
field lincs
two dimensions, equipotential
sets
(joules),
with gravitational potential
picture of a complete field pattern.
two
lines)
provides a graphic
we
In two dimensions
see
of curves which, however complicated their appearance
be, are
everywhere orthogonal to one another. The gravita-
which
tional field of a spherical object has a simple pattern, in
the field lines are radial lines and the equipotentials are a set of
concentric spheres [Fig.
ll-24(a)].
two spheres close together
is far less
The
field
pattern
(For one way of constructing such a diagram, see Problem

In
making drawings of
Fig.
1-24
the equipotentials,
(a) Equipotenlials
and field
lines
due
it is
1-26.)
often convenient
due t o a sphere with a \/r 2
force law. (b) Eauipolenlials and field lines due lo a syslem oflwo nearby
spheres,
464
of masses 2
to
simple [see Fig. ll-24(b)].
M and M.
in
space
to
draw them
for equal successive increments of the potential
makes
(or potential energy); this

just like a contour
To
map which
the picture very informative,
in effect
(see Fig. 11-24).
it is
obtain a complete specification of the force
must be able to get the magnitude of the force

as
direction, at every point of space.
its
P and
at a point
point.
Its
let it
may
F*
we
Consider a
test particle
be displaced an amount ds to a neighboring
potential energy will change
dU = -F-ds
This
field,
vector, as well
by an amount
F,ds
be written in the form
(11-44)
as
In words, the
component of
the force
in
any direction
equals the negative rate of change of potential energy with
The
position in that direction.
hand
its
side of Eq. (1 1-44)
is
spatial derivative
on the
right-
called a direclional derivative, because
value depends on the direction in which ds
is
chosen at the
we should be using the notation of

partial derivatives: F, = dU/ds.)
If we move from P to a
neighboring point on the same equipotential surface as that on
which P lies, then dU/ds is zero for this direction. If, however,
we move to a neighboring point not on the same equipotential
point P.
(Strictly speaking,
surface as that containing P,
dU/ds
will
be different from zero.
That particular direction for which dU/ds has
maximum
its
value at a given point defines the direction of the line of force

at that point,
dU/ds
and the magnitude of
maximum
this
value of
the magnitude of the vector force at the point in question.
is
maximum
This
direction,
is
value of dU/ds, together with
its
associated
called the gradient of the potential energy;
it is
vector directed at right angles to the equipotential surface.
symbols,
we
write
F = -grad U
To
In
(11-45)
help clarify the idea of the gradient, consider a con-
servative field in
two dimensions.
Here the equipotentials are
than surfaces as they would be in three dimensions.

1-25 we show two equipotentials, one for
= U and
lines, rather
In Fig.
one for
U=
equipotential
465
l/
-f
AU.
U + M/
Starting at
P on U we
by any of an
infinite
can
move
to the
number of
Equipotential surfaces; potential-encrgy gradienls
dis-
_^\pyui*
Fig. 11-25
StAT^l^'
Different
>u.
paths between two

neighboring equipotentials.
IH^HHHHHH
placements. However, for a given change of potential energy
one moves along a
shortest possible displacement As.
for this direction
this
the direction of the gradient of potential energy.
is
is
1-25, where three directions
AU,
in the
change of po-
rate of
energy with position
from
and
This
is
are shown.
that As
is
shorter in length than either As! or As 2 and
hence that AU/As
is
larger than
It is clear
IN
The
maximum
tential
indicated in Fig.
MOTION
change
line of force to attain this
AU/As
or
AU/As 2
CONSERVATIVE FIELDS
We now
turn our attention to the problem of the motion of
particles in a conservative field of force.
We
have of course
number of problems involving motion under

gravity, but here we shall try to indicate the value of the energy
method as it applies to more complex situations.
already discussed a
If the only force acting
on a particle
is
that
due to the
the law of conservation of mechanical energy provides a

step in solving for the motion.
$mo 2
U(x,y,z)
where v 2
vx
whole
story.
It is
vu
+ v, 2
first
This law, expressed as
= E
2
field,
(H-46)
,
does not, however, contain the
the result of combining three statements of
Newton's law as applied to the three independent coordinate

directions,
and the synthesis of these three vector equations into
one scalar equation involves the discarding of information that

in principle is still available to us. Given that U is a conservative
potential,
we can always find its gradient and hence the vector

With this, plus the initial conditions (values
force [Eq. (I l45)].
of
and v
at
of the problem
Our
is
0) everything that one needs for a solution
provided.
interest here, however, lics in taking
n.
advantage of the
spacc
energy-conservation equation as far as possible, and supple-
menting
it
with whatever other information
This extra information
may
may be
necessary.
take the form of the explicit use of
one or two of the Newton's Iaw statements, as we

the example about to be discussed.
Or
it
may,
shall see in
in suitable cir-
cumstances, be contained in a conservation law for quantities

besides
energy
in
momentum.
angular
particular,
ploitation of this latter property
The
ex-
one of the principal concerns
is
of Chapter 13.
As
a good example of the methods
motion of a charged
field.
particle in a
Suppose we have a pair of
inside an evacuated tube

Fig.
we
combined
parallel
shall consider the
electric
and connected to a battery as shown
11-26, so that a uniform electric field 8
between the
magnet
plates.
The
and magnetic
metal plates mounted
plates are placed
We
shall
exists
between the poles of a
that produces a uniform magnetic field
perpendicular to the page.
(= V/d)
in
in a direction
assume that electrons
start
out with negligible energy and velocity from the lower plate.
This could, for example, be arranged by giving the lower plate a
photosensitive coating and shining light onto
it,
as in a
com-
mercial phototube.
Consider one electron of charge q

will
= e
emitted at O.
It
be accelerated vertically by a constant force equal to eV/d
directed along the positive y axis,
path indicated
in the figure.
and
will
be deflected into the
Since the magnetic deflecting force,
always acting perpendicular to the particle's velocity, does no
work and hence does not
directly affect the particle's energy, the
statement of energy conservation can be written simply as follows:

Fig. 11-26
Motion of an electron in vacuum under the
combined action of electric and magnetic fields.
Adi
Motion
in
conservative fields
into
the page
Fig.
11-27
*U4-
Analysis ofthe
magnelic force into componenlS associated with the

separate
x and y components
0/7.
[= (eV/d)y] equal to zero for y =

the bottom plate where the kinetic energy at y = O
where we have chosen

i.e.,
at
O,
is
negligible.
As
statcd at the beginning of this section,
we need more
Since the electric force
information to determine the motion.
is
directed along the y axis, the only x component of force on the

electron is the x component of the magnetic force. To evaluate
this force, think of the velocity vector of the electron at
point of
The component of magnetic

situation
some
path resolved into x and y components (Fig. 11-27).
its
parallel to the
is
force associated with vx in this
axis
and does not concern us
here,
but the velocity component v u gives rise to a magnetic force
component
Fx
given
by
and Newton's law of motion
for the
x component of motion
is
accordingly
evv
B=m^
(11-48)
Equations (11-47) and (11-48) can be solved for the motion of

the particle, as follows:
Since v
eB dy =
dy/dt, Eq. (11-48) can be written as
m do x
or, integrated,
mv x = eBy
since vx
O when y
(\\-49)
0.
Now we
use the value of vx from
Eq. (11-49) in the energy equation (11-47) and get
468
Conservative forees and mol ion
in
space
nwy2
This
is
TV
y =
(11-50)
of the form of the energy equation in one dimension;
the total energy

is
eV
zero and the effective potential energy U'(y)
is
given by
e
= - -jy
U'(y)
+ hm
"
This effective potential-energy curve

is
precisely of the
form of a harmonic
on a point at a certain
angular frequency
O)
co is
shown
in Fig. 11-28.
It
positive value of y)
and
its
characteristic
given by
eB
This implies a very interesting

Fig.
is
oscillator potential (centered
result.
Equation (11-50) and
1-28 show that, as y increases from zero, the kinetic energy
of the electron increases to some

creases again.
maximum
value and then de-
Mathematically, Eq. (11-50) defines a
value of y given by putting v u
maximum
0:
m V
y**
If this is less
eB2d
than the separation d between the plates (a con-
dition that can be obtained, as the
making B
large enough), the
above equation shows, by
y displacement of
the electron will
perform simple harmonic motion with the angular frequency w
and with an amplitude
equal to
.ymax .
instant the electron leaves the lower plate,
Fig.
11-28
Effective
potential-energy curve
for the y component
of motion in the
arrangement of Fig.
11-26.
469
Mol ion
in
conscrvativc
fields
Taking
we can put
at the
Fig.
11-29
Cycloidal
path ofelectron between charged parallel

plates in
a magnetic
field.
/1(1
(ll-51a)
cosco/)
What about the x component of the motion? If we look at

Eq. (1 1-49), we see that vx is proportional to y. Since y is always
positive, vz is always in the positive x direction.
When one
couples this with the harmonic oscillation along y, one sees that
the path of the electron
shown
in Fig. 11-29.
dx eB y
y
where w
is
the
we have, from Eq.
(11-49),
oiy
dt
a succession of rabbit-like hops, as
is
Specifically,
same angular frequency, eB/m,
that
we introduced
Thus, substituting the explicit expression for y from
earlier.
Eq. (ll-51a), we have
dx
a>/4(l
cos
tor)
dt
Integrating this and putting
.v
A(ut
x = O
at
O we then find that

(11-51 b)
sinwr)
Equations (11-5 la) and (ll-51b), taken together, show that the
path of the electron
is in fact
a cycloidjust as
rim of a wheel of radius A rolling along the x
if it
were on the
axis.
THE EFFECT OF DISSIPATIVE FORCES

We
field
mentioned
may be
earlier
useful
how
even
forces are also present.
the conservative properties of a force

in circumstances in
The slow decay
which dissipative
of the orbits of
artificial
earth satellites provides a particularly interesting example of this.
We
all
know
that a satellite placed in orbit a few
miles above the earth's surface will eventually
470
in
hundred
come down. The
spacc
Fig.
11-30 (a) Earth
satellite spiraling
inward as
energy.
it
(b)
loses
Small
element of the path

sliown in (a).
descent
is,
many thousands
however, spread over
Thus, although the actual path
is
as
shown
is
very nearly a closcd orbit, which
in Fig.
for simpiicity.
l-30(a), the
motion during a
we
single revolution
will take to
The statement of Newton's law
thus given, with extremely
little
of revolutions.
a continuous inward spiral,
at
be circular
any stage
is
by the usual equation for
error,
uniform circular motion:
F=
GMm
_ mo
r
r*
Thus the
kinetic energy at
any particular value of
r is given
G Mm
K = %mu =
by
(11-52)
2r
This exposes a very curious feature.

smaller, the kinetic energy increases
speeds up.
This happens
the satellite
is
in spite
As
the orbital radius gets
in other
words, the
satellite
of the fact that the motion of
continually opposed by a resistive force.
If there
were no such force the orbital radius and the speed would
re-
main constant.
We
know, however, that the
and the amount of
when we consider
satellite
the potential energy:
U= - GMm
471
The
eflcct
must have
this loss is well defined.
of dissipative forccs
lost energy,
This becomes clear
The
total energy, E,
when
the orbit radius
given by
is r, is
E-K+V--^
As
r decreases,
E becomes
(11-53)
more strongly
negative.
We may note
the following relationships in any such circular orbit:
E= -K=\U
But
(11-54)
one may wonder:
still
Why
does the
the face of a resistive force? Figure
The
AB
line
of the
The starting point A lies on a

B lies on a circle of radius r + Ar
satellite.
We
negative).
sake of
it
We
path.
feels
then see that as the
component of the
of radius
GMm
r;
(Ar being actually
satellite travels
from
gravitational attraction along
If the resistive force is R(p), the total force acting
the satellite in the direction of As
_
F=
circle
greatly exaggerate the magnitude of Ar, for the
clarity.
to B,
its
satellite accelerate in
l-30(b) suggests the answer.
represents a small segment, of length As, of the path
the end point
cos a
is
on
given by
R(v)
Thus, in the distance As, the gain of kinetic energy, equal to the
work
F As,
given by
is
AK = F As = ^Âscosa In the
first
term on the
right,
R(v)As
we can
substitute
Ar
As cos a =
In the second term
on the
right,
we can
substitute
As = v Al
If
we
also put
10
AK = mu Av, we arrivc
GMm
Ar
Ao =
However, by
Usingthisresult,
R(u)u At
diffcrcntiation of both sides of Eq. (1 1-52)
nwAv = -
472
at the following equation:
we have
GMm Ar
.
-2rT~
wecan
substitute for the value of
(GMm/r 2 )Ar
onscrvairvc forees and motion in space
previous equation, and
in the
nwAv = 2mv&o
we
get
R(v)vAt
Hence
Ao
=
At
R(v)
a most intriguing
The
This
is
The
rate of increase of speed of the satellite
magnitude of the
tional to the
motion!
an inward
GAUSS'S LAW
is
is
not an error.
directly propor-
is
resolved
opposes
its
when we recognize
by changing the
orbital path from a circle to

an agent that allows the gravitational
work on the satellite, the amount of which is
spiral, acts as
do
positioe
numerically twice as great as the
by the
positive sign
resistive force that
The seeming paradox
that the resistance,
force to
result.
amount of
negative
work done
resistive force itself.
The
particular case of the inverse-square field of force
point mass or charge
is
so important that
brief discussion of Gauss's Iaw,
which
is
we
statement of the inverse-square law. Since
cerned with mechanies here,
we
we
are primarily con-
shall diseuss the
terms of the gravitational rather than the electric

begin with a very elementary observation.
gravitational field g
field acts at
M.
centered on
field.
As we have
We
seen, the
every point of the surface of a sphere of radius r

If
we use
the convention that the positive direc-
tion is radially outward, then the radial
by the
plied
is
problem in
GM
..
This
due to a point mass
due to a
append here a
a compact and powerful
will
total surface area
component of g multi-
of the sphere gives us a quantity
<f>
defined as follows:
<t>
We
47rr
r = -4irGM
shall call
<t>
the flux of the gravitational field g through the
surface of the sphere.
This
473
seetion
may
Gauss's law
11-31 (a) Gaussian surface enclosing a parlicle of
Fig.
mass M. There
is
a net gravitational ftux due to
(b) Gaussian surface nol enclosing
due to
M'
M.
M'. The net flux
is zero.
Now
a noteworthy property of
is
<j>
that
it
is
indcpcndent
If we had two spheres of different radii, r and r 2 centered

r.
on M, the flux of g would bc the same through both. We can
of
extend this result to the case of a closed surface of any shape

surrounding the mass [Fig. 11-31 (a)]. If at an arbitrary point
outward normal to the surface makes an angle

B with r, as shown, we can rcsolve g into orthogonal components,
parallel to the surface and along the normal. If we think of the
on
this surface the
flux literally as a
is
kind of flow of the g
field
aeross the surface,
only the normal component that contributes.
this
it
Multiplying
by the element of area dS, we thus have
d<$,
= -
cos e
dS
can be equated to the projection of dS perpen2

and the quoticnt dS cos O/r is the element of solid
Now dS cos 6
dicular to
r,
angle, dil, subtended at
d<f>
The
M by dS.
Thus we can put
= -GMcKl
total flux of g
through the surface, as defined
in this
way,
is then obtained by integrating over all the contributions dQ.
But
this
means simply including the complete
solid angle, Air.
Thus we have
-I
474
,','o
-GM
dtt
= -4irGM
Conservative forees and motion in spacc
exactly as for a sphere.
M'
mass
If
we
consider the situation for a point
outside the surface, the result
quite different.
is
This
time a cone of small angle dti intersects the surface twice; the
contribution to the flux
d<t>
= -G M'
is
'dSi cos
given by
6i
dS2 cos
It is
r&
n*
not hard to verify that the two terms inside the parentheses
dQ
are equal to
which
and
-\-dQ, respectively, so that
follows that the total flux
it
One can
<f>
is
d<t>
0,
from
also zero in this case.
formalize these calculations a
little
by representing
an element of surface area as a vector, dS, with a magnitude equal

to
dS and
a direction along the outward normal, as
The element of
11-31.
Fig.
to the scalar product g
dS.
flux,
d<f>,
It is
is
mz,
inside a surface of
Their gravitational
tional field
The
gi
at
fields
=
J
and we see
g2
that this
11-32 (a) Basis
gravitational flux due
an arbitrary
collec-
of masses inside a
given surface. (b) The
tion
addition
of external
masses does not

change the net flux,
although
it
will alter
the local field intensities.
475
combine to produce a
mu m 2<
1
l-32(a).
resultant gravita-
g3
-\
by
dS
of calculating the
to
kind, as in Fig.
any point P:
is
the individual masses:
Fig.
some
total gravitational flux is then given
<t>
in
then apparent that, in Fig.
dSi and g 2 dS 2 are of opposite sign.

Suppose now that we have a number of masses,
11-31 (b), gi
shown
then defined as equal
Gauss's law
simply the
sum
of the contributions from
gi
dS
<t>
If,
how
it
= 4irG A/to
may
ti
g3
rfS
total enclosed mass,
be distributed
(11-55)
ai
we suppose
as in Fig. ll-32(b),
m'2
H-
depends only on the
this total flux
regardless of
g 2 dS
+ ntz +
= 4irG(mi
Thus
that additional masses m[,
are placed outside the surface, our previous calculation
shows that these contribute nothing to the

flux
through the surface.
pletely general result;
and
its
force
is
validity
it
total gravltational
Thus Eq. (11-55) emerges as a comis known as Gauss's law (or theorem),
depends completely on the
an exact inverse-square law.
fact that the
An
holds for electrostatics, in which context Gauss, in

developed it.
If a physical system has certain
theorem leads
We
at
once
to
law of
exact parallel to
fact,
it
first
obvious symmetries, Gauss's
important conclusions about
field
a few examples, some of which we

have already treated by other methods.
strengths.
shall consider
APPLICATIONS OF GAUSS'S THEOREM

Field outside a sphere
Suppose we want to know the gravitational

outside an isolated sphere of mass
center [Fig.
Fig. 1 1-33
133(a)].
If the
field at
a distance
Use of
Gauss's law to calculale the gracitalional
field
of a
solid sphere
(a) at exterior points,
and
(b) at interior
points.
476
a point P,
r from its
mass distribution within the sphere
at
in
space
is
symmetrical i.c,
if
the density of matter
same
the
is
at all
points at the same distance from the center of the sphere then
the gravitational field g itself has the same strength at all points
on a spherical surface of radius r. Thus, if we draw a "Gaussian
surface" in the form of a sphere of radius

tional flux
# =
is
4irr
r,
the total gravita-
given by
gr = -A-kGM
whence
gr =
The
is
GM
- -5-
at once
result is of course entirely familiar,
that,
but the point to notice
once we have Gauss's general theorem, the process of
carrying out an explicit integration over the mass distribution,

as
we did
in
Chapter
8,
becomes unnecessary.
Field inside a sphere
An
exactly similar treatment holds for the other familiar problem
of the gravitational
distribution [Fig.
that, if
we
field
inside a spherically
11 33(b)].
symmetric mass
Gauss's theorem
tells
us at once
imagine a spherical surface of radius r
<
R, the
material outside this surface contributes nothing to the flux of g
through the surface.

surface of radius r
Thus,
m(r),
is
if
mass enclosed within the
the
we can
at
once deduce that
Gm(r)
The assumption of
spherical
symmetry throughout
outside as well as inside the radius
Otherwise the value of g

spherical surface,
may be
r,
is,
the system,
however, essential.
different at different points
and even though
the total flux
still
on a
has no
contribution from exterior material, the field strength at individual points will be affected.
first
example, that the sphere
is
Thus we must assume,

effectively isolated,
i.e.,
as in the
far
from
any outside masses.

Field due to afiat sheet
Suppose we have an
infinite sheet
of matter, of surface density
(mass per unit area). Symmetry in this case
tells
must be everywhere normal to the sheet and that
477
Applications of Gauss's theorem
<r
us that the field

it
has the same
Use ofGauss's law to calculate the gravi-
Fig. 11-34
talional field ofaftat sheet ofmatler.
magnitude on the two sides

Gaussian surface
for this
(Fig. 11-34).
We
can construct a
problem in the form of a right cylinder,
Then
with ends of arbitrary shape but the same area A.
no
there
g through the curved sides of the cylinder. The

enclosed mass is just a A, so the total gravitational flux passing
is
flux of
through the surface

is
equal to the
field
is
AtrGaA.
strength
But, by Gauss's theorem, this
multiplied by the total area of the
two ends. Thus we have

2 Ag
= -A-kGiA
Therefore,
2ttGV
g =
The
(11-56)
strength of the field
thus entirely independent of the
is
distance from the sheet of matter, assuming this to be indeed
of unlimited extent.
In terms of gravitational systems, this example
But the
realistic.
is
not very
result is highly relevant in electrostatics,
where
distributions of electric charge over large plane areas are fre-
The
quently met.
and the constant
parallel-plate capacitor
field at all
is
a prime example,
points between the charged plates
Millikan experiment, for example, can at once be under-
in the
stood in the light of the above calculation.
PROBLEMS
11-1
particle
of mass
slides
curved into a vertical circle (see the
can be described
in
lerms of
the vertical distance h that

(a)
tion of
0,
The position
or in terms of the arc length
has
is
of the particle
s,
or by
fallen.
Consider the force that acts on the particle along the direcpath at any point, and show that the work done on the
its
particle as
it
without friction on a wire that

figure).
it
moves through an arc length ds
dW = F
ds
= mgR
is
given by
sin d dd
By integrating this expression from d =

to 6 = do, show
= mgR(\ cos 0o), and express this result
work done is
(b)
that the
in terms of the vertical distance h that the particle
11-2
478
Two
blocks, of masses
and 2m,
rest
has descended.
on two
frictionless planes
Conservative forccs and motion in space
inclined at angles of 60
an
string through
and
30, respectively,
and are connected by a

Using
eyelet of negligible friction (see the figure).
energy methods, find the magnitude of the acceleration of the masses,

the tension in the connecting string.
and deduce
11-3
down
Show
that
a mass on the
if
in a circular
horizontal (and the mass
swing the tension
starts
at rest), then at the lowest point

is
(This result
book on pendulum
11-4
is
in the string
simply hangs there.

his
end of a string is allowed to swing

in which the string is initially
arc from a position
three times as great as

is
quoted by Huygens
at the
mass
end of
clocks, published in 1673.)
pendulum bob of mass m, at the end of a string of length /,

rest at the position shown in the figure, with the string at
At
the lowest point of the arc the
previously stationary block, of mass nm, that
zontal surface.
The
What
What
What
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d) In
collision
is
released.
velocity
is
mi and
m%
momentum"
pulled aside a horizontal distance Xi
is
sticks to
it,
and then decreases again to
that energy
is
not conserved.
in this experiment, so that
experi-
are suspended from strings
you
and
which the combined mass
after
The student
obviously not conserved in this proccss.
is
increases,
after the collision,
.)
swings out to some final position x/.
mentum
pendulum
does the string make? (Obtain
to the vertical
m? and
It strikes
given to the block by the impact ?
assigned a "conservation of
is
strikes
the impact occurs?
the tension in the string at this instant?
Mass m\
/.
bob just before
is
which two masses,
of length
bob
frictionless hori-
perfectly elastic.
the oscillations of the
student
on a
the specd of the
your answer in the form cos 6 =
in
is
is
what maximum angle 6
ment
of the
the
from
60 to the vertical.
11-5
when
zero.
objects that
It is
zero
The student
mo-
initially,
also claims
Analyze carefully what actually goes on

are in a position to answer the student's
objections.
11-6
small ball of putty, of mass m,
is
attached to a string of
an upright on a wooden board resting on a horizontal table (see the figure). The combined mass of the board and
upright is M. The friction coefficient between the board and the table
length
479
fastened to
Problems
The
is fi.
position.
the ball swings
How
(b)
What
far does the

is
the
11-7
M, which
An
board move after the collision?
minimum
value that n must have to prevent the
while the ball swings
lcft
gives the critical condition at 6
object of
mass
on
slides
down? Assume
45.
a frictionless loop-the-loop
object is released from rest at a height h above the
The
apparatus.
While
down, the board does not move.
(a)
m <3C
with the string in a horizontal
rest
the upright in a completely inelastic collision.
board from moving to the

that
from
ball is released
It hits
top of the loop (see the figure).
(a)
What
the
is
magnitude and direction of the force exerted on
the object by the track as the object passes through the point
(b)
Draw
A?
an isolation diagram showing the forces acting
the object at point B, and find the magnitude
on
of the radial acceleration
at that point.
Show
(c)
that the object
must
start
from h
>
r/2 to success-
fully complete the loop.
<
For h
(d)
fail away from the

Show that this happens at
where a is the angular dis-
r/2 the object will begin to
track before reaching the top of the circle.
a position such that 3 cosa
-|-
2h/r,
tance from the (upward) vertical.
11-8
mass
ball of
hangs
at the
end of a string of length
/.
It is
struck so as to start out horizontally from this position with a speed vo-
What must
(a)
Do be
if
the ball
is
just able to travel through a
complete circular path ?

(b) If
height 2/
if
the vertical
(c)
no
l-o
\/4g/ (so that the ball could just
rise
through the
projected vertically), what angle does the string
when
the ball begins to fail
away from
its
make with
circular
path?
In situation (b), analyze the subsequent motion, assuming
losses of total
mechanical energy.
A mass slides down a very smooth curved chute as shown. At

what horizontal distance from the end of the chute does it hit the
11-9
ground ?
480
Conservativc forces and motion in spacc
11-10
dome
(see figure)
daredevil astronomer stands at the top of his observatory
wearing
down
velocity to coast
roller
over thc
skates,
dome
and
Neglecting friction, at what angle
(a)
starts
with negligible
surface.
does he leave the dome's
surface?
(b) If
would he
he were to
leave the
start
R =
your answer for

11-11
peg
figure.
A
is
break his
m, and
pendulum of length L
The pendulum
Ifa
is
60,/3
(b)
481
use
is
fail,
=*
far
from thc base should
in situation (a)?
10 m/sec
held at
Evaluate
2
.
an angle a from the vertical.

shown in the
<
Show
30,
is
the
maximum
that the string will bucklc during thc bob's aseent
(rcos/3
buckling oecur?
Problcms
from rest.
and r = Ly/3/4, what
bob will reach ?
released
angle with the vertical that the
this
what angle
located in the path of swing of the string as
(a)
when
initial velocity to, at
For thc observatory shown, how
(c)
his assistant position a net to
with an
dome ?
Lcosa) < 3(L
r)/2.
At what angle
B does
A carnival skill game involves such a pendulum and peg

A prize is awarded for causing the bob to strike the peg.
(c)
apparatus.
In the game, L,
rest at
r,
and
are fixed
the contestant releases the
any desired a. Find the value of a for which a prize
(Express your answer in the form cosor
11-12
frictionless airtrack
y = \Cx 2
An
bob from
will be
won.
.)
deformed into the parabolic shape
is
object oscillates along the track in almost perfect
simple harmonic motion.

30sec, by what distance
(a) If the period is
x = 2 m
(b) If the
amplitude of oscillation
direction ?
of uniform circular motion

11-13
how many
height of 20
T =
above
m, how long does
it
is
x = 0.5
useful for this.)
pendulum clock keeps
proximately
is
m to x = +1.5 m traveling
(The description of SHM as a projection
take for the object to pass from

in the positive
the track at
is
= 0?
higher than at x
perfect time at
seconds per week would
level.
Ap-
gain or lose at a
(Assume a simple pendulum, with
this level?
2Tr\/I/g. Earth's radius
ground
it
6.4
10 m.
week
10 5 sec.)
11-14 Two identical, and equally charged, ping-pong balls are hung
from the same point by strings of length L (see the figure).
(a) Given that the mass of each is m and that the equilibrium
position is as shown in the figure, what is the charge on each? (Recall
that the electrostatic force between two charges at a separation r is
given by
F=
(b)
m.q
m,q
kqiq2/r'
.)
Suppose that the
other by the same amount.
balls are displaced slightly
Make
describe the subsequent motion.
toward each
appropriatc approximations and
Find an expression for the frequency
of oscillations.
(c)
On
the other hand,
if
the ping-pong balls are displaced
same direction and by the same amount, what will the

subsequent motion be? In this second case, does it matter whether
they are charged or mcrely held apart by a massless rod?
slightly in the
11-15
(a)
Show
that free fail in the earth's gravitational field
infinity results in the
same
would be achieved by a
482
from
velocity at the surface of the earth that
free fail
from a height
H=
RB (=
radius of
earth) under a constant acceleration equal to the value of g at the earth's

surface.
that the speed at the earth's surface of
Show
(b)
dropped from
|=
height,/;
RK
(2*A)i
(c) Verify the
i)
statement in the text (p. 454) that the speed
needed for escape from the surface of a gravitating sphere
where co
is
t'o\/2,
skimming the surface of the sphere
the speed of a particle
is
object
given approximately by
) is
(/i
an
in circular orbit.
11-16
physicist plans to determine the
mass of the earth by ob-
pendulum as he deseends a mine

radius R of the earth, and he measures the den-
serving the changc in period of a
He knows
shaft.
the
ps of the crustal material that he penetrates, the distance h he

deseends, and the fractional change (AT/T) in the pendulum's period.
sity
(a)
What
is
the mass of the earth in terms of these measure-
ments and the earth's radius?

(b)
Suppose that the mean
over-all density of the earth
the mean density of the portion above 3 km.
is
twice
(This supposition
is
actually rather accurate.) How many seconds per day would a pendulum
clock at the bottom of a deep mine (3
km)
gain, if
it
had kept time
accurately at the surface?
11-17 The
figure shovvs
centric spherical shells.
a system of two uniform, thin-walled, con-
The
smaller shell has radius
and mass M,
and mass 2M, and the point P is their

point mass m is situated at a distance r from P.
the larger has radius 2/?
center.
(a)
in
What
is
the gravitational foree F(r) these shells exert
each of the three ranges of

(b)
mass
What
m when
is infinitely
it is
far
r:
<
can pass
what
at
<
R,
P? (Take
Problems
<
2R, r
on
> 2R?
when
speed when
it
from
rest
very far
away from the
reaches P'! (Assume that the particle
through the walls of the
shells.)
moon to be a sphere
km and mass 7.3 X 10 22 kg.
of uniform density with
moon
so as to connect any two
smooth tunnel
483
the potential energv to be zero
11-18 Assume the

radius 1740
R <
from P.)
is its
freely
the gravitational potential energy of the point
is
(c) If the particle is released
spheres,
common
is
bored through the
Imagine that a straight
on
points
its
surface.
Show
(a)
that the motion of objects along this tunnel under
the action of gravity
would be simple harmonic.
(b) Calculate the period of oscillation.
Compare
(c)
moon
the
with the period of a
this
satellite traveling
11-19 The escape specd from the surface of a sphere of mass
radius
around
n a circular orbit at the moon's surface.
is
ve
= (2GM/R)
1 '2
;
the
mean speed
M and
v of gas molecules of
mass m at temperature T is about (3kT/m) l/2 , where k (= 1.38 X

10 -23 J/K) is Boltzmann's constant. Detailed calculation shows that
a planetary atmosphere can retain for astronomical times (10
ycars)
Using the data below, find

only those gases for which D J$ 0.2y e
which, if any, of the gases H2, NH3, N2, and CO2 could be retained
.
for such periods by the earth; by the

6.0
10
24
kg,
RE =
M = Mu/Si, R =
R =
0.53*s , and
11-20
6.4
0.27Rn, and
T -
0.8TE
ME
moon; by Mars.
TB = 250K. For the moon,

T = TK For Mars, M = O.llAfe,
10 3 km,
double-star system consists of two stars, of masses
2M, separatcd by a distance D center to

how the gravitational potential energy
center.
Draw a
M and
graph showing
of a particle would vary with
position along a straight line that passes through the centers of both
What can you
stars.
about the possible motions of a particle
infer
along this line?

11-21
of mass
double-star system
M and
distance of 5R.
is
composed of two
identical stars, each
radius R, the centers of which are separated by a
particle leaves the surface of
nearest to the other star
and escapes
(a) Ignoring the orbital
to
an
one
star at the point
effectively infinite distance.
motion of the two
stars
about one
another, calculate the escape speed of the particle.

(b)
Assuming
one another
(like the
that the stars always present the
moon
same
face to
to the earth), calculate the orbital speed
of the point from which the particle
is
emitted.
How
would the
exis-
tence of this orbital motion affect the escape problem?
11-22 The earth and the

3.84
10
m.
moon
are separated by a distance
Ignoring their motion about their
common
mass, but taking into account both of their gravitational
D =
center of
fields,
answer
the following questions:

(a)
How much work must

km above
to reach a height 1000
of the
be done on a 100-kg payload for
it
the earth's surface in the direction
moon ?
(b) Calculate the diiTerence in potential energy for this
mass
between the moon's surface and the earth's surface.

(c)
Calculate the necessary
payload to the moon.
484
It
initial
kinetic
energy to get the
must be greater than the potential difference
Conservalivc forces and motion in space
given in (b) because the payload must overcome a "potential
Find the location of the top of

difference
11-23
from the earth
Two
stars,
to
hill."
the potential
it.
M,
each of mass
orbit about their center of mass.
planetoid of
common orbit is
mass m ( M) happens
system (the
line
The radius of
and compute
this hill
r (their separation
their
to
move along
is
2r).
the axis of the
perpendicular to the orbital plane which intersects
the center of mass), as
shown
in the figure.
(a) Calculate directly the force exerted
on the planetoid
if it is
displaced a distance z from the center of mass.

(b) Calculate the gravitational potential
this displacement z
and use
Find approximate expressions for the potential energy and
(c)
zy>
the force in the cases
Show
(d)
and z
r.
that if the planetoid
center of mass, simple harmonic
TP
is
displaced slightly from the
motion occurs. Compare the period
of this oscillation with the orbital period
11-24
energy as a function of
to verify the result of part (a).
it
frictionless
wire
is
7"o
of the binary system.
stretched between the origin
and the point
x = a, y = b in a horizontal plane. A bead on the wire starts out

from the origin and moves under the action of a force that varies with
position.
point
Find the kinetic energy with which the bead arrives
at the
(a, b) if
The components of the force are Fx = k\x, Fy = kiyThe components of the force are Fx = kiy, F =
(a)
(b)
A:
2*
(with ki, *2 >0).
In one case the force
is
conservative, in the other case
considering a different path

(a, 0) to (a, b)
e. g.,
verify which
is
from
(0, 0) to (a, 0)
it
is
not.
By
and then from
which.
11-25 The nuclear pari of the interaction of two nucleons (protons or

neutrons)
is
described pretty well by a potential V(r)
is greatcr than 1 F (1 F =
=
1.4
F
and X = 70 MeV-F.
(The
/-o
proposed by H. Yukawa and is named after him.)
when
= \e~ r/ro/r
10~ ls
the separation r
expression,
m).
In this
potential
was
Find an expression for the nuclear force that acts on

two nucleons separated by r > 1 F.
(b) Evaluate this force for two protons 1.4 F apart, and com(a)
(each of)
pare this with the repulsive

(c)
485
Coulomb
force at that separation.
Estimate the separation at which the nuclear force has
Problem s
1%
dropped to
of
value a t r
its
What
1.4 F.
is
the
Couiomb
force
at this separation?
The
(d)
why
last result indicates
the
Note
part of our macroscopic experience.
range of distance over which the interaction
potential
is
not
is
important.
In contrast
and Couiomb forces have been
to the nuclear force, gravitational
called forces of infinite range.
Yukawa
that ro characterizes the
Indicate
why such a
description
is
appropriate.
is shown a plot of gravitational equipotentia!s
two spheres of masses 2M and M. One way of
11-26 In Fig. ll-24(b)
and
field lines for
developing this diagram
as follows.
is
P is given
any point
potential at
and
equipotential
r 2 are
An
measurcd from the centers of the spheres.

by
defined
is
that the gravitational
G(M)
G(2M)
where
We know
by
<pp
such equipotcntials, draw a set of
In order to construct
constant.
circles,
with the sphere of mass
as center, such that the values of 1/ra are in arithmetic progression
IA2 =
e.g.,
2M
1, 1.5, 2,
Then with
2.5, 3, 3.5
the sphere of mass
as center, draw a set of circles with radii r\ twice as great as the
(2/n)
(IA2), the corresponding circles
P
and M. The
in each pair represent equal contributions to <p by
values of r 2
Since
<p
2M
two
sets
of circles have a
number of intersections, and each
corresponds to a well-defined value of

2.85 units
But
5.5.
and 10n =
<pp
circles as follows:
/2
have <pe ~
we
(2/1.0)
5.5 is obtained also at the intersections
of
0.67,
10 units,
<fp.
value of (2/n)
0.50.
r2
n =
0.33,
intersection
For instance, with 10r2
0.80; r 2
(1/0.285)
=
=
of other pairs
0.40,
0.67;
same
and other equiOnce the equipo-
Joining these intersections having the
(1/ra) gives us
an
potentials can be constructed in the

tentials are obtained, the
field lines
equipotential,
same way.
can be drawn as
lines
everywhere
normal to the equipotentials.

11-27
science fiction story concerned a space probe that was re-
trieved after passing near a neutron star.
that rode in the probe
was found
The unfortunate monkey

The conclusion
to be dismembered.
reached was that the strong gravity gradient (dg/dr) which the probe
had experienced had pulled the monkey apart. Given that the probe
had passed within 200 km of the surface of a neutron star of mass
10 33 g (about half the sun's mass) and radius 10 km, was this explanation reasonable? (The probe was in free fail at the time.)
11-28
straight chute is to be used to transport articles a given

/.
The vertical drop of the chute can be freely
The articles are to arrivc at the top of the chute with negligiblc
horizontal distance
chosen.
486
Conservativc forces and motion
in.
space
and
minimum.
velocity
the chute
is
to be chosen such that the transit time
what
(a) If the surfacc is frictionless,
for which the time

(b)
tion
is
What
the angle of the chute
is
minimized?
is
the corresponding angle if the coefficient of fric-
is
m?
(c) If a
playground
were designed to give minimum dura-
slide
tion of ride for given horizontal displacement,
of friction of the child-slide surface
make
is
0.2,
and
if
the coefficient
what angle would the
slide
(Ignore the curved portion at the lower
with the horizontal?
end of the
is
slide.)
(d) If the optimizaiion
problem of
(a) is
encountered and
if
curved chutcs are allowed, can you guess roughly what form the best
design would have?
11-29 The magnetic force exerted on a particle of charge q and mass

traveling in a uniform magnetic field
(which
is
constant in time)
m
is
F = kqs X B (where the constant k = 1 in the MKS system).

(a) Show that the work done by such a force on the particle is
given by
zero for arbitrary particle motion.

(b) Situations
which a moving charged
in
arise
to the instantaneous velocity.
particle
is
FD
and of direction opposite

(For example, the ionization of atoms
slowed by a force of constant magnitude
along the track of a charged particle produces an almost constant

energy loss per unit distance, corresponding to a constant retarding
force.)
its
Show
speed
will
that
a particle has speed eo at
if
be given by
u(t)
vo
will
of a magnetic
not affect this
(c)
an
Fnt/tn until
moo/kgB with
0,
t
thcn for
>
/huo/Fd, after
result.
Under the action of a magnetic
initial velocity
remain motionless. Note that the presence
which time the particle

field will
force alone, a particle with
vo (normal to B) describes a circle of radius r
a circular frequency
o = kgB/m. Show
subject also to the force described in (b)
moves inward along a
and that the number of
in the spiral before
circuits
it
makes
that a particle
it
spiral
comes
to rest is given by {kqBoa/2irFti).
11-30
(a)
Obtain an expression for the gravitational
thin disk (thickncss d, radius R,

the center of mass of the disk.
surface density a
pel to
and density
field
due to a
p) at a distance
In calculating the
field,
h above
assume the
be concentrated in a disk of negligible
thickness a distance h beneath the test point. This will give an accurate
result
whenever h^>
Note that for
and reduces the complexity of the
d,
R * ,
Gauss's theorem, as
it
caleulation.
the caleulation agrees with the predietion of
must.
(b) Express the field obtained in part (a) as a fraetion of 2irGcr
R = 2h, R = 5h, and R = 25h.

How many seconds per year would
for the cases

(c)
487
Problcms
pendulum
clock gain
when suspended with
bob
the
cm above a
lead floor
cm
thick, if
it
keeps correct time in the absence of the floor?

11-31 Any mass of mattcr has a gravitational "self-energy" arising
from the gravitational attraction among its parts.
(a) Show that the gravitational self-energy of a uniform sphere
of mass
M and
radius
is
equal to
-3GM 2 /5R.
You
can do
this
by calculating the potential energy of the sphere directly, integrating over the interactions between all possible pairs of thin spherical
either
shells within the sphere
(and remembering that each
twice in this calculation) or, perhaps
more
shell is
counted
simply, by imagining the
sphere to be built up from scratch by the addition of successive layers

of matter brought in from
infinity.
(b) Calculate the order of
energy of the earth.
magnitude of the gravitational
Check where
this lies
on the
displayed in Table 10-1.
488
Conservativc forces and motion
in
self-
scale of energies
space
Part III
Some
special topics
Whenfirst studying mechanics one has the impression that

everything
in this
and sett/edfor
existence
three
branch ofscience
all time.
is
simple, fundamental
One would hardly
ofan important
clue which
suspect the
no one noticedfor
hundred years. The neglected clue
is
connected with
that ofmass.
one of the fundamental concepts of mechanics

A.
EINSTEIN
AND
L.
INFELD,
The Evolution ofPhysics (1938)
12
and
Inertial forces
noninertial frames
imagine that you are
You
on a very smooth road.
sitting in a car
are holding a heavy package.
The
car
cannot see the speedometer from where you
is
moving, but you
sit.
Ali at once
get the feeling that the package, instead of being just a
you
dead
weight on your knees, has begun to push backward horizontally
on you as
well.
Even though the package
anything except yourself, the effect

applied to
it
is
as
is
if
not
in
contact with
a force were being
and transmitted to you as you hold
it
still
with
respect to yourself and the car. If you did not restrain the package
it would in fact be pushed backward.
You notice
what happens to a mascot that has been hanging at
in this way,
that this
is
the end of a previously vertical string attached to the roof of

the car.
How
do you intcrpret these observations?
If
you have any
previous experience of such phenomena, you will have no hesitation in saying that they are associated with an increase of velocity
of the car
with a positive acceleration.
Even if this were

you had a well-developed
acquaintance with Newton's laws, you could reach the same
your
first
i.e.,
experience of this type, but
conclusion.
An
acceleration of the car calls for an acceleration
of everything connected with

requires, through
F =
by your hands.
Nonetheless,
itself is
if
somehow
it;
the acceleration of the package
ma, a force of the appropriate

it
does
size
supplied
feel just as if the
package
subjected to an extra
force a "force of
in-
493
that
ertia"
change the
comes into play whenever the

motion of an object.
effort is
made
to
state of
class.
They can be
phenomena as the motion of a Foucault
These extra forces form an important

held responsible for such
pendulum, the
effects in a
high-speed centrifuge, the so-called
on an astronaut during launching, and the preferred

g
direction of rotation of cyclones in the northern and southern
forces
These forces are unique, however,
hemispheres.
some other
that one cannot trace their origins to

as
was possible
in the sense
physical system,
for all the forces previously considered.
tional, electromagnctic,
Gravita-
forces, for example,
and contact
have
their origins in other masses, other charges, or the "contact" of
But the additional forces that make
another object.
pearance when an object
is
physical objects as sources.
Are these
their ap-
being accelerated have no such

inertial forces real or
not?
That question, and the answer to it, is bound up with the choice
of reference frame with respect to which we are analyzing the
motion. Let us, therefore, begin this analysis with a feminder
of dynamics from the standpoint of an unaccelerated frame.
MOTION OBSERVED FROM UNACCELERATED FRAMES

An
unaccelerated reference frame belongs to the class of reference
frames that we have called
inertial.
We
saw, in developing the
basic ideas of dynamics in Chapter 6, that a unique importance
and
which Galileo's law of

one such frame has been
interest attaches to these frames, in
We
inertia holds.
have seen how,
if
any other frame having an arbitrary constant velocity

to the first is also inertial, and our inferences about the
identified,
relative
forces aeting
on an object are the same
To a good
first
in both.
approximation, as we know, the surface of
the earth defines an inertial frame.
So
also, therefore,
system moving at constant speed over the earth.
was the
first
does any
Galileo himself
person to present a elear recognition of this
faet,
and one aspect of it that he diseussed is useful as a starting point

for us now. In his Dialogue Concerning the Two World Systems,
in
which he advocated the Copernican view of the solar system
in preference to the Ptolemaic, Galileo pointed
out that a rock,
dropped from the top of the mast of a ship, always lands just at
the foot of the mast, whether or not the ship is moving. Galileo
argued from
this that the vertical
path of a falling object does
not compel one to the conclusion that the earth
494
Inertial forces
and nonineriial frames
is
stationary.
Fig. 12-1
(a) Para-
bolic trajectory
under
grauity, as observed
in the
eanh's reference
frame. The
velocily v o
zontal,
(b)
initial
is
hori-
Same
motion observed from

a frame wilh a horizontal velocity greater
than vo.
(c)
Same
motion observed from
The comparison here is between an object falling from rest relative

a frame having bot h
horizontal and vertical to the earth and another object falling from rest relative to the
ship. If we considered only an object that starts from rest relavelocily components.
moving
tive to a
shtp,
frame and parabolic
its
path would be vertical
in the earth's
considered an object projected with

relative to the earth, its
in the ship's
More generally, if we
some arbitrary velocity
frame.
subsequent path would have diverse
shapes as viewed from different inertial frames (see Fig. 12-1)
but
of them would be parabolic, and
all
lyzed,
would show that the
all
of them, when ana-
had the vertical acfrom the one force F (= mg) due to

Let us now contrast this with what one finds if the
falling object
celeration, g, resulting
gravity.
reference frame itself has an acceleration.
MOTION OBSERVED FROM AN ACCELERATED FRAME

Suppose that an object
is
released
from
rest in a reference
frame
that has a constant horizontal acceleration with respect to the

earth's surface.
Let us consider the subsequent motion as
it
appears with respect to the earth and with respect to the accelerating frame.
We
x
up two
shall take the direction of the positive
axis in the direction of the acceleration
and
will set
rectangular coordinate systems: system S, at rest relative to the

earth,
and
S', fixed
n the accelerating frame (Fig. 12-2).
Take
+v
(relative to 5)
s-
Fig.
12-2
ordinales
frames
Relationship
ofa particle
that are in accel-
erated relative motion.
495
in
of coiwo
fP
Motion observed from an accelerated frame
+x
the origins of the frames to coincide at
S at
the velocity of S' with respect to
The
x'
0,
= / =
What
undergoing
12-3(a)].
0,
and suppose
that
upward,
which x =
positive
from a point
for
h.
S and
will the trajectories in
observer in S,
is
released at
is
two systems are taken as
vertical axes of the
and the object
this instant is equal to Vo-
we already know
For an
S' look like?
the answer.
To
him, the object
free fail with initial horizontal velocity v
[Fig.
Thus we have
{x =
(As observed i n S)
vot
y- h-
i**
These two equations uniquely define the position of the object

at time
t,
but to describe the motion as observed
in
S' we must
express the results n terms of the coordinates x' and y' as meai
To
sured in S'.
x = x
y =
where x s
is
and
transform to the S' frame,
the separation along the
vot
We know
at
axis of the origins of
.au
a-in S')
ca
(As observed
we
K=
W
find
Vot
"
= h -
("
'
2
%a,2) = ~% a '
\gi-
Thus the path of the particlc as observed

-"{h-
in S' is a straight line
y')
Fig.
12-3 (a) Para-
bolic trajectory
of a
particle under gravily,
^s
as observed in the
earlh's reference
frame
S.
(b)
frame
N
\
Same
motion observed
in
S' that has
Seen
constant horizontal
acceleration.
in
(a)
496
Inertial forces
that
Substituting these values
x'=
substitute
x,
S' (see Fig. 12-2).

x,
we
and noninertial frames
This
shown
is
Fig.
in
In the accelerated frame, the
12-3(b).
object appears to have not only a constant
downward component
of acceleration due to gravity, but also a constant horizontal
component of acceleration
a nonvertical
particle to follow
simple example
which causes the
straight-line path.
[A similar
monkey-shooting drama described
the
is
x direction
in the
The outcome becomes almost
Chapter 3
(p. 104).
we choose
to describe the events in the rest
in
self-evident
if
frame of the falling
monkey. In this frame the bullet just follows a straight-line path

directly toward the monkey, while the ground accelerates upward at 9.8 m/sec 2 .]
There
no mystery about the unfamiliar motion repre-
is
sented by Fig. 12-3(b).
It is
of describing the normal
free-fall
We
itself accelerated.
a direct kinematic consequence
motion from
frame that
is
could perfectly well use this path, de-
scribed by measurements
made
entirely within S', to discover
the acceleration of this frame, provided that the direction of the

true vertical were already
known.
However, a greater
interest
attaches to learning about the acceleration through dynamic
methods. That
is
the concern of the next section.
ACCELERATED FRAMES AND INERTIAL FORCES

From what
has bcen said,
very special status.

that
it is
AU
it is
inertial
clear that inertial frames have a
frames are eguivalent
in the
cover their motions
motions are
comes what
There
in
significant.
is
called the
any absolute sense only
Out of
Newtonian
this
their relative
dynamical equivalence
principle of relativity:
no dynamical observation that leads us to prefer one
is
frame to another. Hence, no dynamical experiment

us whether we have a constant velocity through space.
inertial
tell
sense
impossible by means of dynamical experiments to dis-
As we have
two frames
just seen, however, a relative acceleration
is
dynamically detectable. As observed
frames, objects have unexpected accelerations.
It
will
between
in accelerating
follows at once,
Newton's law establishes a link between force and acceleration, that we have a quantitative basis for calculating the
magnitude of the inertial force associated with a measured
since
Conversely, and more importantly, we have a

dynamical basis for inferring the magnitude of an acceleration
from the inertial force associated with it. This is the underlying
acceleration.
497
Accelerated frames and inertial forees
principle of all the instruments
known
They
as accelerometers.
function because of the inertial property of
some
physical mass.
To makc the analysis explicit, consider the motion of a

particle P with respect to two reference frames like those considered in the last section and
S and an
frame
x = X
y =
The
shown
accelcrated frame S'.
in Fig. 12-2:
We then
an
inertial
have, once again,
+ x,
y'
velocity
components of P as measured
in the
two frames are
thus given by
where vs
= dx
any particular
we can put d s = v
/dt at
acccleration a,
constant acceleration
is
not at
all
If
instant.
S' has a constant
but the condition of
at,
necessary to our analysis.
Taking the time derivatives of the instantaneous velocity

components, we then get
az
Oy
where
=
=
a'x
+ a,
a'y
a,
is
the instantaneous acceleration
of the frame S'.
Although we have chosen to introduce the calculation

of Cartesian components,
it is
relates the acceleration a of P, as
tion a' as
measured
in
terms
clear that a single vector statement
measured
in S' together
in S, to its accelera-
with the acceleration a, of S'
itself:
(12-1)
a'
Multiplying Eq. (12-1) throughout by m,
hand
we
recognize the
side as giving the real (net) foree, F, that
particle, since this defines the true
measured
in an inertial frame.
That
cause of
is,
in the
its
is
left-
aeting on the
acceleration as
frame,
F = n
(12-2)
but, using Eq. (12-1), this gives us
F =
ra'
We now come
(12-3)
ma,
to the crucial question:
How do we
interpret
Eq. (12-3) from the standpoint of observations made within the
498
Inertial forees
accelerated frame S' itself?
that the net force on an object is the

Newton's viewpoint
(F nct = ma)- is so deeply ingrained
accelerated
motion
cause of
in
we
our thinking that
relationship at
all
are strongly motivated to preserve this
When we observe an
times.
object accelerating,
we interpret this as due to the action of a net force on the object.

Can we achieve a mathematical format that has the appearance
f Fnct
= wa
Yes.
reference?
and
f r tne present case of an accelerated frame of
By
transferring all terms but
resultant F',
which
is
of the
the observed acceleration
left
a'
= F - ma, = ma'
F'
The
ma' to the
on m, and have a
correct magnitude to produce just
treating these terms as forces that act
(12-4)
net force in the S' frame
force equal to
ma
frame of reference
which has
s,
itself
Fx
which case the
is
particle, as
result expressed
matical trick.
From
ma
to
and a
parts: a
"fictitious"
origin in the fact that the
An
important
is
observed in S', moves under

alone.
by Eq. (12-4)
is
not mercly a mathe-
the standpoint of an observer in the ac-
celerating frame, the inertial force
took steps
Fy
that in which the "real" force
the action of the inertial force
The
its
and
has the acceleration +a.
special case of Eq. (12-4)
zero, in
made up of two
thus
is
"real" force, F, with components
actually present.
is
keep an object "at rest"
in S',
by tying
If
it
one
down
with springs, these springs would be observed to elongate or

contract in such a
way
as to provide a counteracting force to
balance the inertial force.

is
therefore
To
describe such a force as "fictitious"
somewhat misleading. One would
like to
have some
convenient label that distinguishes inertial forces from forces

that arise from truc physical interactions, and the term "pseudo-
force"
is
oftcn used.
Even
this,
however, does not do justice to
such forces as experienced by someone

accelerating frame.
name,
who
Probably the original,
"inertial force,"
which
is
free
is
actually in the
strictly
technical
of any questionable over-
tones, remains the best description.
As an illustration of the way in which the same dynamical

may be described from the different standpoints of an
situation
inertial frame,
on the one hand, and an accelerated frame, on

pendulum suspended from the roof
the other, consider a simple
of a car. The mass of the bob
is
m. In applying F =
standpoint of a frame of reference
499
ma from
the
attached to the earth
Accelerated l'rames and inertial forces
12-4
Fig.
acting on
mass
Forces
a suspended
in (a)
a slation-
ary car, (b) a car
moving al consianl
velocity,
and
(c)
a car
imdergoing a posiliue
acceleration.
(assumed nonrotating), one can draw isolation diagrams

possible motions of the car as
there are just
two
shown
in Fig. 12-4.
on the bob:
(real) forces acting
of gravity, and T, the tension
in the string.
Cases
not involve acceleration and the application of F

In
(c),
the
bob undcrgoes
string hangs at
rto 7",). The isolation diagram

F = ma as follows:
Vertical
component
F, the foree
(a)
and
= ma
(b)
do
is trivial.
acceleration toward the right and the
an angle with some increase
Horizontal component:
for the
In each case,
in
its
tension (from
of Fig. 12-5 (a) leads us to apply
7"i
Ty cos 6
sin0
= ma
mg =
In the S' frame, however, because of the acceleration of the
frame, there will be an additional foree of magnitude
ma
direetion opposite to the acceleration of the frame.
in the
Figure
12-5(b) shows an isolation diagram for the bob as seen in S'.
The bob
is
(because a'
Fig.
12-5
in equilibrium.
Here, application of F'
0):
Forces on
an object thai
resi relaliue lo
is
al
an
acceleraled car (a) as
judged
in
an inerlial
frame, and
judged
(b)
as
in the acceler-
aled frame.
500
Inerlial forces
ma' gives
Ti
sin S
7"i
cos 8
- ma =
mg =
Thus the equilibrium
inclination of the
pendulum
is
defined by
the condition
tan 9
= -
(12-5)
ACCELEROMETERS
The
for
result expressed
by Eq. (12-5) provides the
a simple accelerometer.
vertical direction,
If
we have
representing e
0,
first
theoretical basis
established the true
the observation of the
angle of inclination of a pendulum at any subsequent time
tells
us the value of a through the equation
a = g tan
For example,
chain,
/2-5 (a) Tie
Ffe.
hanging
if
a passenger in an airplane lets his
freely
the beginning of the
Quantitatwe ac-
celerometer based on
measuring the eguilibrium angle of a simple

(c)
Car-
penter's level (in Ihis
case a pivoted marker
immersed
in liquid
of
greater densily) can
be used as an acceleromeler.
(d)
bubble
irapped in a curved
tube of liguid gices
direct readings
acceleralion.
his fingers
almost constant [Fig. 12-6(a)].
accelerated cehicle.
plumbline.
from
tie,
of
Tliis
form of accelerometer
was deuised by W. V.
Walton (Edueation
Research Center,
M.I.T.). Figure 12-7
shows an example of
its use.
501
Accelerometer*
or a key-
during the takeoff run, he
can make a rough estimate of the acceleration, which
in equilib-
rium within an
(h)
hang
is
usually
If he also records the time
from
run to the instant of takeoff, he can obtain
10
20
30
40
50
70
60
/,
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
sec
12-7 (a) Record obtaimd with the accelerometer ofFig. 12-6(rf) before
and afler takeoffofa commercial jet aircraft. The accelerometer was held seas to record the horizontal component of acceleration only. Not e the sharp
decrease in a at takeoff. (b) Graph ofvelocity versus time, obtained by
graphical integration of(a). (c) Graph of distance versus time, obtained by
Fig.
graphical integration of(b).
good estimate of the length of the run and the takeoff

speed. If he is more ambitious, he can go armed with a card, as
a
fairly
marked out as a goniometer (= angle
in Fig. 12-6(b), already
measurer) or even directly calibrated in terms of acceleration

measured in convenient units (e.g., mph per second). ' Another
simple accelerometer
carpenter's level
immersed
is
made
obtainable readymade in the form of a
of a small pivoted float that
in a liquid [Fig. 12-6(c)].
AH
is
completely
these devices
make
use
of the fact that the natural direction of a plumbline in an accelerated frame
is
defined by the combination of the gravitational
acceleration vector g
the frame
and
the negative of the acceleration
a of
itself.
A quite sensitive
accelerometer of this same basic type, with
the further advantages of a quick response and a quick attain-
ment of equilibrium (without much overshoot or

can be made by curving a piece of
arc
and
filling
it
oscillation)
plastic tubing into
a circular
with water or acetone until only a small bubble
remains [see Fig. 12-6(a)].
Figure 12-7 (a) shows the record of
acceleration versus time as obtained with such an accelerometer
during the takeoff of a jet
aircraft.
Figures 12-7(b) and (c)
show
the results of numerically integrating this record so as to obtain
and the
the speed
total distance traveled.
Accelerometers of a vastly more sophisticated kind can be
made by
using very sensitive strain gauges, with electrical mea-
suring techniques, to record in minute detail the deformations
of elastic systems to which a mass
shows
is attached.
Figure 12-8
schematic form the design of such an instrument. If
in
the object on which the accelerometer
is
mounted undergoes an
by the pendulum bob
acceleration, the inertial force experienced
begins to deflect
trical
two of
which
it.
This, however, unbalances slightly an elec-
capacitance bridge in which the pendulum forms part of
An error signal is obtained

used both to provide a measure of the acceleration and
the capacitors, as shown.
is
to drive a coil that applies a restoring force to the
pendulum.
Such an accelerometer unit may have a useful range from about
-5 "g"
10
to more than 10 g.
'A book
entitled Science
(Ballantine,
New
for the Alrplane Passenger by Elizabeth A. Wood

York, 1969) has such a goniometer on its back cover and a
discussion of its use in the text.

in
The book also describes a host of other ways

which airplane passengers can discover or apply scientific principles during
their travels.
503
Accelerometers
Integrating
circuit
Amplifier
Signal
generator
Bridge
Fig.
12-8
Electro-
unbalance
mechanical acceler-
signal
omeler system.
ACCELERATING FRAMES AND GRAVITY

In
our discussions of accelerated frames, we have assumed
all
know "which way is up" i.e., they know the

and magnitude of the force of gravity and treat it
that the observers
direction
we have done)
(as
mass of the
as a real force,
whose source
is
the gravitating
But suppose our frame of reference to be a
earth.
room with no access to the external surWhat can one then deduce about gravity and inertial
through dynamical experiments wholly within the room?
completely enclosed
roundings.
forces
We
shall
suppose once again that there
frame, S, attachcd to the earth.
he
is
able to verify that the
dropped from
rest
and hence
surface
is
is
downward
along a
is
an observer in a
is not isolated;
This observer
acceleration of a particle
line perpendicular to the earth's
directed toward the center of the earth. '
He
is able to draw the orthodox conclusion that this acceleration is

due to the gravitational attraction from the Iarge mass of the
earth. Our second observer is shut up in a room that defines the
frame
We are
S'.
Initially
it
is
known
that the fioor of his
504
We
is
ignoring the rolation of the earth, which causes this statement to

A falling object does nol fail exactly parallel to a plumbshall come back to this when we diseuss rotating reference frames.
slill
be not quite correct.

line.
room
Incrlial 101 ccs
and non inertial frames'
horizontal and that
its
In subsequent mea-
walls are vertical.
suremcnts, however, the observer in S' finds that a plumbline
hangs at an angle
and
vertical,
what he had previously taken to be the
to
dropped from
that objects
rest travel parallel to
The observers in S and S' report their findings to

one another by radio. The observer in S' then concludes that
he has three alternative ways of accounting for the component
his plumbline.
of force, parallel to the
floor, that is
now
exerted on
all particles
as observed in his frame:

In addition to the gravitational force, there
force in the
the
x direction
is
due to the acceleration of
an
his
inertial
frame
in
+x direction.
2.
His frame
has been
set
is
down
not accelerating, but a large massive object
in the
direction outside his closed
thus excrting an additional gravitational force on
all
room,
masses in
his frame.
3.
His room has been
tilted
through an angle e and an extra
mass has been placed beneath the room

gravitational force.
(This
to increase the net
close to being just a variant of
is
alternative 2.)
In supposing that
all
three hypotheses
work equally
well to
we must assume that the additional

postulated in alternatives 2 and 3, produccs an
explain what happens in S',
massive object,
uniform gravitational
effectively
field
throughout the room.
From dynamical experiments made entirely within the closed

room, there is no way to distinguish among these hypotheses.
The acceleration of the frame of reference produces effects that
are identical to those of gravitational attraction.
Inertial
gravitational forces are both proportional to the
mass of the
The procedures
object under examination.
measuring them are

scribablc
field) that
An
for detecting
and
and
Moreover, they are both de-
identical.
n tcrms of the properties of a field (an acceleration
has a certain strength and direction at any given point.
object placed in this field experiences a certain force without
benefit of
any contaet with
interesting parallel, or does
its
it
surroundings.
Is all this just
an
have a deeper significance?
Einstein, after pondering these questions, concluded that
there
was indecd somcthing fundamental
here.
In particular, the
completely exact proportionality (as far as could be determincd)
between gravitational force and

that
505
no
inertial
mass suggested to him
physical distinetion could be drawn, at least within a
Accelerating frames and eravity
Fig. 12-9 (a) Apple falling inside a

(b) Indistinguishable
Ihe earth.
is
inside
on
rests
an acceleraled box i n ouler space.
limited region,
(a)
box t ha I
molion when Ihe apple
between a gravitational
field
and a general ac-
celeration of the reference frame (see Fig. 12-9).
He announced
1
this his famous principle of equivalence in 191 1. The proportionality of gravitational force to inertial mass now becomes an
exact necessity, not a n empirical

result.
It is
and
inevitably approximate
also implied that anything traversing a gravitational
must follow a curved path, because such a curvature would

appear on purely kinematic and geometrical grounds if we replaced the gravitational field by the equivalent acceleration of our
own reference frame. I n particular, this should happen with
field
(b)
rays of light (see Fig. 12-10).
With the help of these ideas Einstein
proceeded to construct his general theory of

(as
we pointed out
in
Chaptcr
relativity,
which
8) is primarily a geometrical theory
of gravitation.
Fig.
12-10
Successive stages in ihe path of a hori-
zontally Iraveling object as observed within
acceleraling certically upward.
eauicalence ofgraviiy
an enclosure
This illustrates ihe
and a general acceleration of the
reference frame.
'A. Einstein, Ann. Phys. (4) 35, 898 (1911), reprinted in translated form in
The Principle of Relaticiiy (W. Perrett and G. B.

London, 1923 and Dover, New York, 1958.
506
Inertial forces
Jeffery, translators),
Methuen,
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
We
now
shall
consider a particular kind of inertial force that
always appears
if
the motion of a particle
described and
is
analyzed from the standpoint of a rotating reference frame. This

force
the centrifugal
force
familiar to us as the force with
is
if we whirl
we shall consider
which, for example, an object appears to puli on us

it
around
at the
end of a
string.
'
To
introduce
it,
a situation of just this kind.
Suppose that a "tether ball"
is
being whirled around in
horizontal circular motion with constant speed (Fig.
We
shall analyze the
motion of the
points: a stationary frame S,
ball as seen
venience,
we
will
that rotates
be designated
The
and
z'
axes
rotational speed of S' relative
Figure 12-11 shows the
(in rad/sec).
analysis with respect to these
For con-
ball.
align the coordinate systems with their z
(as well as origins) coincident.
to
from two view-
and a rotating frame S'
with the same (constant) rotational speed as the
12-11).
two frames.
The
essential con-
clusions are these:

1.
From
the standpoint of the stationary (inertial) frame,
the ball has an acceleration
The
force,
ing cord, and

(In S)
2.
toward the axis of rotation.
r)
to cause this acceleration
is
supplied by the tether-
we must have
F,
From
= mo>-r
the standpoint of a frame that rotates so as to kcep
exact pace with the ball, the acceleration of the ball
can maintain the validity of Newton's law

if,
in addition to the force
force Fi, equal
r,
is
zero.
in the rotating
We
frame
the ball experiences an inertial
and opposite to
r,
and so
direeted radially
outward
^{-A
+ ft-O
=
[Fi
The
m 2 r
force Fi is then what we call the centrifugal force.

The magnitude of the centrifugal force can be cstablishcd
experimentally by an observer in the rotating frame S'.
hold a mass
The
name
fugere, to
507
Let him
stationary (as secn in his rotating frame) by
"centrifugal"
ffee.
Centrifugal force
comes from
ihe Latin: cenlrum, the center,
and
Viewed from stationary frame S
Procedure
A<&-*\^
*\gj
l
r
Pictorial sketch of
Viewed from rotating frame i"
'
-S
problem
is observed to move with
speed u in a circle of radius
(angular speed u<)
Bali
Boy turns around at the same

angular speed o> as the ball;
from his point of view, the
is
"Isolate fhe body."
Draw
forces that act on

the ball
all
ball
at rest
\>1
nng
T=
mg =
F,
tension in cord
force of gravity
= inertial
force due to viewing

the problem from a rotating
frame
T cos e
T cos e
For ease of calculation
we resolve forces into
components
sin $
F,
sin
in
mutually perpendicular
directions
\
'mg
Vertical Direction
Vertical Direction
We now
F
Because there
analyze the
problem
in
celeration,
terms of
= ma
is
no vertical ac-
we conclude
that
the net vertical force must be

zero;
Because there
The object
is t' aveling in a circle.

therefore acc elerating: the net
force (i.e.. th B sum of all three
forces) is hor zontal toward the
center of the circle, and must

be equal in n lagnitude to mv*lr;
The object
the
sum
is
of
"at rest," therefore

the forces on it
all
the analysis in the

it is given by
left
column.
.
= m<u'r
= mv
2
,.
i
e-
and
is
di
is
directed outward.
rected radially
We
call F,
the centrifugal force
Molion of a suspended ball, which is traveling in a horizontal

as analyzed from the earth's reference frame and from a frame rotating
Fig. 12-11
with the ball.
508
= mg
must be zero; hence F, is equal

in magnitude to T sin A From
circle,
Horizontal Direction
hence
This force
inward
no vertical
we conclude
T cos
- mg
Horizontal Direction
sin
is
that
the net vertical force must be
acceleration,
zero; hence;
hence
T cos
mg
Inertial forces
and noninerlial frames
Spring balance fastened

to the axis of rotation,
which is perpendicular
to the plane of the paper-
Fig. 12-12
Measurement of the
\^1>1)00000 t>~-
A-.
force needed to hold an object at

rest in
rotating reference frame.
attaching
it
to a spring balance (Fig. 12-12).
any location except on

will
show
tional to
that
it is
m and
mass
is
at
exerting on the mass an inward force proporIf the
r.
If the
the axis of rotation, the spring balance
observer in S'
is
informed that
frame
his
is
rotating at the rate of w rad/sec, he can confirm that this force
is
equal to
mwV. The
observer explains the extension of the spring
by saying that it is counteracting the outward centrifugal force

on m which is present in the rotating frame. Furthermore, if the
spring breaks, then the net force
fugal force
and the object
acceleration
we can apply
its
is
just the centri-
have an outward
response to this so-called "fictitious"
in
Once again the
force.
as
u2r
of
on the mass
will at that instant
inertial force is
"there" by every eriterion
(except our inability to find another physical system
source).
The magnitude of
seen, by the equation
given, as
is
we have
A
Fccntrifugai
nice
= mw 2 r
(radially
example of our almost
conditions in which there
is
As
first
sitting
on
step
we
We
it,
is
under
provided
have been washing
and we want to get
dry on the
it
inside.
get rid of the larger drops of water that are
the inside walls.
And we do
tube longitudinally, but by whirling

12-13(a)].
(12-6)
intuitive use of this force,
nothing to balance
by situations such as the following:

piece of straight tubing,
outward)
it
The analysis of what happens
this,
in
as
not by shaking the
a circular arc
we
[Fig.
begin this rotation
gives a particularly elear picture of the difference between the
deseriptions of the process in stationary and rotating frames.

also provides us with a different
way of
itself.
Suppose that a drop, of mass m,

of the tube at a point
axis of rotation.
509
Assume
Centrifugal force
It
deriving the formula for
[Fig.
is sitting
on
the inner wali
12-13(b)], a distance r from the
that the tube is very smooth, so that
Fig.
12-13
(a)
Shak-
ing a drop ofwater oul
ofa
tube. (A) Analysis
of initial motion
in
lerms of centrifugal
forces.
no resistance if it moves along the tube.

The drop must, however, be carried along in any transverse
movement of the tube resulting from the rotation. Then if the
the drop encountcrs
tube
suddenly
is
set into
motion and rotated through a small
angle A0, the drop, receiving an impulse normal to the wali of
moves along the straight line AC. This, however,

now further from the axis of rotation than if it
the tube and had traveled along the circular
been
fixcd
to
had
arc AB. We have, in fact,
the tube at A,
means
that
BC =
it is
r sec
A0
Now
sec
AS = (cosA0)-'
[1
2 1
KAfl) ]"
KA<0 2
Therefore,
BC ~
We
r(A0) 2
can, however, exprcss
A0
= u
A/.
and the time Al: A0
in
terms of the angular velocity
Thus we have
BC = iw 2 r(Af) 2
This
in
is
then recognizable as the radial displacement that occurs
time Ar under an acceleration

"ccntrifiiciil
>
"'W
u 2 r. Hence we can
and so
fcentrifuRal
510
inertial forces
2 /"
put
'
what
Notice, then, that
ment
is,
a small transverse displace-
in fact,
no
in a straight line, with
real force in the radial direction,
appears in the frame of the tube as a small, purely radial dis-
The physical
moved outward along the tube is readily
terms of either description. (We should add, how-
placement under an unbalanced centrifugal force.
drop
fact that the
understood
in
ever, that our analysis as
it
stands does only apply to the
initial
Once the drop has acquired an appreciable

things become more complicated.)
step of the motion.

radial velocity,
The term
"centrifugal force"
is
frequently used incorrectly.
For example, one may read such statements as "The satellite

does not fail down as it moves around the earth because the
centrifugal force just counteracts the force of gravity
there
no
is
Newton's
net force to
law
first
straight line.
make
it
on
For
the satellite
if
The only frame
it.
move
at
all.
it
is
must
and hence
such statement flouts

it
travels in
described as moving in
also have an unbalanced
which the centrifugal force does
in
balance the gravitational force
appears not to
Any
A body with no net force on
a curved path around the earth,

force
fail."
the frame in which the satellite
is
One
can, of course, consider the
description of such motions with respect to a reference frame

rotating at
object
some arbitrary
itself.
rate different
from that of the orbiting
In this case, however, the centrifugal contribution
to the inertial forces represents only a part of the story,
and the
simple balancing of "real" and centrifugal forces does not apply.

In particular,
let
reference there
is
us reemphasize that in a nonrotating frame of
no such thing
The
as centrifugal force.
long-
standing confusion that leads people to use the term "centrifugal

force" incorrectly has driven at least one author to extreme
vexation. In an otherwise sober and quite formal text the author
writes:
good
"There
citizens.
is
no answer to these people.
They vote
Some of them
the ticket of the party that
is
are
responsible
for the prosperity of the country; they belong to the only true
church; they subscribe to the
Red Cross
drive
no place in the Temple of Science; they profane
but
they have
it."
CENTRIFUGES
The laboratory centrifuge represents an immensely important
and direct application of the dynamical principle of centrifugal
force. The basic arrangement of a simple type of centrifuge is
'W. F. Osgood, Mechanics, Macmillan,
511
C?cntrifuacs
New
York, 1937.
Fig.
12-14
lical section
(a) Ver-
through
a simple centrifuge.
(b) Analysis
of radial
sedimenlation in
terms of cenirifugal
forces.
shown
Carefully balanced tubes of liquid are
12-14(a).
in Fig.
When
suspended on smooth pivots from a rotor.
made
to spin at high speed, the tubes swing
into almost horizontal positions
the rotor
is
upward and outward
and may be maintained
orientation for many hours on end. At any point
P in
in this
one of the
tubes [Fig. 12 14(b)], distance r from the axis of rotation, there

is
an
made
be
very
much
(co
2
about 4000m/sec or 400 g.
w 2 r,
For example,
greater than g.
and the rotor spins at 25 rps

is
magnitude
effective gravitational field of
50* sec
-1
),
Small particles
which may
if r
15
the value of
in
cm
w 2r
suspension in
the liquid will be driven toward the outward (bottom) end of the
tube
much more quickly
than they would ever be under the action
of gravity alone.
The
basis for calculating the drift speed
the resistive force to motion through a fluid at
we
met
first
and speed
in
Chapter
v, this force is
5.
For a spherical
is
the formula for
low speeds, which
particle of radius r
proportional to the product
ro.
If the
is
water, the approximate magnitude of the force
R(v)
0.02rv
is
medium
is
given by
where
value of v
in
is
newtons, r in meters, and v in m/sec.

attained
when
steady
this force just balances the driving
force associated with the effective gravitational field strength, g'.
In calculating this driving force
buoyancy
the particle
force
is
effects
is
i.e.,
it
is
important to allow for
Archimedes' principle.
p p and the density of the liquid
given by
F=y(p-p,)rV
512
Inertial forces
and noninertial (rames
If
the density of
is
p ( the driving
,
This can be more simply expressed
mass
To
(=
of the particle
if
4irp p r /3), in
we
which case we can put
take a specific example, suppose that
suspension of bacterial particles of radius
of about 5
water. If
F
We
w6
2
10
-15
10~ 12
we have an aqueous
p., each with a mass
kg and a density about
take for g' the value 400
introduce the true
1.1
times that of
we
calculated earlier,
find
thus obtain a drift speed given by
X
a
^ 2X10-^10-
10~ 12
]n _4 m/S6C
'
,
This represents a settling rate of several centimeters per hour,
which makes for
effective separation in reasonable times, whereas

under the normal gravity force alone one would have only a
millimeter or two per day.
The above example represents what one may regard as a

more or less routine type of centrifugation, but in 1925 the
Swedish chemist T. Svedberg opened up a whole new
field
of
research when, by achieving centrifugal fields thousands of times

stronger than g, he succccded in measuring the molecular weights
The type of
of proteins by studying their radial sedimentation.
machine he developed
the ultracenlrifuge,
purpose was appropriately named
for this
and Svedberg succeeded
fugal fields as high as about 50,000 g.
The
in
producing centri-
physicist
has taken the technique even further through
J.
W. Beams
development
his
of magnetic suspensions, in vacuum, that dispense with me-
The
chanical bearings altogether.
it
at a
constant vertical level against the normal puli of gravity.
By
such methods Beams has produced centrifugal

to about 10
in a usable centrifuge
and
fields
fields as
tion
is set
mum
by the bursting speed of the rotor;
value of
The
field
g'
is
speed sets an upper limit to ur,

value of g' varies as
it
equal to
may
u 2 r,
limita-
this defines a
proportional to l/r (see Chapter 7,
Since the centrifugal
p.
maxi208).
and the limiting
be seen that the attainable
l/r.
The techniquc of
Centrifuees
equivalcnt
high as 10 9
in tiny objects (e.g., spheres of 0.001-in. diameter).
513
empty
rotor simply spins in
space, with carefully controlled magnetic fields to hold
ultracentrifuge
methods has been brought
to an extraordinary pitch of refinement.
It
has become possible
to determine molecular weights to a precision of bettcr than
over a range from about 10 8 (virus particles)
about
The
50.
possibitity of
weights by this method
pointed out that
in
amu and
analysis
normal
measuring the very low molecular
a solution of sucrose in water, the calculatcd
earlier)
(A
gravity.
Beams has
particularly impressive.
radius about 5 A,
we gave
1%
low as
to as
an individual sucrose molecule, of mass about
rate of descent of
340
is
down
be
would (according to
less
than
mm
rate as slow as this
the kind of
100 years under
in
becomes
mean-
in fact
Beams points out, it would be completely

swamped by random thermal motions.) If a field of 10 5 g is
ingless because, as
howevcr, the time constant of the sedimentation
available,
process
is
reduced to the order of
day or
measurement well within the range of
which brings the
less,
possibility.
This whole subject of centrifuges and centrifugation

particularly
good application of the concept of
because the phenomena are so appropriately described

of
static or quasistatic
is
inertial force,
in
terms
equilibrium in the rotating frame.
CORIOLIS FORCES
We
have seen how the centrifugal
on a
mass m in a frame rotating at a given angular
w, depends only on the distance r of the particle from
force, mo> r, exerted
particle of a givcn
velocity
the axis of rotation.
In general, however, another inertial force
appears in a rotating frame.
This
is
the Coriolis force,
depends only on the velocity of the particle (not on
We
shall introduce this force in a simple
way
for
its
and
it
position).
some
specific
situations. Later, by introducing vector expressions for rotational
motion,
we
centrifugal
shall
develop a succinct notation that gives both the
and Coriolis
forces in a
form valid
in three
dimensions
using any type of coordinate system.
The need
comparing the
to introduce the Coriolis force

straight-line
motion of a
frame S with the motion of the same
is
easily
shown by
particle in an inertial
particle as seen in
a rotating
frame S'.
For
further reading
on
this extremely interesting subject, see T.
Svedberg
and K. O. Pedersen, The Ulrracentrifuge, Oxford University Press, New York,

1960, and J. W. Beams, "High Centrifugal Fields," Physics Teacher 1, 103
(1963).
2
514
G. Coriolis,
J.
de VEcole Polytechnique, Cahier 24, 142 (1835).
Inertial forces
and nonincrtial irames
Suppose that S'
a coordinate system attached to a hori-
is
zontal circular table that rotates with constant angular speed w.
Let the vertical axis of rotation define the
z' axis
that the table surface (in the x'y' plane) has
no
fastened to the origin holds a partiele
is
at rest in equilibrium
forees of the tension in the string

vertical foree of gravity
string
y' coordinate axis
from the axis of rotation. Thus,
at a radial distance r'a
frame, the partiele
on the
and suppose
frietion.
in
the S'
under the combined
and the centrifugal
foree.
(The
and the normal foree of the table surface
always add to zero and need not concern us further.)
The same
partiele
coincides with S' at

travels with
(=
radius r
is
viewed from an
uniform speed
r' )
in the string.
inertial
frame S which
In this stationary frame, the partiele
0.
ve
in
ov"
a cirele of constant
under the single unbalanced foree of the tension
There
is,
of course,
no
centrifugal foree in this
the partiele then travels
inertial frame.
At
Fig. 12-15
an object
the string breaks.
Two different deseriptions of the molion of
that is initially tethered
begins molion under no forees at
on a rotating disk and

t
0.
As seen
0,
In
the string breaks. The dots
The
in
partiele
the rotating S' frame

is initially
at rest. After the
move
indicate the positions of the partiele
string breaks,
successive equal time intervals

At the same time instants
0, 1, 2, 3
the rotating y' axis has the positions
outward, but as soon as it acquires some

speed, it veers toward the right of the
at
shownby(O),
515
(1), (2), (3),....
Coriolis forees
y' axis.
it
begins to
radially
speed v
in a straight line with constant
To
12-15(a).
motion
find the
frame the positions of the y'
in S',
u>r Q
shown
as
we compare
in the
in Fig.
stationary
and the corresponding locations
axis
We
discover
moves
radially
of the particle at successive equally-spaced times.

that the particle, as observed in S', not only
outward, but also moves farther and farther to the right of the
formed by the rotating
single radial line
To
plotted in Fig. 12 15(b).

in the rotating frame,
explain this motion as observed
we
cussion,
determine
shall
its
magnitude and show that
always acts at right anglcs to any velocity
We
can
find the
This deflecting
In the course of the following dis-
the Coriolis force.
is
v' in
motion
in these
it
the S' frame.
magnitude of the Coriolis force by
vestigating another simple
is
necessary to postulate, in addition to
it is
the centrifugal force, a sideways deflecting force.

force
This result
axis.
in-
two frames. Suppose
we make a
that, instead of the situation just described,
particle
follow a radially outward path in the rotating frame at constant

velocity
In this frame there must be no net force on the
v'r .
Hence we
particle.
shall have to supply
some
real (inward) force
to counteraet the varying (outward) centrifugal force as the

particle
We
moves.
shall not concern ourselves with these radial
components but will concentrate our attention only on the

transverse-foree components. In this way we can remove from
consideration the distortion of the trajectory by the centrifugal
force,
which
How
purely radial.
is
does the motion appear in the two frames?
Figure
12 I6(b) shows the straight-line path of the object in the rotating

frame.
But the path of the object
curved line
velocity vg
AB
(=
as
ur)
shown
is
greater at
distance from the axis
is
in the stationary
in Fig. 12-16(a).
In
frame
is
the transverse
than at A, because the radial
greater at B.
Hence there must be a
real transverse force to produce this increase of velocity seen in
the stationary frame.
This real force might be provided, for
example, by a spring balance.
What does
this motion look like in the rotating frame? In

moves
outward with constant speed and hence has
S' the object
no acceleration [see Fig. 12-16(b)]. This means, as we have
said, that there can be no net force on the object in the rotating
frame.
But since an observer
in S' sees the spring balance exert-
ing a real sideways force on the object in the

infers that there
tion to balance
516
it.
Inertial forees
+6
direetion, he
a counteraeting inertial force in the
is
This
is
the Coriolis force.
diree-
_____^_____^_____________^__
Fig.
12-16 (a) Lab-
oratory view of the
As seen
path of a particle that
moves
as
it
As seen
the stationary
s frame
in
S'
the rotating
frame
radially out-
The mass
ward on a rotaling
table.
in
(b)
The mass point moves
point foilows the
curved path
The motion
frorrr
radially
outward with constant speed.
to 8.
appears in the
rotaling frame
itself.
To
determine
its
magnitude,
be successive positions of the
by
Let
A/.
OC
perpendicular to
Av e =
[co(r
let
same
OA
and
OB
in Fig. 12-17
radial line at times separated
The
be the bisector of the angle A0.
velocity
OC changes by the amount Avg during At,
Ar) cos(A0/2)
where
v T sin(A0/2)]
[tar
cos(A0/2)
For small angles we can put the cosine equal to
v,
sin(A0/2)]
and the
sine
equal to the angle, which leads to the following very simple

expression for Ao$
Avb
The
coAr
vr
A6
transverse acceleration ao
a6 =
ai(Ar/Al)
is
thus given by
u r (A0/Al)
But
Ar/Al
cr
and
A6/At
o>
Hence
at
co(r
Ft
8r)
Fig.
= 2uv,
= 2mwo r
12-17
particle
Basis of calculaling the Coriolis force for
mocing radially at constant speed with
spect to a rotating tahle.
517
Coriolis forces
re-
This gives us the real force needed to cause the real acceleration
But as observed
as judged in S.
is
no
no
acceleration and
2mcov'
Coriolis force, equal to
in the rotating
T,
is
frame
S', there
Hence the existence of the
net force.
(Note that v T
inferred.
Vr.)
n the negative B' direction, opposite to the
This inertial force
is
spring force, and
is
at right angles to the direction of
motion
of the particle
Fs'(Coriolis)
An
is
= -2mwo'r
important feature, which you should verify for yourself,
that if we
had considered a
we would have
then
(12-7)
acting in the positive
radially inward motion (v'r negative),
inferred the existence of a Coriolis force
In both cases, therefore, the
B' direction.
Coriolis force acts to deflect the object in the
same way with
respect to the direction of the velocity v' itself to the right
the frame S'
or to the
prove
shall
is
left if
rotating counterclockwise, as
S' rotates clockwise.
later, that
It
if
we have assumed,
we
turns out, in fact, as
even in the case of motion in an arbitrary
direction the Coriolis force
is
always a deflecting force, exerted
at right angles to the direction of
motion as observed
in the
rotating frame.
The
Coriolis force
is
very real from the viewpoint of the
want toconvince yourself of
rotating frame of reference. If you
the reality of this "fictitious" force, ride a rotating merry-go-
round and
try
walking a radial
the
cautiously
that
it is
Coriolis force
line
is
outward or inward. (Proceed
so unexpected and surprising
easy to lose one's balance!)
DYNAMICS ON A MERRY-GO-ROUND
As we have
just mentioned, the behavior of objects in
motion
within a rotating reference frame can run strongly counter to

one's intuitions.
It is
not too hard to get used to the existence
of the centrifugal force acting on an object at rest with respect

to the rotating frame, but the combination of centrifugal
Coriolis effects that appear
when
the object
is set
in
and
motion can
be quitc bewildering, and somctimes entertaining. Suppose, for

example, that a man stands at point A on & merry-go-round
[Fig.
12-18(a)] and tries to throw a ball to
someone
at
(or
perhaps aims for the bull's-eye of a dart board placed there).
Then the thrown object mystcriously veers to the right and

misses its target every time. One can blame part of this, of course,
on the centrifugal force
518
Inertial forccs
itself.
Howevcr,
it is
and nonincrlial framcs
to be noted that
Fig. 12-18 (a) Trajectories ofobjects as

lliey
appear
to ob-
servers on a rotating
lable.
(b)
An
object
projected on africtionless rotating table
return to
its
can
starting
point.
since the magnitude of the centrifugal force
the Coriolis force

portional to v'fur.
is
is
mu 2 r and
2mwv', the ratio of these two forces
Thus
if v' is
made much
that of
pro-
is
greater than the actual
peripheral speed of the merry-go-round, the peculiarities of the
motion are governed almost
entirely
by the Coriolis
effects.
this condition holds, the net deflection
of a moving object
always be to the right with respect to
v'
rotating counterclockwise.
Thus
if
If
will
on a merry-go-round
the positions A and B in
by two people trying to throw a ball

have to aim to the left in order to make
Fig. 12-18(a) are occupied
back and
forth,
each will
a good throw.
An
extrcme case of
this
kind of behavior can cause an
object to follow a continuously curved path that brings

to
its
starting point, although
forces at
all.
it
is
it
back
not subjected to any real
This phcnomenon has been demonstrated
in the
highly entertaining and instructive film, Frames of Reference.
A dry-ice
puck, launched at point
[Fig. 12-18(b)],
A on
a tabletop of plate glass
can be caused by a skilled operator to follow a
trajectory of the kind indicated.
GENERAL ECjUATION OF MOTION

The goal of
IN
A ROTATING FRAME 2
this discussion will
be to relate the time derivatives
of the displacement of a moving object as observed
in a sta-
'"
Frames of Reference," by J. N. P. Humc and D. G. Ivey, Education Development Center, Newton, Mass., 1960.
2This section may be omitted by a reader who
is willing to take on trust its
final results
that the total inertial force in a rotating
frame
is
the combination
of the centrifugal force with a Coriolis force corresponding to a generalized
formof Eq.
519
(12-7).
General equation of motion
in
a rotating frame
Fig.
12-19
Use of
angular velocity as a
vector to define the
linear velocity
parlicle
lable: v
ofa
on a roiating
to
r.
tionary frame
S'
and
in
a rotating frame 5'.
shall introduce the idca that angular velocity
To set the stage, we

may be represented
as a vector.
Consider
It
P on
a point
first
a rotating disk [Fig. 12-19(a)].
has a purely tangential velocity,
magnitude and
direction,
same convention
That
We
OP.
angles to the radius
that
if
we
we
is
a direction at right
is
Thus with
hand are curled around in the

as shown in
represented as a vector, of length propor-
direction
pointing along the positive z direction, one
toward the positive y
the disk is in this
The
of
to
velocity of
to
direction.
from the
The
rotation
case counterclockwise as seen from above.
is
now
with the radius vector

v
given by the vector (cross) produet
r:
(12-8
This veetor-produet exprcssion

if
which the thumb
defining a rotation that carries each point such as
positive
of
to
4.
thumb extended
tional to the angular speed, in the direction in

points.
both
this velocity, in
introduced for torque in Chapter
sense of rotation, keeping the

the figure, then
in
define a vector according to the
the fingcrs of the right
is, if
v$,
can describe
the position vector r of
is
is
valid in three dimensions also,
measured from any point on the
shown in Fig. 12-19(b). The radius of the

which P moves is R = r sin e. Thus we have v = vg =
axis of rotation, as
cirele in
a direction perpendicular to the plane defined by
to
what Eq. (12-8) gives us.

Next, we consider how the change of any vector during
cor sin 6, in
and
520
r.
That
is
precisely
Inertial forees
and nonincrtial frames
Fig.
12-20
(a)
Change
of a vector, analyzed
in terms ofits change
as measured on a
rotaling lable, togel/ier with the
change
due lo rolalion of the

lable iiself. (6) Similar
analysisfor an
arbitrary veclor
referred to any origin
on the axis ofrotation.
sum of two
small time interval At can be exprcssed as the vector

contributions:
1.
The change
that
would occur
of constant length embedded

2.
The
if it
were simply a vector
in the rotating
further change described
by
its
frame
S'.
change of length and
direction as observed in S'.
we show this analysis for motion confined

The vector A at time / is represented by the line CD.
In Fig. 12-20(a)
to a plane.
remains fixed with respect to a rotating table,
If it
at time
its
At
is
given by the line CE, where A8
its
direction
= w At. Thus
change due to the rotation alone would be represented by
DE, where
DE = A Ad = Au At.
frame S'
change would not be observed. There might, how-
ever,
this
From
be a change represented by the
the
standpoint of
EF; we
line
shall
denote
this as
AA S
sum of
DE and EF, e., the line DF, then represents the true
of A as observed in 5. We therefore denote this as AX S
change
the change of
12-20(b) we show the corresponding analysis for
three dimensions.
direction
Since A<p
The vector
i.
In Fig.
its
as observed in S'.
is
The
length of
DE is now
equal to
perpendicular to the plane defined by
= u At, we
sin 6 Aip;
w and
A.
can put
vector displacement
DE =
(u
A) A/
The displacement A A s- may be in any direction with respect to

DE, but the two again combine to give a net displacement DF
which is to be identified with A As. Thus we have
521
General eqnalion of motion
in
a rotating frame
AA S = AA S +
(w
'
We
A)Af
can at once proceed from
of change of
\drjs
This
we
this to
a relation between the ratcs
S and
S', respectively:
as observed in
+X
\ di J s-
(12-9)
a very powerful relation because
is
can be any vector
please.
we
First,
(d\/dt)s
is
choose
shall
the true velocity,
the apparent velocity,
to be the position vector
v,
as observed in S'.
v',
Then
r.
as observed in S, and (dA/dt)g>
is
Thus we immediately
have
v'
+ X
(12-10)
Next, we shall choose
Now
(dv/dt)s
in
to be the velocity v:
the true acceleration, a, as observed in S.
is
quantity (d\/dt) s
change
however, a sort of hybrid
is,
S' of the velocity as observed
sense of this
if
we
substitute for v
in S.
We
it is
The
the rate of
can make more
from Eq. (12-10); we then have
, -(& + *$
The two terms on
the right of this equation are
nizable; (d\'/dl)s(dr/dt)s>
is
(),
just
is
v'.
the acceleration,
now
quite recog-
as observed in S',
and
Thus we have
*- X
v'
Substituting this in Eq. (12-11)
a',
we thus
get
Xv
a'+Xv' +
We do not need to have both v and v' on the right-hand

and we shall again substitute for v from Eq. (12-10). This
side,
gives
us finally
a
A
522
a'
remark
2u
v'
is
in
order regarding the
Inerlial fbrees
u X (w X
(12-12)
r)
last
term, which involves
and noninertial Frames
According to the rules of
the cross product of three vectors.
vector algebra, the cross product inside the parentheses
taken
answer
is
will result for all cases
other than 0 or 180.
would
result in zero for all
between these vectors.
Multiplying Eq. (12-12) throughout by the mass
we
recognize the
Performing the cross products in the
cases, regardless of the angle
the
nonzero
where the angle formed by u and
reverse (incorrect) order, however,
object,
to be
is
then the other cross product performed.
first,
of the
side as the net external force on
left
mass as seen in the stationary system.
ma = F nct = m'
2m(w
v')
m[u
In the rotating frame of reference, the object

tion
a'.
We may
this accelerated
(<o
r)]
m has the
accelera-
preserve the format of Newton's second law in
frame of reference by rearranging the above
equation, so as to be able to write
Fi*
(12-13a)
roa'
where
FL = Fnet - 2m( X
v')
m[u
force
(to
(12-13b)
r)]
centrifugal
force
Coriolis
force
"real"
inertial
forces
The mathematical form of Eq. (12-13b) shows

Coriolis force
and the centrifugal force are
in
right angles to the axis of rotation defined by u.

force, in particular, is
is
that both the
a direction
The
at
centrifugal
always radially outward from the axis, as
clear if one considers the geometrical relationships of the
vectors involved in the product

Fig.
12-21.
The equation
also
u X (w X r), as shown in
shows that the Coriolis force
es
uxr
-
Fig.
12-21
x (u x
Relalion of the vectors in-
volved informing the centrifugal acceleration
523
c X
(w
r).
General equation of motion
in
a rotating frame
r)
would reverse
if
thc direction of u
were reversed, but the direction
of the centrifugal force would remain unchanged.
The
on
made
specification of F' in Eq. (12-13) can be
and
the basis of measurements of position, velocity,
tion as observed within the rotating fratne
term, involving the vector
we could just as well put

the two frames do agree on
itself.
centrifugal
r,
might seem to contradict
r'
instead of
r,
To summarize, we have
established
but
this,
because observers in
the vector position of a
at a given instant, granted that they use the
that the dynamics of
The
entirely
accelera-
moving
object
same choice of origin.
by the above calculation
motion as observed
uniformly rotating
in a
frame of reference may be analyzed in terms of the following

three categories of forces:
This
is
sum
the
of
all the
"real" forces
on
the object such as forces of contaet, tensions
"Real":
the force of gravity, electrical
in strings,
Fnnt
forces, magnetic forces,
and so
Only
on.
these forces are seen in a stationary frame of

reference.
The
Coriolis force
is
a deflecting force always
mass
at right angles to the velocity v' of the
m.
no
the object has
If
velocity in the
Coriolis:
-2m(oi
frame
rotating
of reference,
v')
Coriolis force.
in a
centrifugal force depends
< inertial
is
is
no
Note
on position
It is an
always radially outward.
force not seen in
of reference.
(as
there
inertial force nol seen
sign.
only and
an
stationary frame of reference.
minus
The
It is
m[o> X
We
(<>
stationary frame
could equally well write

r')].
Note the minus
it
sign.
THE EARTH AS A ROTATING REFERENCE FRAME

In this seetion
we
shall consider
a few examples of the way in
which the
earth's rotation affects the dynamical processes oc-
curring on
it.
The local value of g

If
a partiele
is
at rest at latitude X near the earth's surface,
then as judged in the earth's frame
524
Inertial forces
it is
subjected to the gravita-
Fig.
12-22
on an
(a) Forces
objecl at rest Ott the earth,
as interpreted in a reference frame that roiates wilh

(b)
eart/i.
An
l/ie
objecl falling from rest relalive to Ihe
earth undergoes an eastward displacement.
from a frame
ing motion of (b), as seen
(c)
The fall-
thal does nol
roiale wilh ihe earth.
and the
tional force F
centrifugal force
The magnitude of the
12-22(a).
F ccnt shown
latter is given,
in Fig.
according to
Eq. (12-13b), by the equation

2
= mu R cosX
^cent
rnu>
is
the earth's radius.
where
sin 9
Chapter 8 the way

local
in
which
We
have already discussed
this centrifugal
magnitude of g and also modifies the
in
term reduces the
Iocal direction of the
by a plumbline. The analysis is in fact much

simpler and clearer from the standpoint of our natural reference
frame as defined by the earth itself. We have, as Fig. 12-22(a)
vertical as dcfined
shows, the following relations:

Fr
F,
F$
Fcnt sin X
Fccnt
COS X
Fa
moi
Rcos X
(12-14)
= mu R sin X cos X
Deviation offreelyfalling objects

If a particle is releascd
12-22(a),
it
net force F'
525
The
from
rest at a point
begins to accelerate
such as
downward under
in Fig.
the action of a
whose components are given by Eq. (12-14).
earth as a rotating reference frame
As
soon as
has any appreciable velocity, however,
it
= -2mn X
Fcorioiu
Now
the velocity
axis.
The
v' is
Coriolis force
(12-15)
v'
n the plane
PON
containing the earth's
must be perpendicular to
eastward. Thus
by the
we
if
up a
set
local plumbline vertical
local coordinate
and the
this plane,
u and
a consideration of the actual directions of

it is
also expe-
it
by the equation
riences a Coriolis force given
v'
system defined
local easterly direction,
as in Fig. 12-22(b), the falling object deviates eastward
AB
plumbline
and
ground
hits the
and
shows that
at a point C.
The
from a
effect is
very small but has been detected and measured in careful ex-
periments (see Problem 12-24).
To
calculate
what the deflection should be for an object
from a given height
falling
h,
to be inserted in Eq. (12-15)
we
is
use the fact that the value of v'
extremely well approximated by
the simple equation of free vertical
v'
where
gt
v' is
measured as positive downward. Thus
eastward direction as
fail
r-r-
x',
we
label the
(2mu> cos X)gt
Integrating this twice with respect to

x'
if
we have
t,
we have
$gwt a cos X
(12-16)
For a
total distance of vertical

U2
(2h/g)
which thus gives us
fail
equal to h,
we have
,_2V|C<|X
3,2
(121?)
= 2xday -1
Inserting approximate numcrical values (w
10
-5
sec
x'
-1
),
one
10- 5A 3/2 cos X
Thus, for example, with h

x"
5
It
(x'
50
and h
in
m)
at latitude 45,
one has
mm,
is
or about ? in.
perhaps worth reminding oneself that the
inertial forces
526
~7X
finds
can always be calculated,
Inertial forces
if
effects
of
one wishes, from the
standpoint of an inertial frame in which these forces simply do

not
exist.
In the present case, one can begin by recognizing that
a particle held at a distance h above the ground has a higher
eastward velocity than a point on the ground below.

plicity, let
how
us consider
this operates at the
For sim-
equator (X
0).
Figure I2-22(c) shows the trajectory of the falling object as
The
seen in a nonrotating frame.
DO,
o>(R
After a time
horizontal
has traveled a horizontal distance x given, very
t it
With the object now
gravitational force acting on
Fx
initial
h)
nearly, by coRt.
the negative
object has an
by
velocity given
We
direction.
it
at
(see the figure) the
has a very small component in
have, in fact,
jf( mgmt
Hence
A
we have
Integrating once,
dx
j ~ "o*- is
,
= w(R
Substituting the value v Qx
h),
this
gives, as a
very
good approximation,
f=
co(
- iga 2
/o
we have
Integrating a second time,
x - (*
h)i
However, the point
\gut 3
O at the
ground at C, the point
earth's surface
is
also moving, with
Thus, when the falling object hits the
a constant speed of coR.
has reached O', where
00' = uRl.
Hence we have
x'
If
527
we
The
= O'C w
oj/>/
substitute h
i*cor 3
\gt
2
,
we
at
once obtain the result given by
cari h as a rotating reference
frame
Low
Fig. J 2-23
Format ion ofa cyclone
In the
northern hemisphere, under the aclion of

Coriolis forces on the
Eq. (12-16) for X
V2h/g and
moving
arrive at
air masses.
[Or, of course,
0.
we can
substitute
Eq. (12-17)].
Patterns of atmospheric circulation
Because of the Coriolis
effect, air
masses being driven radially
inward toward a low-pressure region, or outward away from a

high-pressure region, are also subject to deflecting forces.
This
causes most cyclones to be in a counterclockwise direction in the
northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
The
origin of these preferred rotational directions
may be
seen
shows the motions of air in the northern

moving
toward
hemisphere
a region of low pressure. The hori12-23, which
in Fig.
zontal
components of the Coriolis force
deflect these
motions
31
^f^m
BJty.\~
^fl ^^^-*"
**-
Fig.
12-24
Tiros satellite photo-
graph of a cyclone. (Courtesy of

Charles W. C. Rogers and N.A.S.A.)
528
Inertial forces
^^^B^^
|$
.'
RJ
V'
C^K2l^
fl_
^frfp-1
toward the
Thus, as the
right.
air
masses converge on the center
of the low-pressure region, they produce a net counterclockwise

rotation.
For
air
the Coriolis force

surface.
If
moving north or south over the earth's surface

is due east or due west, parallel to the earth's
we consider a
mph)
10 m/sec (about 22
mass of air at a wind velocity of

45 north latitude, a direct applica-
1-kg
at
tion of Eq. (12-15) gives us
Fcorioii,
- 2mui/ sin
(2)(1)(2tt
lO" 5)
(10)(0.707)
10" 3
we had considered air flowing in from east or west, the Coriolis

would not be parallel to the earth's surface, but their
components parallel to the surface would be given by the same
If
forces
equation as that used above. (Verify
The approximate
may be
this.)
radius of curvature of the resultant motion
obtained from
2
R
or
R = m
rCorioli.
As
air
-r^r-r.
10
10'
(about 60 miles)
masses move over hundreds of miles on the earth's sur-
face, they often
in the Tiros
form huge
weather
satellite
vortices
as
photograph
is
dramatically
shown
in Fig. 12-24.
Occasionally one reads that water draining out of a basin

also circulates in a preferred direction because of the Coriolis
force.
In
negligible
however,
most
cases, the Coriolis force on the flowing water is

compared with other larger forces which are present;
if
formed, the
extremely precise and careful expcriments are pereffect cari
be demonstrated.
The Foucault pendulum
No
account of Coriolis forces would be complete without some

mention of the famous pendulum experiment named after the
French physicist J. B. L. Foucault, who first demonstrated in
1851
how
the slow rotation of the plane of vibration of a pen-
'See, for example, the film "Balhtub Vortex," an exccrpt from "Vorticity,"
by A. H. Shapiro, National Council on Fluid Mechanics, 1962.
529
The
earth as a rotating reference frame
Fig. 12-25
(a)
pendulum swinging
along a north-south
line at lalilude X.
(b)
Palh of pendulum
bob, as seenfrom
above.
(The change
ofdireclion per swing

is,
however, grossly
exaggerated.)
dulum could be used
as evidence of the earth's
own
rotation.
It is easy, but rather too glib, to say that of course we are

simply seeing the effect of the earth turning beneath the pendulum.
This description might properly be used for a pendulum sus-
pended at the north or south pole. One can even press things a
12-25(a)]
little further and say that at a given latitude, X [see Fig.
w
sin
X along
component
the earth's angular velocity vector has a
the local vertical. This
that the plane of the
would indeed lead to the correct result
pendulum
rotates at a rate corresponding
to one complete rotation in a time 7"(X) given
HX) =
lir
24 esc X
by
hours
(12-18)
>sinX
But the pendulum is, after all, connected to the earth via its
suspending wire, and both the tension in the wire and the gravitathe
tional force on the bob lie in the vertical plane in which
pendulum
is first set
swinging.
(So, too, is the air resistance,
if
that can be
this needs to be considered.) It is the Coriolis force
invoked to give a more cxplicit basis for the rotation. For a
pendulum swinging
in
the northern hemisphere, the Coriolis
force acts always to curve the path of the swinging bob to the
As
right, as indicatcd in exaggerated form in Fig. 12-25(b).
with the Coriolis force on moving air, the effect does not depend
on the direction of swing contrary to the intuition most of us
probably have that the rotation is likely to be more marked

when the pendulum swings along a north-south line than whcn
it
530
swings east-west.
Inertial forces
THE TIDES
As everyone knows,
the production of ocean tides
the consequence of the gravitational action of the

to a lesser extent, the sun.
is
basically
moon
and,
Thus we could have discussed
this as
an example of universal gravitation in Chapter 8. The analysis

of the phenomenon is, however, considerably helped by introducing the concept of
inertial forces as
developed in the present
chapter.
one
The
feature that probably causes the
first
learns about the tides
places
on the earth's
than just one.
is
two high
surface,
most puzzlement when
the fact that there are, at most
day rather
tides every
This corresponds to the fact that, at any instant,
the general distribution of ocean levels around the earth has two
bulges.
On
the simple
would be highest
and
farthest
performs
its
model that we
shall discuss, these bulges
on the
earth's surface nearest to
at the places
from the moon
[Fig.
12-26(a)].
While the earth
rotation during 24 hr, the positions of the bulges
would remain almost
stationary, being defined
constant position of the moon.
Thus,
if
by the almost
one could imagine the
earth completely girdled by water, the depth of the water as
measured from a point

pass through two
fixed to the earth's solid surface
maxima and two minima
A better approximation
to the observed facts
would
in
each revolution.
is
obtained by con-
sidering the bulges to be dragged eastward by friction
from the
land and the ocean floor, so that their equilibrium positions with
respect to the
To
moon are more
nearly as indicated in Fig. 12-26(b).
conclude these preliminary remarks, we
may
point out
that the bulges are, in fact, also being carried slowly eastward
all
Fig. 12-26 (a)

tidal bulge
would be
as
the time by the
Double motion
it
if the earlh's
rotation did not dis-
place
it.
the bulge
The
is
size
of
enor-
mously exaggerated.
(b)
Approximate true
orientation ofthe
tidal bulges, carried
eastwardby the earth's

rotation.
531
The
moon's own motion around the
earth.
This
(one complete orbit relative to the fixed stars every
tides
it takes more than 24 hr for

a given point on the earth to make successive passages past a
27.3 days) has the consequence that
particular tidal bulge.
Specifically, this causes the theoretical
time interval between successive high tides at a given place to be

close to 12 hr 25
min instead of precisely
For example,
a high
day,
its
if
tide
is
12 hr (see
Problem 2-15).
observed to occur at 4 p.m. one
counterpart next day would be expected to occur at about
4:50 p.m.
Now
The first
manner in which the earth as a whole
is being accelerated toward the moon by virtue of the gravitational attraction between them. With respect to the CM of the
earth-moon system (inside the earth, at about 3000 miles from
the earth's center), the earth's center of mass has an acceleration
us consider the dynamical situation.
let
point to appreciate
is
the
of magnitude a c given by Newton's laws:
MrOc =
GMeM,
rm 2
i.e.,
ac
where
GMm
Mm and
(12-19)
r,
are the
moon's mass and
not be immediately apparent

receives this
Flg.
12-27
bital
motion ofthe
is
distance.
that every point in the earth
same acceleration from the moon's
The or-
earth about the
moon
does not by itselfinvolce any rotation of

the earth; the line
AiBi
is
carried into
the parallel configuration
A2B2.
532
Inertial forces
What may
attraction.
If
one draws a sketch, as shown
which the
of time, one
is
of the arcs along
in Fig. 12-27,
and the
earth's center
moon
travel in a certain span
tempted to think of the earth-moon system as a
kind of rigid dumbbell that rotates as a unit about the center of

mass, O.
it
It is
moon, for its part, does move so that

same face toward the earth, but with the
true that the
presents always the
earth
itself
its axis,
things are different.
every point on
it
and direction to the arc
size
center.
A 2B2
The
The
If the
C C2
AiBy would be
line
earth were not rotating on
would follow a
X
translated into the parallel line
earth's intrinsic rotation
superposed on
this
circular arc identical in
traced out by the earth's
about
general displacement
its
axis is simply
and the associated
acceleration.
This
is
where noninertial frames come into the
The dynamical consequences

the
picture.
of the earth's orbital motion around
CM of the earth-moon system can be correctly described
terms of an
mass
inertial force,
wherever
then added to
it
all
may
mac,
be, in or
in
experienced by a particle of
on the
the other forces that
This force
earth.
may
is
be acting on the
particle.
In the model that
we
are using
corresponding to what
the water around the
is
called the equilibrium theory of the tides
earth simply
moves
until
it
attains
an equilibrium configuration
that remains stationary
the
moon.
Now
from the viewpoint of an observer on

we know that for a particle at the earth's center,
the centrifugal force and the moon's gravitational attraction are
equal and opposite.
If,
however, we consider a particle on the
earth's surface at the nearest point to the
Fig. 12-28(a)], the gravitational force

centrifugal force by
Fig.
12-28
(a) Dif-
ference belween centrifugal force
and
the
earth's gravity at the
points nearest to
and
farthest from the
moon.
(b) Tide-
producing force at an
arbitrary point P,
showing existence of a
transverse component.
533
The
tides
an amount that we
on
moon
it is
shall
[point
in
greater than the
call/
GMm m
rm (R E
RE
Since
GMm m
r m /60),
we can approximate
this expres-
sion as follows:
GMm m
/o
[(-r-]
i.e.,
/H^*,
By an
(12_20)
exactly similar calculation,
force on a particle of mass
[point
we
find that the tide-producing
m at the farthest point from the moon

f
in Fig. 12-28(a)] is equal to
the tendency for the water to be pulled or
midplane drawn
By going
C,
The
we can
just a little further
tidal force
now
Consider
recognize
a
on
in the
it
= R E cos
with x
(x, y),
get a
much
better in-
a particle of water at an
Relative to the earth's center,
[Fig. 12-28(b)].
has coordinates
it
we
through the earth's center (see the figure).
sight into the problem.
arbitrary point
hence
pushed away from
direction
is
6,
y = RE
sin 6.
given by a calculation
just like those above:
m IGM^n
IGM^n
x _
(]2_ 21)
cqs g
This yiclds the results already obtained for the points

if
we put d =
or
line joining the centers of the earth
and the moon there
however, a transverse force, because

makes a small angle, a, with the x
the line
center
tional force,
A and B
In addition to this force parallel to the
ir.
GMm m/r'
2
,
is
also,
from P to the moon's
axis,
and the net gravita-
has a small component perpendicular to
x, given by
GMj
mm
sin a
.
Now we
wc can
534
...
r*)
have
tana =
Since
(with r
is
a very small angle [<tan
safely
(/?/.;//,),
which
approximate the above exprcssion:
Inertial forces
is
about
1]
Fig.
12-29
Pattern
of tide-producing
forces around the
earlh.
The circular
dashed line shows

where the undisturbed
waler surface would
be.
y_
_ R E sin
r-
rm
The component/ of the
fv
GMm5
m
tidal force is
GMm5
m
Re sin
y =
We see that this transverse force

point
it
is
then given by
equal to half the
is
(12-22)
greatest at d
maximum
value (/
ir/2, at
which
of fx
Using
we can develop an over-all

picture of the tide-producing forces, as shown in Fig. 12-29.
This shows much more convincingly how the forces act in such
Eqs. (12-21) and (12-22) together,
directions as to cause the water to flow
the
manner already
high ought the equilibrium tidal bulge to be?
familiar with actual tidal variations

'This section goes well
added
535
redistribute itself in
qualitatively described.
TIDAL HEIGHTS; EFFECT OF THE SUN
How
and
If
you are
you may be surprised
at the
beyond the scope of the chapter as a whole but
for the interest that
it
may
have.
Tidal heights; eflect of the
sial
is
The equilibrium
result.
We
ft.
by the
tential
would be a
rise
and
fail
of
less
than
can calculate this by considering that the work done
moving a
tidal force in
12-29)
(Fig.
tide
is
particle of water
from
to
equivalent to the increase of gravitational po-
energy needed to raise the water through a height h
against the earth's normal gravitational puli.
the difference of water levels between
Eqs. (12-21) and (12-22)
dW = f
=
dx
The
D.
distance h
Now,
is
using
we have
fdy
GMm m ,_
ir~ (2xdx - ydy)
,
r RE
GMm m r
Wda =
2x dx
Uo
rm3
3GMm m
ydy
Jr b
2
amount of work equal

energy, mgh, we have
Setting this
potential
'
A and
to the gain of gravitational
_ 3GMm R B
(12 _23)
2grma
The numerical values of the
G =
Mm =
=
RE =
g =
rm
10~ n
7.34
X
X
3.84
10
6.37
10
6.67
10
22
9.80 m/sec
relevant quantities are as follows:
m 3 /kg-sec 2
kg
Substituting these in Eq. (12-23)
The
0.54
we
find
21 in.
great excess over this calculated value in
factors of 10 or even
many
places (by
more) can only be explained by considering
the problem in detailed dynamical terms, in which the accumula-
and resonance effects, can

phenomenon.
The value that
completely alter the scale of the
we have calculated should bc approximated in the open sea.
The last point that we shall consider here is the effect of the
tion of water in
sun.
Its
narrow
estuaries,
mass and distance are as follows:
Technically, this condition corrcsponds to the water surface being an energy

equipotential.
536
Incrlial forces
and noninertial irames
M, =
r
If
we
1.99
10 30 kg
= 1.49X10" m
directly
sun and the
compare the
moon on a
gravitational forces exerted by the
particle
on the earth, we discover that the
sun wins by a large factor:
MJr?
F,
Mm/rm2~
M.(rm \\
Mm
\r.)
What
matters, however, for tide production is the amount by

which these forces change from point to point over the earth.
This is expressed in terms of the gradient of the gravitational
force:
2p
/=AF=-Âr
Putting
M = Mm
rm ,
(,2-24)
and Ar
RE
we obtain
the forces
corresponding to Eq. (12-20).
We now
to the sun
see that the
comparative tide-producing forces due
and the moon are
given, according to Eq. (12-24), by
the following ratio:
Substituting the numerical values, one finds
fy
Jm
0.465
This means that the tide-raising ability of the

of the sun by a factor of about 2.15. The
combine linearly and, of course,

relative angular positions of the
moon
effects
vectorially,
moon and
exceeds that
of the two
depending on the
the sun.
When
they
on the same line through the earth (whether on the same side
or on opposite sides) there should be a maximum tide equal to
1.465 times that due to the moon alone. This should happen
are
once every 2 weeks, approximately, when the

full.
tions
should
fail to
moon.
The
about
537
moon is new or
At intermediate times (half-moon) when the angular posiof sun and moon are separated by 90, the tidal amplitude
a
minimum value equal to 0.535 times that of the

of maximum to minimum values is thus
ratio
2.7.
Tidal heights;
efl'cct
of the sun
THE SEARCH FOR A FUNDAMENTAL INERTIAL FRAME

The phenomena that we have discussed in this chapter seem to
leave us in no doubt that the acceleration of one's frame of
They suggest
reference can be dctected by dynamical means.
that a very special status does indeed attach to inertial frames.
But how can we be sure that we have identified a true

frame in which Galileo's law of inertia holds exactly?
We
saw
at the very beginning of
inertial
our discussion of dynamics
good approximation to such a

frame for many purposes, especially for dynamical phenomena
whose scale in distance and time is small. But we have now seen
abundant evidence that a laboratory on the earth's surface is
that the earth itself represents a
If the
accelerated.
each point
laboratory
in it is accelerating
is
at latitude X (see Fig. 12-30),
toward the earth's axis of rotation
with an acceleration given by

a\
oi
R cos X
with
=
R =
01
27r/86,400sec- 1
6.4
10
This gives
a\
3.4
10- 2 cosXm/sec 2
This acceleration of a frame of reference

as
we
tied to the earth
know, not the simplest case of an accelerated frame.
linearly accelerated frames with
much more
readily analyzed.
which we began
It
this chapter are
was, however, the
associated with rotating frames that led
Newton
is,
The
phenomena
to his belief in
absolute space and in the absolute character of accelerations.

Near the beginning of the Principia he describes a celebrated
538
Fig.
12-30
axis
by
Acceleration toward ihe earth's
virtue ofits rotation.
Inertial Corces
and noninertiai frames
Bucket rotating
water stationary
Main features
Fig. 12-31
ofllie experiment that
Newton guolecl as evidence oflhe absolute character of

rotation and the associated acceleration.
made
experiment that he
with a bucket of water.
It is ari
experi-
ment that anyone may readily repeat for himself. The bucket is
hung on a strongly twisted rope and is then released. There are
three key observations, depicted in Fig. 12-31:
Bucket and
water rotating
together
At
1.
almost at
before the viscous forces have had time to set
The water surface
rotating.
was
the bucket spins rapidly, but the water remain's
first
rest,
is flat,
just as
it
it
was before the bucket
released.
The water and
2.
the bucket are rotating together;
the
water surface has become concave (see Problem 12-18).
The bucket
3.
is
suddenly stopped, but the body of water
continues to rotate, and
Bucket stationary
water rotating
and
it
motion of the bucket and
It
must be
the absolute rotation of the water in
attendant acceleration, that
its
the phenomenon.
for
relative
not the factor that determines the curvature of the
is
water surface.
space,
surface remains curved.
Newton, the
Clearly, said
the water
its
And
with the help of
F=
is
at the
bottom of
ma, we can account
quantitatively.
Newton's argument
is
a powerful one.
He
could point to
further evidence in support of his views in the bulging of the
earth
by virtue of
itself
of the earth
in 300.
It
is
is
the equator and

is,
The equatorial diameter

by about 1 part
rotation.
seems almost obvious, even without detailed calcula-
tion, that this
culation
its
greater than the polar diameter
closely tied to the fact that a^/g

is
is
about
gt5 at
zero at the poles (although the detailed cal-
in fact, a bit messy).
Newton
did not stop here, of course,
He
held the key of
Even a nonrotating earth would not be

frame, because the whole earth is accelerating toward
universal gravitation.
an
inertial
the sun.
For
this
system
a>
a2
R =
2
= o) /? =
Newton
represents
we have
2ir/(3.l6
X lO^sec-
1.49 X 10 n m
5.9 X 10- 3 m/sec 2
does not suggest that he actually performed this third step, but
a natural completion of the experiment as one might perform
for oneself.
539
The
search for a fundamental inertial frame
it
it
If
we could
conceive of an object that was
immune
to the gravita-
would not obey the law of
inertia
as observed from a reference frame attached to the earth.
From
tional attraction of the sun,
it
Newton's standpoint the acceleration
is
real
and absolute and
is
linked to the existence of a well-defined gravitational force pro-
vided by the sun.
That was about the end of the road as
far as
Newton was
concerned. For him the system of the stars provided the arena in
which the motions that he so
analyzed took place.
brilliantly
reference frame attached to these fixed stars could be taken to
constitute a true inertial system, even though
might not coin-
it
cide with the absolute space in which he believed.
Today, thanks to the work of astronomers, we know a good

deal about the motions of some of those "fixed" stars. We have
come
to be aware of our involvement in a general rotation of our
Galaxy. The sun would appear to be making a complete circuit

of the Galaxy
about
2.5
about
in
10
2.5
10
years at a radial distance of
from the
light-years
For
center.
this
motion
we would have
co~
2tt/(8
a3
It
2.4
10
10 20
15
)sec-'
10- 10 m/sec 2
looks as though this acceleration can be reasonably accounted
for
by means of Newton's law of universal gravitation,
if
we
regard the solar system as having a centripetal acceleration under

the attraction of
all
the stars lying within
dynamical experiments that
we do on
But no
its orbit.
earth require us to take
into account this extremely minute effect
or, even, for
most
purposes, the revolution of the earth about the sun. (The rotation
of the earth on
sideration
its
own
axis
is,
however, an important con-
and indeed an important aid
gyroscopic navigation.)
rotating frames in which
Figure
we
in
such matters as
12-32 schematizes the three
find ourselves
(we ignore here the
acceleration caused by the moon).
But we
still
have not found an unaccelerated object to which

In fact, we could
we can
attach our inertial frame of reference.
extend
this tantalizing
dence
search even further.
There
is
some
that galaxies themselves tend to cluster together in
containing a few galaxies to perhaps thousands.

consists
of about
10 galaxies.
Our
evi-
groups
local
group
Although individual galaxies
could have rather complex motions with respect to each other,
540
Inertial force*
and non inertial frames
Fig.
12-32
Accelera|
ofany laboratory
reference frame attions
tached to the earth's

surface.
group
this
is
believed to have a
more or
less
common motion
through space.
So where are the "fixed" stars or other astronomical

we can attach our inertial frame of reference?
objects
to which
pears that referring to the "fued stars"
is
ap-
It
not a solution and
contains an uncomfortable element of metaphysics (although
we
frequently usc this phrasc as a shorthand designation for the
establishment of an inertial frame).
This does not
mean
that
the astronomical search for an inertial frame has been without

value.
For, at lcast up to the galactic level,
it
would seem that
apparent departures from the law of inertia can be traced to

identifiable accelerations of the reference
are observed.
However, the quest
likely to remain.
541
Tho
is
frame
in
which motions
incomplete, and so
Ultimatcly, therefore,
we
rely
it
seems
on an operational
search for a fundamental inertial frame
upon
definition based
We
tion.
an
define
local dynamical experiments
inertial
frame to be one
mentally, Galileo's law of inertia holds.
and observa-
in which, experi-
The very
existence of the
inertial property remains, however, a deep and fascinating prob-
lem, and we shall end the chapter with a few remarks about
most fundamental feature of dynamics.
this
SPECULATIONS ON THE ORIGIN OF INERTIA

Not everyone accepted Newton's view
was perhaps the
phenomena
demonstrated the absolute
objects
The philosopher-bishop, George
of acceleration.
character
Berkeley,
rotating
with
associated
that the
first
person to argue
that all motions,
including rotational ones, only have meaning as motions relative
The
to other objects.
two spheres around
circling of
their center
of mass could not, he said, be imagined in a space that was
otherwise empty.
Only when we introduce the background

do we have a basis for recognizing the
represented by the stars
existence of such motion.
About 150
Ernst
He
Mach
German philosopher
much more cogent form.
years later (in 1872) the
presented the same idea in
wrote:
For mc, only

regard,
viously
motions
exist
distinction between rotation
no
it
relative
does not matter
can
and
and
translation.
see, in this
Ob-
we think of the earth as turning
if
round on its axis, or at rest while the fixed stars revolve around
of the earth at rest and the fixed stars
it
. But if we think
revolving around it, there is no flattening of the earth, no
.
on at
least
according to our
usual conception of the law of inertia.
Now
one can solve the
Foucault's experiment and so
difflculty in
of inertia
two ways. Either
is
The law of
all
motion
wrongly expressed ...
inertia
is
absolute, or our law
prefer the second way.
must be so conceived
that exactly the
thing results from the second supposition as from the

this
it
will
be evident that in
its
to the masses of the universe.
expression, regard
same
By
first.
must be paid
In his iraet De Moiu, written in 1717, 30 years after the publication of

Newton's Principia.
2 E. Mach, Hislory and Rool of the Principle of the Consercation of Energy,
(2nd ed.), Barth, Leipzig (1909). English translation of the 2nd edition by
P. Jourdain, Open Court Publishing Co., London, 1911. Actually the first
sentence of the quolation is taken from Mach's classic book, The Science of
Mechanics,
542
first
published in 1883.
Inertial forees
the profound
Thus was born

become famous
subsequently to
that the
property
and novel idea
as Mach's principle
inertial
of any given object depends upon the presence and the distribu-
took
and
Einstein himself accepted this idea
tion of other masses.
as a central principle of cosmology.
it
If one admits the validity of this point of view, then one
whole basis of dynamics
sees that the
method
the
we described
that
in
the ratio of the inertial masses of
is
Chapter 9
two
For consider
involved.
(p.
319) for finding
This ratio
objects.
given
is
as the negative inverse ratio of the accelerations that they produce
by
their
mutual interaction:
/Ml _
(22
W2
Oi
This looks very simple and straightforward, but
our
clear that
is
it
ability to attach specific values to the individual accelera-
tions, as distinct
from the
depends
total relative acceleration,
completely on our having identified a reference frame
For
these accelerations can be measured.

physical background provided
by other objects
this
which
in
purpose the
is essential.
In looking critically at the phenomena of rotational motion,
Mach
some
attacked
intuitive notions that are
seated than any that
He
motion.
we have
deep-
considered the evidence provided by Newton's
rotating-bucket experiment which

It is
much more
in connection with straight-line
we
discussed in the last section.
quite clear that the curvature of the water surface
is
related
overwhelmingly to the cxistence of rotation relative to the vast
When
amount of
distant matter of the universe.
rotation
stopped, the water surface becomes
is
bucket rotates and the water remains

fixed stars), the
out
if
may bc
competent
"No
only a matter of degree.
to say
how
one,"
would
in fact
the equivalent of centrifugal forces on the water insidc

this
This
mass
were ultimately several leagues thick." His own belief
that this rotation of a monster bucket
though
the
the experiment would turn
the sides of the vessel increased in thickness and
until they
was
"is
When
(both relative to the
shape of the water surface remains unaffected.
But, said Mach, that
he wrote,
still
that relative
fiat.
is
water had no rotational motion
in the
a startling idea indced. Let us prcsent
dirTerent context.
We
know
generate
it,
even
accepted sense.
it
in
a slightly
that the act of giving an object
an
acceleration a, with respcct to the inertial frame defined by the
/wa,
that
expresses the resistance of the object to being accelerated.
In
fixed stars, calls into play
543
an
inertial force, equal to
Spcculations on the origin of inertia

Mach's view we are equally
accept a description of the
attached to the object
has the acceleration
a'
phenomenon
a frame always
in
In this frame the rest of the universe
itself.
the object experiences
(indeed, compelled) to
entitled
(= a) and
the inertial force ma' that
must be ascribable to the acceleration of
the other masses.
This then brings us to the quantitative question:
M,
at distance
what contribution does
object,
ma
and
relativity that
this
point
analogy
we
is
know
it
a mass
must
more
to the total inertial force
we know
that the force
is
the grounds of symmetry
be proportional to
M
A
speculative realm.
But at
also.
very suggestive
provided by electromagnetic interactions.
that the static
make
Since
we can argue on
entcr a
electric charges,
two
If
and q it are separated by a distance

force exerted by q x on q 2 is given by
r,
we
fr?l<?2
where k
units.
is
it
that the object experiences?
proportional to m,
If
given the acceleration a relative to a given
is
r,
is
a constant that depends on the particular choice of

is given the acceleration a there
however, the charge q x
If,
an additional force that comes into play, directly proportional
to a
and
,
ri2
where
inversely proportional to the distance:
kq x q 2 a
5
c2r
c is the speed of light.
Since this force
with distance than the static interaction,
it
falls off
more slowly
can survive in ap-
preciable magnitude at distances at which the static l/r
has become negligible.
magnetic radiation
This
field
is,
in fact,
force
the basis of the electro-
by which signals can be transmitted
over large distances.
Suppose now that we assume an analogous situation for

The basic static law of force is known
gravitational interactions.
to be
GMm
The
on
be given by
force
Fl2
544
associated with an acceleration of
= GMma
.
n
(
~&T
Inertial forces
M would then
and noninerlial framcs
,,.,
}

On
this basis
we can estimate the
relative
magnitudes of the
contributions from various masses of interest

sun, our
do
to
is
own Galaxy, and
the
the rest of the universe.
M/r
to calculate the values of
earth, the
Ali
we have
The
for these objects.
shown in Table 12-1, using numbers to the nearest

power of 10 only. (The value of
for the universe as a whole
is the somewhat speculative value quoted in Chapter 1.)
We
results are
TABLE 12-1:
RELATIVE CONTRIBUTIONS TO INERTIA
M, kg
Source
Earth
Sun
Our Galaxy
Universe
r,
M/ kg/m
M/r
'r,
(relative)
10 25
10 3O
10 7
10 18
10- 8
10 11
10 19
10*
10
10 20
io- 7
10-
10 2G
10 2e
52
see that, according to this theory, the effect of a nearby object,
even one as massive as the earth
pared to the
The
effect
itself,
of the universe
would be
negligible
com-
at large.
total inertial force called into existence if everything in
the universe acquires an acceleration a with respect to a given
object would be obtained by
(12-26) over
_
"inertial
all
summing
masses other than
= ma
^GM
_,
c*r
This, however, should be identical with
magnitude of the
the forces F'l2 of Eq.
itself:
what we know
by the value of
ma. Thus the theory would require the following
identity to hold:
Ef-1
universe u
02-27)
'
from Table 12-1 that even such a large

our Galaxy represents only a minor contribution
It is clear
invoived with
is
If
we regard
it
p and radius
univerao
'
local
;
mass as
what we are
a summation over the approximately uniform
distribution of matter represented
545
to be the
inertial force as directly given
as a sphere, centered
R v (
'O
10
10
by the universe as a whole.

on
light-years
mean density
m), we would have
ourselves, of
10
26
Speculations on the oriain of inertia
'
The
mass
total
Mu =
however given by
is
pRu
Thus we have, on
(based on Euclidean
simple picture
this
geometry)
M=-
Mu
**
Using the values
we
,-20 1 /
10
kg/m
universe
G m
10
-10
N-m 2 /kg 2 and c 2 m
10
17
m 2 /sec 2
would then have
E^-io
f
"
universe c&r
Taking into account the uncertainties in our knowledge of the

distribution of matter throughout space, many would say that
the factor of about 10 that separates the above empirical value
from the theoretical value (unity) called for by Eq. (12-27) is

not significant. The result is intriguing, to say the least, and many
cosmologists have accepted as fundamentally correct this develop-
ment from the primary
ideas espoused
by Mach and
Einstein.
PROBLEMS
12-1
single-engine airplane
flies
horizontally at a constant speed
v.
In the frame of the aircraft, each tip of the propeller sweeps out a
of radius R at the rate of n revolutions per second. Obtain an

equation for the path of a tip of the propeller as viewed from the earth.
circle
12-2
person observes the position of a post from the origin of a
reference frame (S') rigidly attached to the rim of a merry-go-round,
as shown in the figure.
The merry-go-round
(of radius
R)
is
rotating
with angular velocity u, the distance of the post from the axis of the
merry-go-round is D, and at / = 0, the coordinates of P in 5' are
x'
= D - R,y' =
(equivalently,
Find the coordinates

corresponding *'(/) and y'(t).
(a)
r'
= D -
r'(i), 6'(t)
R,
d'
0).
of the post; also give the
For further reading on this fascinating topic, see, for example, R. H. Dicke,
"The Many Faces of Mach," in Gracitation and Relalicily (ed. H.-Y. Chin
and W. F. Hoffmann, eds.), W. A. Benjamin, New York, 1964; N. R. Hanson,
"Newton's First Law," and P. Morrison, "The Physics of the Large," both
in Beyond the Edge of Cenainly (R. G. Colodny, ed.), Prentice-Hall, Engle-
wood
New
Cliffs, N.J.,
York,
Doubleday,
546
1965; D.
New
W.
Sciama, The Unity ofihe Unicerse, Doubleday,
and The Physical Foundaiions of General
1961,
York, 1969.
Inertial forccs
Relalicily,
By
(b)
differentiating the results of (a), obtain the velocity
acceleration of the post in both Cartesian
Make
(c)
and
and polar coordinates.
a plot of the path of the post in S'.
12-3 A boy is riding on a railroad flatcar, on level ground, that has

an acceleration a in the direction of its motion. At what angle with
the vertical should he toss a ball so that he can catch
ing his position
12-4
on
railroad train traveling
20 m/sec begins
m.
sliding friction n
without
shift-
on
a straight track at a speed of
slow down uniformly as it enters a station and comes
to
to a stop in 100
it
the car?
suitcase of
mass 10 kg having a
0.15 with the train's floor slides
coefficient of
down
the aisle
diiring this deccleration period.

(a)
What
the acceleration of the suitcase (with respect to the
is
ground) during this time?

(b)
What
is
the velocity of the suitcase just as the train comes
toahalt?
(c)
The
suitcase continues sliding for a period after the train
When
has stopped.
original position
12-5
comes
it
on
to rest,
how
far is it displaced
A man weighs himself on a spring balance calibrated in
which indicates
weight as
his
from
its
the floor of the train?
mg =
700 N.
What
will
repeats the observation while riding an elevator from the
manner?
and third floors the elevator
newtons
he read
first
if
he
to the
twelfth floors in the following

(a)
Belween the
the rate of 2 m/sec

(b)
first
accelerates at
2
.
Between the
third
and tenth
floors the elevator travels with
the constant velocity of 7 m/sec.

(c)
Between the tenth and twelfth
at the rate of 2
(d)
He
(e) If
m/sec 2
then makes a similar trip
on another
say of his motion?
12-6
truck
547
what
Problems
is
trip the
Which way
If the cocHicient
is /x,
the
floors the elevator decelerates
is
down
again.
balance reads 500 N, what can you
he moving?
of friction between a box and the bed of a
maximum
acceleration with which the truck can
climb a
hill,
slipping
on
12-7
making an angle 6 with the horizontal, without the box's
the truck bed ?
block of mass 2 kg rests on a frictionless platform.
attached to a horizontal spring of spring constant 8

Initially the
in the figure.
platform begins to
2 m/sec.
As
move
whole system
is
N/m,
stationary, but at
as
t
It is
shown
to the right with a constant acceleration
the
of
a result the block begins to oscillate horizontally relative
to the platform.
2kg
8 N/m
2 m/sec 2
immfmr-
TJ
What is the amplitude of the oscillation?

At t = 2v/3 sec, by what amount is the spring
(a)
(b)
it
was
in
T?
its initial
longer than
unstretched condition?
-1
plane surface inclined 37 (sin
f) from the horizontal is
accelerated horizontally to the left (see the figure). The magnitude of
12-8
the acceleration
is
gradually increased until a block of mass m, orig-
up the plane.
inally at rest with respect to the plane, just starts to slip
The
static friction force at the
Draw
(a)
just before
it
block-plane surface
characterized by
is
a diagram showing the forces acting on the block,
slips, in
an
inertial
frame fbced to the
floor.
(b)
Find the acceleration at which the block begins to
(c)
Repeat part
slip.
frame moving along with
(a) in the noninertial
the block.
12-9
and
nervous passenger in an airplane at takeoff removes his
lets it
hang loosely from
his fingers.
takeoff run, which lasts 30 sec, the
What
the vertical.
runway
12-10
is
is
N/m
= 7500 kg/m 3
rod (density
steel
tion of
length by a constant force applied to
its
away from
is
of length
the center of
allowable acceleration
if
is
is
ultimate tensile
one end and directed
What
mass of the rod.
the rod
accelerated along the direc-
not to break?
is
the
maximum
If this acceleration
exceeded, where will the rod break?
12-11
(a)
train
liquid level of
horizontal ?
from the
slowed with deceleration
hit the
a.
What
angle would the
a bowl of soup in the dining car have made with the

child dropped an apple from a height h and a distance d
front wali of the dining car.
observed by the child ?
548
makes an angle of 15 with

and how much
runway is level.
tie
strength 5
10
tie
observes that during the
the speed of the plane at takeoff,
needed ? Assume that the

uniform
He
Under what
What
path did the apple take as
conditions would the apple have
ground? The front wali ?
Tncrtial forces
As
(b)
making the above observations, the parents
a reward for
bought the child a helium-filled balloon at the next stop.

they asked him what would happen to the balloon
station with acceleration
An
12-12
*/3
For fun,
the train
left
the
Subsequently, they were surprised to
a'.
find his predictions corrcct.
if
What
did the precocious child answer?
downward acceleration equal to g/3. Inside

mounted a pulley, of negligible friction and inertia,
over which passes a string carrying two objects, of masses m and 3i,
elevator has a
the elevator
is
respectively (see the figure).
tt
the acceleration of the object of mass
(a) Calculate
3m
relatice
to the elevator.
on
(b) Calculate the force exerted
3^
joins
it
the pulley by the rod that
to the roof of the elevator.
How
(c)
could an observer, completely isolated inside the
m in terms of forces that
elevator, explain the acceleration of
he him-
could measure with the help of a spring balance?
self
12-13 In each of the following cases, find the equilibrium position as
pendulum of length L:
well as the period of small oscillations of a

(1) In
a train moving with acceleration a on level tracks.
In a train free-wheeling on tracks making an angle 6 with the
(2)
horizontal.
(3)
In an elevator falling with acceleration
a.
12-14 The world record for the 16-lb hammer throw
Assuming
about 2
before being
12-15
(a)
is
man
rides in
is
about 70 m.
whirled around in a circle of radius
let fly,
must be able
that the thrower
He
hammer
that the
estimate the magnitude of the puli
to withstand.
an elevator with
vertical acceleration a.
swings a bucket of water in a vertical circle of radius R.
With
must he swing the bucket so that no water spills?
(b) With what angular frequency must the bucket be swung if
the man is on a train with horizontal acceleration a? (The plane of
what angular
velocity
the circle
again vertical and contains the direetion of the train's
is
acceleration.)
12-16 Consider a thin rod of material of density

stant angular velocity
(a)
Show
that
a>
i
rotating with con-
about an axis perpendicular to

the rod
is
to
have a constant
force per unit area of cross seetion) along
its
its
length.
stress
(tensile
length, the cross-sectional
area must deercase exponentialIy with the square of the distance
from the
axis:
A = Aue
frr
where k
po>~/2S
[Consider a small segment of the rod between r and r -f Ar, having a

im = pA(r) Ar, and notice that the differcnce in tensions at its
mass
ends
549
is
AT =
Problem s
A(SA).]
What
(b)
5m ax, and
is
maximum
ihe
angular velocity
o)
max in terms of p,
A:?
The
(c)
ultimate tcnsilc strength of steel
maximum
Estimate the
number of rpm of
possible
which the "taper constant" k
about 10
is
m~ 2
100
(p
N/m 2
a steel rotor for
7500 kg/m 3 ).
spherically shaped influenza virus particle, of mass 6 X

-5
and
diameter 10
cm, is in a water suspension in an ultrag
centrifuge. It is 4 cm from the vertical axis of rotation, and the speed
12-17
10
-16
of rotation
10 3 rps.
is
The density of the
virus particle
is 1.1
times that
of water.
From
(a)
(b)
what
the standpoint of a rcference frame rotating with the
what is the effective value of 'V ?

Again from the standpoint of the rotating reference frame,
centrifuge,
the net centrifugal force acting
is
outward at
given by
on the
virus particle?
Because of this centrifugal force, the particle moves radially
(c)
a small
Frcs =
speed
Jnrr\vd,
The motion
o.
where d
is
is
resisted
by a viscous force
the diameter of the particle
the viscosity of water, equal to 10~- cgs units (g/cm/sec).

(d) Describe the situation
and
What
from the standpoint of an
t\
is
is
cl
inertial
frame attached to the laboratory.

[In (b)
and
account must be taken of buoyancy
(c),
effects.
Think
of the ordinary hydrostatics problem of a body completely immersed

in a fluid of different density.]
12-18
Show
(a)
that the equilibrium
form of the surface of a rotating
body of liquid is parabolic (or, strictly, a paraboloid of revolution).

This problem is most simply considered from the standpoint of the
rotating frame, given that a liquid cannot withstand forees tangential
to
its
surface
disappear.
and
will
tend toward a configuration in which such forees
It is instructive to
consider the situation from the stand-
point of an inertial frame also.

(b) It has been
proposed that a parabolic mirror for an astro-
nomical teleseope might be formed from a rotating pool of mercury.
What rate of rotation (rpm) would make a

12-19
To
first
More
proportional to
m?
approximation, an object released anywhere within
an orbiting spacecraft
spacecraft.
mirror of focal length 20
its
remain
will
in the
accurately, however,
same
it
place relative to the
experiences a net force
distance from the center of mass of the spacecraft.
This force, as measured in the noninertial frame of the craft, arises
from the small variations in both the gravitational force and the
centrifugal force due to the change of distance from the earth's center.
Obtain an expression for this force as a funetion of the mass, m, of the
object, its distance AR from the center of the spacecraft, the radius R
of the spacecraft's orbit around the earth, and the gravitational acceleration
550
gR
at the distance
Inertial forees
R from
the earth's center.
12-20
velocity
w =
0.2 rad/sec.
velocity v'
circular platform of radius 5
A man
rotates with
an angular
of mass 100 kg walks with constant
At time
jumps off the edge
m/sec along a diameter of the platform.
he crosses the center and
time
at
5 sec he
of the platform.
Draw a graph of
(a)
function of time in the interval
Draw a
(b)
to
felt
by the
man
as a
5 sec.
similar graph of the Coriolis force.
For both
diagrams, give the correct vertical scale (in newtons).
Show on a
(c)
sketch the direction of these forces, assuming
the platform to rotate in a clockwise direction as seen from above.
On
12-21
a long-playing record (33 rpm, 12
Assume
crawl toward the rim.
and the record
its legs
Does
is 0.1.
an
in.)
insect starts to
that the coefficient of friction between

it
reach the edge by crawling or
otherwise ?
A child sits on the ground near a rotating merry-go-round.

With respect to a reference frame attached to the earth the child has
no acceleration (accept this as being approximately true) and experiences no force.
With respect to polar coordinates fixed to the
12-22
merry-go-round, with origin at
(b)
What
What
(c)
Account for
(a)
its
center:
is
the motion of the child?
is
his acceleration?
this acceleration, as
acting
on
measured in the rotating
Coriolis forces judged to be
and
frame, in terms of the centrifugal

the child.
12-23 The text
(p.
516) derives the Coriolis force in the transverse (8)
motion of an object along a radial
direction by considering the
line
one considers an object

in
the
that is moving transversely
rotating frame, one can obtain the
Coriolis
and
net radial force due to
centrifugal effects. Consider a
Correspondingly,
in the rotating frame.
on a
particle
The
particle
from the
if
frictionless turntable rotating with angular velocity w.
at rest relative to the turntable, at a distance r
is initially
axis of rotation.
up a fixed coordinate system S with axes x transversely

and with its origin O at the position of the particle at
(see the figure).
Set up another coordinate system S', with
O' and axes x' and y', which rotates with the turntable and
(a) Set
and y
t
origin
radially
which coincides with
at
0.
Show
that at a later time
ordinates of a given point as measured in S' and
following equations, where 8

x'
= x cos 8 + y sin 8 +
y'
(b)
551
y cos 8
Suppose
Problcms
the co-
are related by the
wt:
r sin 8
x sin 8
r(l
that, at /
0, the particle is given a velocity v'
cos 8)
relative to O' in the x' direction.
the
subsequent motion
Its
direction at the constant velocity o'
this to obtain its coordinates x'

(c)
Making
for small values of
and
at a later time
one can put
y'
%a'r i
2
,
where
be along
Use
to O.
/.
the approximations for the case wt

t
will
tar relative
a'T
1,
co
show
2r
that
Tmvf
This corresponds to the required combination of centrifugal and

Coriolis accelerations.
(d) If
you
are feeling ambitious, apply the
for an initial velocity in
12-24 In an
an
article entitled
16, 246 (1903)],
same kind of analysis
arbitrary direction.
"Do
Objects
Edwin Hall reported
fail
South?"
[Phys. Rev.,
the results of nearly 1000 trials
in
which he allowed an object
to fail through a vertical distance of
23
m at Cambridge,
42 N).
Mass.
eastward deflection of 0.149

(a)
Comparc
(lat.
cm and a
He
found, on the average, an
southerly deflection of 0.0045 cm.
the easterly deflection with what would be ex-
pected from Eq. (12-17).

(b) Consider the fact that the development of an eastward
component of motion relative to the earth would indeed lead in turn
to a southerly component of Coriolis force. Without attempting any
detailed analysis, estimate the order of

resulting southerly deflection to the
Do
you think
flection
that
magnitudc of the ratio of the
predominant easterly
an explanation of HalPs
results
deflection.
on southerly de-
can be achieved in these terms?
12-25 Calculate the Coriolis acceleration of a
satellite in
a circular
polar orbit as observed by someone on the rotating earth. Obtain the

direction of this acceleration throughout the orbit, thereby explaining
why
the satellite always passes through the poles even though
subjected to the Coriolis force.

in
a similar force
on
it is
a satellite
an equatorial orbit?
12-26 Imagine that a
and of radius R,
552
Is there
frictionless horizontal table, circular in
is fitted
Inertial forces
shape
with a perfectly elastic rim, and that a dry-ice
puck
is
The
launchcd from a point on the rim toward the center.
puck bounccs back and forth across the table at constant speed
because of the Coriolis force
path along a diameter.
it
does not quite follow a straight-line
Consider the rate at which the path of the
puck gradually turns with respect to the table, and compare the
with that for a Foucault pendulum at the same latitude, X.
12-27 In the
text (p.
but
v,
536) the height of the equilibrium tide
result
is cal-
carrying a particle
work done by the tide-producing force in

of water from point D to point A (see the figure).
By
work from
culated by considering the
considering the
to
an intermediate point P, one can
obtain a general expression for the elevation or depression h{6) of the
water at an arbitrary point, relative to what the water level would be

in the absence of the tide-producing force.
two
The
calculation involves
parts, as follows:
work
P(x =
(a) Evaluate the
D(x =
y = Re)
water of mass m.
0,
to
(b)
Re cos 0, y = Re sin d)
Equating
potential energies, mg(iip
ference hp
integral of the tide-producing force
of gravitational
this to the difference
an expression
ho), one gets
from
for a particle of
for the dif-
ho-
The
total
volume of water
is
a constant.
Hence,
if
ho
represents the water depth in the absence of the tide-producing force,
we must havc
r/
2TR K -[h(6) - ho]sinddd =
Putting the results of (a) and (b) together, you should be able to
verify that the deviation of the water level
is
553
proportional to 3 cos 2
Problem s
from
its
undisturbed state
What makes planet s go around
the sun ?
At
the time
of
Kepler some people answered this problem by saying that

there were angels behind them beating their wings
pushing the planet s around an
answer
is
is
orbit.
not very far front the truth.
that the angels sit in
As you
and
will see, the
The only difference
different direction
and
their
wings
push inwards.
R. P.
feynman, The Character of Physical Law (1965)
13
Motion under
central forces
we have already
seen, especially in Chapter 8,
how
the motion
of objects under the action of forces directed toward some welldefined center is one of the richest areas of study in mechanics.
Twice
in the history
of physics the analysis of such motions has
been linked with fundamental advances in our understanding of

nature through the explanation of planetary motions, on the
macroscopic
scale,
particle scattering,
Up
subatomic world.
studies of alpha-
and through Rutherford's

which gave man his first
until this point
to the study of circular orbits,
and
clear view of the
we have
it is
limited ourselves
remarkable
how much
can be learned on that basis. But now we shall begin a more

general analysis of motion under the action of central forces.
BASIC FEATURES OF THE PROBLEM

As we saw
in
Chapter
1 1
(p. 444),
a central force field that
conservative must be spherically symmetric, and
important
fields in
is
also
some of the most
nature (notably electrical and gravitational)
are precisely of this type.
The frequent occurrence of
symmetric models to describe physical

the basic assumption that space
is
reality
isotropic
is
and
spherically
closely linked to
is
the intuitively
natural starting point in building theoretical models of various
kinds of dynamical systems.
We
shall begin with the specific
single particle of
mass
w in
problem of the motion of a
a spherically symmetric central field
555
Fig. 13-1
(a) Unit
veciors associated
with radial
and
trans-
verse directions in a
plane polar coordinale

system.
(b) Radial
and transverse components ofan
ele-
mentary vector
displacement Ar.
of force.
we
Initially, at least,
sponsible for this central ficld
assume that the object
shall
so massive that
is
it
re-
can be regarded
as a fixed center that defines a convenient origin of coordinates

for the analysis of the motion.
The
first
thing to notice
This plane
particle
and the
defined by the
is
initial
plane of
and v
To
is
the motion
it,
vector v
no component of initial velocity

must remain confined to this
analyze the motion we must
appropriate coordinate system. Because the force
of the scalar distance r only and

(positively or negatively),
of the
of the particle with re-
Since the force acting on the particle
and sincc thcrc
in this plane,
perpendicular to
initial velocity
vector position
spect to the center of force.

is
moving par-
a fixed plane that passes through the center of
ticle will lie in
force.
that the path of the
is
it is
with the plane polar coordinates
is
first
is
pick an
a function
along the line of the vector r
clearly
(r, 0),
most convenient to work
as indicated in Fig. 13-l(a).
This means that we shall be making use of the acceleration vector

expressed in these coordinates.
lated
(r
this
vector for the
constant).
Now we
In Chapter 3 (p. 108)
particular
shall
unit vectors e r
calcu-
case of circular motion
develop the more general expres-
sion that embraces changes of both r
Using the
we
and
and
0.
e as indicated in Fig. 13-1 (a)
we have
r
V=
(13-1)
re,
dr
d,
dr
dt
C'
This equation for v
dd
r
is
(13-2)
di
by recognizing that a
Ar, is obtained by com-
readily constructed
general infinitesimal change in position,
bining a radial displacement of length Ar (at constant 0) and a
556
Motion under cenlral
forccs
transverse displacement of length r
A6
(at
constant
r),
as indicated
Alternatively, one can just differentiate both
in Fig. 13-1 (b).
of Eq. (13-1) with respect to time, remembering that
sides
d(e r)/dt
{dO/dtytt [see Eq. (3-17a)].
We now proceed to differentiate both sides of Eq.

respect to
(13-2) with
2
r
dv
dt =
dT*
d
e +
+ dr
d d,
dl
'
<f$
+ r dT2 e
,
ee
d-t
'
dd d
+
,
Substituting d(e r)/dt
dr dO
er
dtdt*
(d6/dt)ee ,
and
d(e$)/dt
= - (dd/dt)c T
the
expression for a can be rewritten as follows:
ir.
er
dfi
^1+ 2
dfi
Cfl
(13-3)
di dt
be convenient to extract from this the separate radial and
It will
transverse
a'
components of the
= d\
dfid
(de\
r
+
,
dfi
(13-4)
\jt )
at=r-rT
total acceleration
, dr dB
2-r-r
(13-5)
dt dt
The statement of Newton's law in plane polar coordinates can

then be made n terms of these separate acceleration components:
i
FT = m
d\
= m
(13-6)
dfi
d^
r
dfi
dr dd
(13-7)
dt dt
The above two equations provide a

problem of motion
coordinates.
We
basis for the solution of
in a plane, referred to
shall,
any
an origin of polar
however, consider their application to
central forccs in particular.
THE LAW OF EQUAL AREAS

In the case of any kind of conservative central force,
FT =
F(r) simply,
implies that as
557
and Fe =
0.
The law of equal
0.
The second of
we have
these immediately
Substituting the specific expression for as
areas
13-2
Fig.
Illustrating the basis
of calculating areal velocity

(area swept oul per unit lime by
ihe radius vector).
r+2$-0
dt 2
03-8)
dt dt
This equation contains a somewhat veiled statement of a simple

geometrical result
by
that the vector r sweeps out area at a constant
One way of seeing
rate.
2d
'
The
dfi
lr
may
we
2d2
r
di)
dt2
dd/dt:
drdd
' dt dt
we
integrate this expression,
Now
then be recognized as the derivative with
of the product
rf/s\
dt\
in
Eq. (13-8) throughout
drdd =
Q
7iJi
left-hand side
respect to
If
this is to multiply
r:
therefore have
= const.
?
dt
in Fig.
(13-9)
3-2 we
a short time
Al.
show
It
the area
AA
the triangle
is
(shaded) swept out by r
POQ
indistinguishable from a straight line if
it is
(we take
PQ
to be
short enough) and
we have
+ Ar) sin A6
AA - iKr
The
rate at
limit of
Ar/r
for At
and
Ad
A=
d
dt
which area
AA/At
\
2
sin
being swept out, instantaneously,
*
>
0.
A0,
Since, as
we
we approach
is
the
this limit,
arrive at the result
^l
(,3-10a)
dt
Thus we recognize
558
is
the constant on the right-hand side of Eq.
Motion undcr ccntral
f'orces
A por-
Fig.
13-3
tion
of Newton'
(a)
manuscript,
(a)
De Motu,
showing the basis of

his proofofthe law of
equal areas for a
cenlral force.
(6)
En-
larged copy of Newton' s
diagram.
J. Herivel,
(.Front
The Back-
ground to Newton's
Principia,
Oxford
University Press,
London, 1965.)
(13-9) as twice the rate (a constanl rate) at which the radius

vector r sweeps out area, and
(Any
The
Kepler
It
was
therefore have
=s
central force)
result expressed
in his
we
dA
dt
2 dd
(13-10b)
const.
t/r
by Eq. (13-10b) was
first
discovered by
analysis of planetary motions (of which
stated by
him
in
what
is
known
more
later).
as his second law (although
Newton understood it
on the samc dynamical grounds as we have discussed above,
it
was actually the
i.e.,
chronologically).
as a feature of the motion of an object acted
kind of force that
559
first
The law of cqunl
is
directed always to the
areas
same
on by any
point.
He
visualized the action of such a force as a succession of small kicks
or impulses, which in the limit would go over into a continuously
He
applied infiuence.
out this view of the process in a tract
set
written in 1684 (about 2 years before the Principia).
13-3(a)
Figure
a reproduction of a small fragment of the work,
is
indicating Newton's approach to the problem.
With the help of
an enlarged version of his sketch [Figure 13-3(b)] we can

more readily follow Newton's argument, which as usual was
geometrical.
Newton imagines an
object traveling along
receiving an irripulse directed toward the point S.
now
carry
and
to D, E,
it
BC
along the line
travels
instead of Bc.
To make
F.
visualizes the displaccmcnt
AB
and then
As a
things quantitative,
BC as being, in effect,
result it
Similar impulses
Newton
the combination
of the displacement Bc, equal to AB, that the object would have
undergone
if it
had continued for an equal length of time with
original velocity, together with the displacement
BS
the line
along which the impulse was applied.
yields the Iaw of areas
by a simple argument: The
and SBc
are equal, having equal bases
altitude.
The
triangles
and
(SB)
base
between
the
This at once
triangles
equal, having a
same
its
parallel to
{AB and Bc) and
SBc and SBC are
lying
cC
parallels.
SAB
the same
common
Hence
ASAB = ASBC.
THE CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
We
give a
more modern and more fundamental

it
in
angular momentum.
particle at
If
slant to the
law
terms of the conservation of orbital
of areas by expressing
[Fig.
13-4(a)]
is
acted on
by a force F, we have
F =
/na
&
m-7dt
Let us
now form
the vcetor (cross) produet of the position
veetor r with both sides of this equation:
rXF
The
rXmât
left-hand side
is
(13-11)
the torque
M due to F about O.
De Motn (Concerning the Motion of Bodies), contains

of the important results that were later incorporated in the Principia.
'This tract, called
many
560
Motion under central
forees
Fig.
13-4
(a) Vector
relationship ofposilion, linear
momentum,
and orbital momentum, (b) Analysis of

the velocity into radial
and transverse components.
We now
introduce the
moment of
the
momentum,
of the
I,
particle with respect to O'.
Thus
the
= rX/wv =
1
rXp
(13-12)
bears the same relation to the linear
moment
of the force,
M, does
to F.
It is
momentum,
in Fig. 13-4(a), perpendicular to the plane defined

If
we
calculate the rate of change of
with respect to
d\
dt
ji
Jt
we have
i. e.,
p, as
a vector, as shown
by
and
v.
the derivative of
w
w dv
x m y+rxm,
\Xmv + rXm dt
dt
However, the value of v
X mv
product of two parallel vectors.

of the above equation
zero, because
is
the cross
The second term on
the right
is
it
by Eq. (13-1 1), equal to the torque or

moment of the applied force about O. Thus we have the simple
is,
result
M=rXF=^dt
(13-13)
moment of F to the rate of change of the

momentum, or orbital angular momentum, of the
about the origin O. If, now, we take F to be a central
This, then, relates the
moment
particle
of
force direeted radially

is
zero.
toward or away from O, the value of

we have
In this case, therefore,
?=
dt
561
The conservation of angular momentum
and
This, then,
the statement of the conservation of orbital angular
is
momentum
for
under zero
force.
motion under a central force
we look
If
(13-14)
const.
magnitude
of course,
the situation in the plane of the motion
at
[Fig. 13-4(b)] the vector
scalar
or,
/ is
points
upward from the page, and
= mr2 de
rmo
its
given by
(13-15a)
dt
This means that the constant rate of sweeping out area, as expressed by Eqs. (13-10a) and (13-10b),
dA _\_
dt
The
d8
2
T
dt
(13-15b)
As we have
by Eqs. (13-14) and (13-15)

if we
some process
pointed out before,
these
bccome powerful
phenomena. Angular momentum

sort
which
problems.
is
is
a valu-
find quantities
that remain constant throughout
"conserved"
given quantitatively by
=
~ J_
2m
result expressed
able one.
is
i.e.,
they are
tools in the analysis of
a conserved quantity of this
particularly valuable in the analysis of central field
is
It
should be noted that the conservation of angular
momentum depends
only on the absence of a torque and
is
inde-
pendent of the conservation or nonconservation of mechanical

energy.
nice
example of
this last feature
an object that whirls around
compared to
at the
r itself, the velocity v
at each instant,
is
tension
one revolution
Fig.
is
13-5
562
mwi
Small portion of the path of an object that

O at the end of a string the
being whirled around
length of which
is
heing steadily shorlened.
Moiion under
is
small
is
very nearly
in the string that pulls the object
inward exerts no torque about O, and so we have

a change of r from r\ to r 2 we thus have
mv\r\
up of
almost perpendicular to r
and the angular momentum (rmog )
The
equal to mur.
the speeding
end of a gradually shortening
If the decrease of r in
string (Fig. 13-5).
is
central forees
const.
In
or
V2
Thus,
r\
01
than n, there
if r 2 is less
K2 The work
Kt
is
JW (^ -
a gain of kinetic energy given by
l)
equivalent to this gain of kinetic energy must be pro-
vided by the tension in the string.
In an equilibrium orbit
we
would have
T=
Substituting v
.2
T=
I/mr, this becomes
mvi
/wr 3
r\
r*
The work done by
7" in
a change from r to r
acts radially inward).
is
given by
w
It
may
be seen that
Thus
dr
the total
+ dr T dr (since
is
work between
22/1
The problem has a good
of the earth
satellite spiraling
servation of orbital angular
deal in
K2
ENERGY CONSERVATION
If
we
IN
r2
ATi already
common
with that
inward, although in that casc con-
momentum
does not apply, because
the air resistance represents a transverse force providing

tive torque (see discussion
and
l\
equals the value of
this
calculated.
rx
a nega-
on pp. 470-473).
CENTRAL FORCE MOTIONS
are dealing with a conservative central force (which
the case in the example analyzed above)
we can
was not
write a statement
of the conservation of total mechanical energy in the following
form:
a
I [Or + V,*}+
In addition,
563
we have
f/(r)
= E
the law of conservation of angular
Fnergy conservation
in
central force motions
(13-16)
momen-
tum
as given by Eq. (13-15a):
mrvt
The
quantities
U(r)
is
and
are thus "constants of the motion."
the potential energy of the particle
m in
The orbital-momentum equation allows us

problem of a
to the form of a
particle
the central
field.
to reduce Eq. (13-16)
moving
in
one dimension
only undcr the action of a conservative force. This
is
the key to
From Eq.
the
method of handling
we
take the value of u$ and use this value in Eq. (13-16).
central field problems.
(13 15a)
There
follows
h
+
- B
(13-17)
which describes the radial part of the motion. This
^- +
U'(r)
is
of the form
= E
(13-18)
where
2
u'(r)
V(r)
Imr-i
The quantity V '(r) plays
the rolc of an equioalent potential energy
for the one-dimcnsional radial problem.

l
/2mr 2 takes complete account,
The
additional term
as far as the radial motion
is
concerned, of the fact that the position vector r in the actual
motion
is
continuously changing
direction.
its
But
it
is
to be
noted that nothing that depends explicitly on the angular coordinate d or
its
time derivatives appears
The term
2
l
/2mr 2
is
in
Eq. (13-18).
often referred to as the "centrifugal*'
potential energy, because the force represented by the negative
gradient of this potential energy
rwntrifugnl
Putting
mr*
-\
is
identical with the centrifugal force mui r in a
rotating at an angular velocity
co
Molion under
frame
cqual to the instantaneous value
of dO Idi.
564
given by
z
mr' (de/dl), this becomes
ftmttrtfugal
which
dr \2mr2/
is
central forees
must be remembered, of course, that the "centrifugal
It
potential energy"
is
particle: that part
due
in fact a portion of the kinetic energy of the

to the
componcnt of
its
motion transverse
The circum-
to the instantaneous direction of the radius vector.
stance that this kinetic-encrgy contribution can be expressed as
a function of radial position alone enables us to treat the radial
motion as an independent one-dimensional problem.
The
potential-encrgy function U(r) in Eq. (13-17) can be any

In developing this discussion
function of radius.
we
shall first
consider the general properties of motion in any central field for
which U(r) approaches zero as
Subsequently we shall
r increases.
take up the important special case of an inverse-square foree

field in
which the potential energy of a particle
portional to
is
inversely pro-
r.
USE OF THE EFFECTIVE POTENTIAL-ENERGY CURVES

The general properties of the motion of a particle in a central
field can be most readily obtained by using the energy-diagram
method of Chapter 10 applied to Eq. (13-17) or Eq. (13-18).
There
are,
however, two significant differences between the use
of the energy method for one-dimensional motion and

for
one-dimensional motions, as in the case of central

in
use
its
any two-dimensional motion which can be reduced to two

fields.
First,
one dimension, the energy alone determines the general char-
aeter of the motion in a conservative
angular
momentum
In the central-field
field.
case, however, specification of the energy
is
The
not enough.
of the particle must also be specified, and
on both parameters E and /, instead of on E

alone. This shows up clearly in the energy diagram, because the
2
2
plot of U' = U + (l /2mr ) will be different for different values
the motion depends
of /.
tial
We
have, then, a whole family of curves of equivalent poten-
energy, corresponding to different values of the angular
momentum, and must
consider what happens to the motion with
a given energy for the different values of
/.
In addition, to translate the results obtained for the radial
motion by
this seheme into the actual motion of the

must remember that while the radial coordinate r
with time, so
is 6.
The changes
in r are
taneous rotation of the vector

particle
565
depends on both.
Use of the
The
r,
particle,
is
we
changing
accompanied by a simul-
and the actual
orbit of the
rotation of the vector r
elTcctive poiemial-energy curves
is
not
uniform except in the special case of circular motion, for which

the length of the position vector r does not change with time.
The angular momentum
and the energy
E define
the basic
dynamical conditions and are related to the position r

velocity v
E=
=
Since
we
a total
pletely.
each)
Fig.
at
an arbitrary time
=- +
LH.ro)
(13-19)
are dealing with a two-dimensional problem,
bf four
initial
statement of the vectors r
and v
purpose.
(a) True potential energy U(r),
ferent values ofl.
we need
conditions to specify the situation com-
and several
"centrifugal poleiitial energy" curves belonging to dif(b) Resultan! effective potential
energy U' (r) for different orbital momenta.
566
and
by
mro(c t )o
fulfills this
13-6
forccs
(two components
Now
let
us look at a typical energy diagram. In Fig. 13-6(a)
are plotted the curves of

values of the angular
/2mr 2 against
momentum, and
r for several different
U(r) against r for an at-
from
tractive potential that rises with increasing distance
U(r)
energy
> oo
curves U '(r)
as r
U(r) with each of the separate centrifugal potential curves.
how
consider
0.
obtained by combining the single function
obtain curves with minima as shown,

variation of
Figure 13-6(b) shows the effective potential-
with r to be
is
it
rapid than l/r
less
Let us
.)
draw valuable
to use such curves to
(To
necessary for the
now
qualitative
conclusions about the possible motioijs.
In Figure 13-7
drawn
we show an
for a particular value of
value of
/,
effective potential -energy curve
We
/.
no physically meaningful
then see that, given this
situation can exist for
Em
value of the total energy
less
minimum
value of U'(r).
At
no
motion can occur; the motion must be
radial
than the energy

this
minimum
any
equal to the
possible value of E,
circular with a
For a range of larger values of E, between Em

and zero, the radial motion will be periodic (e.g., E = Ea or Eb ).
With the assumed form of U(r), all motions with a positive value
radius equal to r
of
(e.g.,
c)
but no upper
are
unbounded; there
limit.
If
given, but the orbital
seen [most readily
momentum
from
permissible value of /;
is
a least possible value of r
one chooses to regard the value of

as a variable, then
Fig. 13-6(b)] that there is a
any value from
this
down
and the maximum value corresponds to a
Fig.
13-7
to zero
Effective
diagram from
wlrich
the character ofthe

radial motion for
different values
total
ofthe
energy can be
inferred.
567
Use ofthe
is
effective potential-energy curves
as
allowed,
circular orbit.
polential-energy
may be
maximum
it
BOUNDED ORBITS
With the hclp of the above preliminary analysis of the radial
component of the motion, one can then proceed to develop some
ideas about the appearance of the actual orbits in space. Suppose,
we had the situation corresponding to the

The radial motion is bounded between
for example, that
Eb
energy
in Fig. 13-7.
minimum and maximum values

certain period T,.
Thus we know
periodic with
certain
of
that the partiele
r.
It is
moves
always within the area between two circles as shown in Fig. 13-8.
Furthermore, the radial distances r min and rmax represent turning

points of the radial motion. The orbit must be such that it is
tangent to both these circles, because at these points the radial
velocity
is
zero but the tangential velocity cannot be zero, given
that the partiele has angular

after
its
has reached point
it
and continuing
radial period
Tr
changing
eloekwise
through 2w
OA
until
On
its
or
line
on the
takes for this part of the motion
the other hand, the radius veetor

direetion, always in the
counterclockwise)
O A' represents the veetor
ratio of the
radial
which the
and angular
periods
differ.
effect is that
The
of an
approximately
elliptic
orbit that keeps turn-
ing {precessing) in
own
its
plane.
568
the
con-
same sense
(i.e.,
will
have turned
In Fig. 13-8 the line
some
instant,
position at the time Tg later.
two periods, T, and
Plan view
in
and
is
is
the charaeter of the orbit depends strongly
of an orbital motion
for a case
again becomes tangent to the outer cirele

it
after a charaeteristie period T$.
It is clear that
13-8
cirele at point
represents the veetor position of the partiele at
and the
Fig.
it
The time
at point B.
either
momentum. Consider the partiele

moves in as indicated,
of the figure. It
becoming tangent to the inner
trajectory
tinually
forees
Tg,
of the doubly periodic
motion. If the periods are commensurable
be expressed as the ratio of two

will ultimately (after
Tr
and
their ratio
(i.e., if
a time equal to the lowest
can
moving
particle
common
multiple
integers), the
same position as initially

and the orbit will thus have been closed. If the two periods
happen to be exactly equal, this closure will happen after only
of
find itself in exactly the
one radial period and one increment of

this
sees that this
is
in
it is
precisely
In Fig. 13-8
6.
a unique and (on the face of
improbable situation, yet

is
lir
A and B would
would mean that the points
coincide.
One
a thoroughly
it)
what one has
if
the force
one of attraction proportional to the inverse square of
Thus
we
of this remarkable character, as
trostatic) yield orbits
show
r.
the most important forces in nature (gravitational and elccshall
shortly.
and angular periods are comparable but defone has just the kind of situation shown in
If the radial
initely different, then
Fig. 13-8.
This corresponds to a case in which T,
greater than
7",
somewhat
so that the radius vector rotates through rather
more than 2x before r completes

and back again. In a situation
to being a closed curve but
its
variation
is,
from rmax to
where the path
like this,
precession
orbital
is
rmin
near
in effect, also turning (either
forward or backward), one says that the orbit
The study of
is
is
is
precessing.
important in astronomical
systems.
If the radial
and angular periods are incommensurable, the
orbit will never close
and
will eventually
fiil
up the whole region
between rmi and rm .
UNBOUNDED ORBITS
We have already
pointed out that a positive total energy leads to
a lower limit of r but to no upper limit in the effective potential

of Fig. 13-7.
This
is,
in fact, a rather
any potential that tcnds to zero at
general result, applying to

oo,
because
it
corresponds
to the fact that the particle has a positive kinetic energy at infinity.
If U(r) is a repulsive potential,
ing that
it
everywhere positive, then (assum-
decreases monotonically with increasing r) there are no
bounded motions
at all.
Figure 13-9 compares the situations
obtained by taking a given centrifugal potential and combining
it
with attractive and repulsive potential-energy curves that differ

only in sign. Figure 13-10 shows what this means in terms of the
trajectories that a particle of a given energy
569
Unbonnded
orbits
would follow
in these
Fig.
13-9
(a) Centrifugal potential-energy curve,
two potential-energy curves, differing only
and
in sign, that
might arise from electrical interactions oflike and unlike charges.
(b) Effectice potential-energy curves cor-
responding to
tlie
two cases shown
different distances ofclosest
in (a), indicating
approach for a gicen posi-
liue total energy.
At large distances from the center of force, such

2
2
that the magnitudes of U(r) and l /2mr are both negligible, the
two
situations.
travels
particle
(2/w)
1/2
in
straight
equal to
with a speed v
linc
This line of motion
offsct
is
from a
parallel line
through the center of force by a certain distance b that

related to the angular
/
= mv
momentum we
is
directly
have, in fact,
(13-20)
Thus an assumption of given values of

expressed by using the values of Po
ar| d
E and
/ in Fig.
13-9
is
b " n F'g- 13-10(a), which
corresponds to an attractivc potcntial, and in Fig. 13 10(b),
which corresponds to a repulsivc potential.

called the impact parameter,
and
it is
The
distance b
is
a very useful quantity for
characterizing situations in which a particle, in an
unbounded
a large distance away.
approachcs a center of force from

For a given value of u a the value of b completely defines the
orbit,
orbital angular
It is
momentum,
clear that thesc
via Eq. (13-20).
unbounded
trajectories represent single

is no
bounded
encounters of the particle with the center of force; there

possibility of successive rcturns as
570
Motion
tituler
central forees
we have with
the
13-10
Fig.
(a) Plan
view oftrajectory ofa

parlicle moving around
a center of attraction.
The angular momentum
is
defined
by
Ihe
"impact parameter"
(b)
b.
Corresponding
trajectory with the
same impact parameter, but with a

repulsive center
of
force.
orbits of the kind
shown
in Fig. 13-8.
The
situations
shown
in
Fig. 13-10 thus represent individual collisions or scattering processes,
We
of the kind so important in atomic and nuclear physics.
shall return to
them
Certain potentials
Fig.
13-11
struction
Con-
of effective
potential-energy dia-
gram for an
attractive
potential that varies
more strongly than

l/r".
571
Unbounded
orbits
later.
may
lead to the possibility of having both
bounded and unbounded motions at the same energy. This

any attractive potentiai curve U(r) that falls
possibility exists for
2
more rapidly than l/r with increasing r. An example is
shown in Fig. 13-11. As long as / is not zero, the combination
off
of U(r) with the centrifugal potentiai gives an effective potential-
much
energy curve that looks very
of Fig. 13-7.
maximum
of
For a positive
/'(/),
there are
total
like
an upside-down version
energy
now two
that
is
than the
less
distinct regions
of possible
motion:
ri
This
is
<
<
<
< w
bounded
r\
orbits
unbounded
orbits
not just an academic curiosity.
The
effective potential-
energy curve representing the interaetion between,
us say, a
let
proton and an atomic nuclcus resembles Fig. 13-11 and suggests

that the partiele
may
be either trapped within r it or frec outside
r2> with no possibility of going from one state to the other.
It is,
we first mentioned in Chapter 10, one of the faseinating results

of quantum mechanies that a transition through the classically
as
forbidden region can in faet oecur with a certain probability

a probability that
is
far
too small to be significant in most cases
but can become very important
CIRCULAR ORBITS
As
IN
in
atomic and nuclear systems.
AN INVERSE-SQUARE FORCE FIELD
a quantitative example of the general approach diseussed in
the preceding seetions,

cireular orbits under
we
shall take the case of circular or almost
2
an attractive central foree varying as l/r
This means that we shall mainly be diseussing, from a different

point of view, a situation that
detail in earlier chapters.
we have
There
is
already analyzed in
merit in
this,
because
it
some
enables
one to see more readily the relationship between the different

approaches.
To be specific, let us consider the motion of a satellite of

mass m in the gravitational field of a vastly more massive planet.
For this case, the potentiai energy in the field of a planet of mass
takes the special form [see Eq. (11-31)]
u(r)
where
=
is
-9Mm
the universal gravitational constant
of the attracting object.
572
(i3-2i)
Motion under
and
M the mass
Equation (13-17) becomes for
central forees
this case
GMm
,2
2mr2
= E
(13-22)
In Fig. 13-12 are plotted the equivalent potential-energy curves
U'(r)
GMm
2mr2
for
two valucs of the angular momentum
circular orbit corresponds, as
minimum
energy equal to the
Now
dr
mr*
Putting dU'/dr
f
The
GMm
total
/.
U '(r), taking / as fixed, we have
r*
0,
we
thus find that
const.
orbital radius
orbital angular
seen, to
GMm
= _ _T_
'
we have
value of U'(r) for a given value of
from the above equation for
di/
/.
is
(13-23)
therefore proportional to the square of the
momentum.
This
is
indicated qualitatively in
Fig. 13-12.
Let us
orbit
is
now
consider the energy of the motion.
v r always equal to zero.

,
Thus
in
Eq. (13-22)
we can put
GMm
E=
(Circular orbit)
2/W/-2
From
Fig.
13-12
Eq. (13-23), however,
we have
Energy
diagrams for orbils of

different orbital
angular
momentum
around a given center

offorce.
573
circular
characterized by having the radial velocity component,
Circular orbils
in
an inverse-square force
field
GMm
2
l
mr*
Hence the energy can be expressed
E= -
(Circular orbit)
The second form shows

portiond to
that \E\
in either of the following
-^-r =
(13-24)
that the orbital radius
\E\; the first,
is
inversely pro-
taken together with Eq. (13-23), shows
inversely proportional to
is
^^
ways:
2
.
These properties, too, are
qualitatively indicated in Fig. 13-12.
The period of
the orbit can be obtained, in this approach,
with the help of the law of areas. Earlier
in this
chapter
we estab-
lished the following result [Eq. (13-15b)]:
dA _
J
2ra
dt
For a
is
irr
in
circular orbit, the total area
Thus we have dA/dt
simply mvr.
2
/(ur/2)
more
putting
hardly
2irr/v
interesting terms
is
*r 2 and the value of

vr/2 and hence 7
a surprising result!
we can make
To
express Tg
use of Eq.
(13-23),
= mvr:
(mvr)
mr
GMm
giving
1/2
-m
Using
this explicit expression for
uasa
function of
r,
we then
arrive once again at the equation that expresses Kepler's third law:
T9 _
.
2t
(G/uy*
312
(13-25)
SMALL PERTURBATION OF A CIRCULAR ORBIT

we limitcd ourselves to redeveloping some
now let us do something new, which exploits
In the previous scction

familiar results. But
the insights provided by the effcctive potential-energy method.
Imagine that a
energy
574
and radius
satellitc
is
describing a circular orbit of
around a sphcrical planet whose center
forces
Fig.
13-13
ofapplying a radial impuhe to an
(a) Resull
object that is initially in
and the subsequent path
FAGP.
circular orbit with its center
The impulse
at the earth's center, O.
is the
is
at
diagram
(b) Effeclive radial potential-energy
for the analysis of the molion shown in
is
applied at F,
almost-circular path
Suppose now that the
[Fig. 13 13(a)].
the point F,
is
ia).
satellite,
when
at
given a small radial impulse, along the line OF,
by means of a brief firing of one of its control
jets.
What happens
to the orbit?
Let us examine the situation with the help of the energy
diagram
in Fig.
13-13(b).
represented by the
Initially the satellite is in the state
minimum
M,
point,
of the effective potcntial
The impulse, being purely radial, leaves the orbital

momentum unchanged. Thus the function l 2 /2mr 2 and hence
the whole function U'(r), is unaffected.
The impulse does,
curve.
however, raise the total energy of the

immediately after the
firing,
represented by the point
but
it
satellite slightly.
Thus,
the satellite finds itself in the state
N in
Fig. 13-13(b);
it is still
at r
r o,
has a small radial velocity corresponding to the energy
increment AE.
But we know what
U '(r)
in the vicinity of
bolic,
and simple harmonic radial
its
this
minimum, M,
means!
is
The form of
approximatcly para-
oscillations will ensue.
Let us
calculate their period.
We are assuming that the decrease of mass associated with the firing of the
jet
can bc ignored.
Actually, since both the kiaetic energy
and the
gravita-
tional potential energy associated with the satellite are proportional to m,
the loss of a signilicant
What
matters
is
amount of mass would not
that the velocity, v, of the satellite
change in the transverse component ce
575
Small perlurbalion of
affect the conclusions.
is
a circular orbit
increased without any
We
saw
is
how
Chapter 10
in
the effective spring constant, k,
around the minimum of a potential-energy curve
for oscillations
equal to the second derivative of
minimum
evaluated at the
with respect to distance,
and
[See pp. 395-397,
point.
especially
Eq. (10-29).] In the present case wc have
d U'
is
r3
to be evaluated at r
2
r2
2GMm
3/
mr \
<jr2
now
+
.
mr 3
dr
This
GMm
dU'
3/
2GMm
n,3
But from Eq. (13-23) we can put
= GMm;
/mr
using this
we
obtain the following valuc for k:
GMm
We
can immediately write
down
the period for one complete
cycle of these small radial oscillations:

1/2
This
-,
2w
identical with the period of
is
radius veetor through

r
rn
_ 3/2
For Ar
27r,
as given
by
T6
in Eq. (13-25) with
motion takes place with an

Thus when $ has advanced by
this angular
almost constant value of dO/dt.

tt/2
one complete sweep of the
from the point F, the
satellite is just
about at
distance from O, as represented by the point
After a further quarter-period
it is
at G, with r
its
in Fig. 13-13(a).
to P, where
once again,
and another quarter-period brings
it
minimum distance from O. The

point F and would continue in
new form, which
radial oscillations
cirele
is,
maximum
it
is
at
its
orbit eloses at the original firing

its
for small
to an exceedingly good approximation, a
of the same radius as the original orbit but with
its
center
by a distance equal to the amplitude of the oscillations.

actually have herc (although we have not proved it) the con-
shifted
We
version of a cireular orbit into an elliptic one.
shown
576
is
What we
have
that small radial oscillations, in synchronism with the
Motion under cemral
forees
Fig. 13-14
Stalionary, c/osed
liptic orbit
(l/r 2 law offorce) in
el-
which the periods of the radial and

angular molions are eaual.
angular motion, generate a closed, repeating, eccentric orbit.
The same
effect
with a larger radial impulse, resulting in
larger (and asymmetrical) radial oscillations,
noticeably flattened closed orbits, as
to the circles of radii rm
-,
and
can
much
in fact lead to
shown in Fig. 13-14, tangent

Our approximate (small
rmax
perturbation) calculation could not, however, be taken as any
guarantee of the closure property in this more extreme case
although exact analysis shows that
it
If the central gravitating object
would be
and the near point
called the apogee,
(from the Greek ap, away from;

prefixes ap-
and
does hold.
were the earth, the
far point
The
peri, near; geos, earth).
and
peri- are used quite generally to denote far
near points of orbits around given objects
[e. g.,
the perigee
aphelion and
perihelion for the sun (Helios)].
THE ELLIPTIC ORBITS OF THE PLANETS
Before proceeding with the subject of orbit dynamics,

briefly describe the
wc
shall
remarkable achievement of Johannes Kepler
in establishing the proposition that the planetary orbits are
compounded
circles but simple ellipses.
not
This great discovery was
bascd almost entirely on the analysis of the motion of a single

planet
Mars.
The behavior of Mars had puzzled and exasperated
astronomers for a very long time, because the apparent irregularities in its
motion were greater than those of any other planet
and defied any easy analysis
in
terms of combinations of uniform
circular motions.
'This seelion
question,
577
is
a historical digression, included on the grounds that the
How do we know
has as
much
The
elliptic orbits
what we know? is always worth asking and often

answer does.
to teach us as the final
of the plancls
To
appreciate the development of Kepler's discovery one
must constantly keep
mind
in
the fact that the primary data of
observational astronomy (and this was especially true in the days

before the telescope) are directions rather than distances.
though
was
it
Al-
well understood that variations in the apparent
brightness of the planets were linked to variations of distance
from the earth, the precise data were only of angular positions.
The whole theoretical machinery of superposed circular motions

was primarily a means of reproducing the observed angular
position of each planet as a function of time.
Kepler began
his
study of Mars at the direction of the great
whom
observational astronomer Tycho Brahe,

assistant in 1600.
of Mars
it
in
he joined as an
Kepler's task was to construct the actual path
space from the accumulation of original observations;
took him 6 years, and many
the picture that
Kepler
is
fully
now
he arrived at
false scents, before
familiar to us.
accepted a heliocentric model of the solar system,
and (unlike Copernicus himself) he consistently held to the idea

that the path of a planet
must be
on the
basis of observations
which was
made from
to establish the path of the earth
attacked this problem
identify the dates
first
Kepler
itself.
He
used this knowledge to
on which Mars must have returned to a given

He chose this point to be one
in its orbit [Fig. 13-15(a)].
corresponding
at
The one most directly

Kepler knew the length of
brilliant.
the Martian year to be 687 days.
the earth
n several ways.
based on observation was
point
a laboratory
orbiting the sun in a nonuniform way.
itself
was thcrefore
task
smooth, continuous curve of
His problem was to find this curve
some kind around the sun.
on a
astronomers
initially
to a configuration in which the earth was
straight line between

call
Mars and
the sun (what the
During one Martian year, the
oppositiori).
earth travels through about 677, or 43 less than two complete

revolutions.
Thus the next time Mars
is
at
Since the angular positions of the sun and
ground of the
the point
stars
M,
the earth
Mars
is
at E\.
against the back-
were a matter of record, Kepler could locate
E\ with respect to the baseline SM.
base line he was able to locate the points E-2
of successive Martian years.
Thus a
Using the same

3
at the
ends
plot of the earth's orbit
could be constructed.
What Kepler found was

guishable from
and the
578
a circle in
that the earth's orbit
shape
but the sun
is
is
indistin-
not at the center
rate of change of the earth's angular position with respect
Molion under
ccnlral ibrces
\
M
K5))&
fi
S d
4/4
E,
(b)
Hl UI HHH
Fig.
13-15
Mars
of Kepler s method ofcharting

by reference to a Standard posilion of
1
(a) Principle
the earth's orbit
HHHI
of successioe Martian
{at the ends
years).
Ap-
(6)
proximate representation of a planetary orbit (with the

sun at S) obtained by assuming that the line
the eguant point
Q)
to the sun (or vice versa)
motion, Kepler
QE {from
rotates at constant angular speed.
first
is
not constant.
To
describe the earth's
used a clever and effective trick that had been
discovered by Ptolemy; this was to locate a fictitious center with

respect to which the angular
Kepler
is
of radius
If
with center C.
one takes a point
CQ = SC =
d,
causes the line

in
motion was uniform.
indicated in Fig. 13-15(b).
The sun
on the
SE (from
it
is
Its
earth's orbit
at S, a distance
line
SC
is
use by
a circle
d from
C.
produced, such that
then a uniform angular motion of the line
sun to earth) to change
The point
almost exactly the right way.
eguant, because
The
acted as a center of equal
(i.e.,
its
QE
inclination d
was
called the
uniform) angular
change.
Kepler found from

ratio
d/R
is
his analysis
only about 0.018.
of the earth's orbit that the
about this size was

Tycho Brahe) of the
figure of
substantiated by observations (initiated by
variation of the sun's measured angular diameter duringthe course
of the year.
Figure
observations of the
3-16 shows the
same
effect.
results of some more recent

Thus Kepler could feel that his
was substantially correct.

one introduces the aphelion and perihelion points [A and P,
picture of the earth's orbit in space
579
The
elliptic orbits
of ihe planets
If
re-
Fig.
13-16
Evidence
of the change
10.8
in the
sun's distance during
one year, as shown by

the change in size
the sun's
of
image
formed by a
telescope.
(After a graph in
Science in Secondary
Schools, Ministry of
Educalion Pamphlet
No. 38, H.
M.
///
Sta-
tionery Office, London,
#/^##/
# / /
1960.)
spectively in Fig. 13 15(b)], then
famx
Tmin
The
= SA = R + d
= SP = R - d
any such
eccentricity, t, of
eccentricity (e)
fmax
is
can understand
orbit
is
defined by the formula
''min
In the present case this
We
we have
(13-27)
''min
equal to the ratio d/ R
why
13-15(b) worked so well. First,
an inverse-square law of foree can lead
to orbits that are closely
do not have the center of foree
cireular but
= 0.018.
model represented by Fig.

as we saw in the previous seetion,
the
at the geometrical
Second, the use of the equant, Q, in Fig. 13-15(b) comes

elose to defining motion with a constant orbital angular momencenter.
tum about
the true center of foree, S.
the perihelion and aphelion points,
Consider, in particular,
and A.
If the line
rotates at a constant angular velocity w, then at
A we
QE
have
= o>(R d), and at P we have vg u(R + d). The distances

SA and SP are, however, equal to R + d and R d, respectively.
ve
Thus
in
dA
both cases we have a rate of sweeping out area given by
= \u(R 2
2
)
dt
At
the point A' the rate
Thus
for
struetion
580
d /R
is
is
equal to
d 2 ). (Check
this.)
the "areal velocity" defined by this con-
very nearly constant.
Motion under
%o(R 2
central forees
Since for the earth's orbit the
d 2 /R 2
ratio
is
only about 3
10~ 4 the above approximate
description works very well indeed.
After this lengthy introduction

the story.
now,
With
his
13-17(a)].
abbreviate the rest of
manner, construct a picture of the
in a straightforward
successive angular positions of
circle
we can
knowledge of the earth's orbit Kepler could
Again he
Mars
from the sun
as seen
an eccentric
tried to represent the orbit as
with an equant, as
in Fig. 13-15(b).
But
[Fig.
this time
it
did
not work; there were small but significant discrepancies between

the calculated angular positions
function of time.
arc,
The
and the observed positions
but Kepler had such faith in the
Tycho Brahe's observations
1.
made
his ideas.
Finally his prodigious
were rewarded with two decisive
The law of equal
2.
insights:
arcas, referred to the sun as origin,
worked
the fictitious equant unnecessary, and
(or, indeed,
and accuracy of
reliability
that he discarded the theory rather
than try to bend the data to

analytical efforts
as
discrepancies were less than 10 minutes of
just as well
even better).
If the original circle
were modified to an inseribed
ellipse
with the sun at one focus, as shown in Fig. 13-17(b), then (applying the law of areas to this
new
equal to the radius
CA
The cireumstance
of the original
that
made
agreement between
orbit) the
theory and observation became excellent.
The
distance
SN
is
circle.
the motion of
Mars
so hard to
explain (but without which Kepler would probably not have been
brought to his great discovery) was the large eccentricity of the

orbit (about 0.09
more than
Fig.
13-17
{a)
times greater than that of the earth, and
five
12 times greater than that of Venus).
Kep-
ler' s triangulation
method for locating a

point on the orbit of
Mars, once the earth's

orbit is
known.
{b) Kepler's discovery
that the orbit

is
an
ellipse,
of Mars
not an
eccentric circle.
(Based on one ofhis
own diagrams
New
in the
Astronomy.)
581
The
elliptic orbits
of the planets
It
should be
noted, however, that even in the case of

the actual shape of the orbit
from a
Mars
the difference between the shortest diameter,
PA
diameter,
[see Fig. 13-17(b)] is less
Kepler published the
full
AW', and the longest
than
part in 200.
story of his labors
failures as well as the final successes
omy (Astronomia Nova),
the departure of
circle is exceedingly small;
the
many
in a book, The New Astron-
published in 1609.
It is
a classic of
scientific discovery.
Once
the basic character of the planetary motions
established, the wealth of pre-existing records
the orbital parameters of other planets.
made
major planets.
by the plane of the

i.e.,
(The inclination,
/,
is
relevant data,
is
made
the angle
orbit with the plane of the earth's
the ecliptic.) Figure 13-18
had been
easy to infer
Table 13-1 presents a
modern tabulation of such parameters, and other

for all the
it
own
orbit
a scale drawing of the orbits of
the four inner planets, projected onto the plane of the ecliptic.
(The angles of inclination are so small that
this projection
not change the shape of the orbits detectably, and they
all
does
look like
perfect circles.)
TABLE 13-1:
PLANETARY ORBIT DATA

Semimajor axis
(a)
Eccentricily
AU
km
()
10 6
Period
Inclination
(D
Years
10 8 sec
7.00
0.241
0.076
3.39
0.615
0.194
1.000
0.316
0.594
(')>
deg
Mercury
Venus
0.387
57.9
0.723
108.2
0.206
0.007
Earth
1.000
149.6
0.017
Mars
1.523
227.9
0.093
1.85
1.881
Jupiter
5.203
778.3
0.048
1.31
11.862
Saturn
9.540
1427
0.056
2.50
2869
4498
5900
0.047
0.77
29.46
84.02
26.6
1.78
164.77
52.1
248
78.4
Uranus
Neptune
19.18
Pluto
39.44
30.07
The book
is
0.009
0.249
17.2
usually rcferred to simply as the
New
Astronomy.
3.75
9.31
Its full title,
however, when translated, reads "A New Causal Astronomy or Celestial

Physics Together with Commentaries on the Movements of the Planet Mars.
From the Observations of Count Tycho Brahe."
Arthur Koestler's book, The Watershed, Doubleday (Anchor Books),

York, 1960, is a full and interesting account of Kepler's life and work.
A more detailed and critical discussion of Kepler's approach to his first and
second laws is an article by Curtis Wilson, "Kepler's Derivation of the
EUiptical Path," Isis, 59, 5-25 (1968).
New
582
Motion under
ccntral forccs
Fig.
13-18
orbiis
Scale drawing oflhe

ofthefour inner planets.
They are
from
ali indist'mguishable
circles in
concentric.
shape but are not
AU are,
lipses with Ihe
in fact, el-
sun at one focus.
DEDUCING THE INVERSE-SQUARE LAW FROM THE ELLIPSE

In 1689
Newton
Locke.
Locke wrote that he had been reading the Principia
received a letter from the philosopher John
(which had been published two years
earlier)
the mathematics quite beyond him.
Could Newton
formidable explanation of
less
law from the observed
how
elliptic orbits
own
able property of these orbits

exists in spite
give
to infer the inverse-square
Newton
of the planets?
replied with a delightfully simple argument,
as the starting point of our
some of
him a
but found
which we
on a remark-
discussion. It rests
their geometrical
shall use
symmetry, which
of the fact that in kinematic and dynamic terms the
orbits are asymmetrical.
Consider the
is
elliptic orbit
a center of force
represented by Fig. 13-19.
There
Located at an equal distance
at the focus, F.
to the other side of the geometrical center, C, is a second focal
A'
'V""
^^V'\
y'"-.
y
*
'
F'
\
Fig.
13-19
ofan
Geometrical symmetry
ellipse with respect to reflec-
tion in ils
minor
axis,
NN'
'.
N'
583
Deducing the inverse-square law from the
ellipse
point, F', but
original model, as
The
focus.]
empty.
is
it
shown
ellipse
[The equant point, Q, of Kepler's

in Fig.
13-15(b),
was
F and
about the major axis passing through

perpendicular (minor) axis
NN' drawn
F',
but also about the
through C.
Yct, as
have seen, the velocities at symmetrically placed points,
and
P2
much
second
at this
has perfect reflection symmetry, not only
P2
than at
Pu
in
Pi
moves
e. g.,
in the figure, are quite different; the orbiting object
faster at
we
accordance with the law of equal
areas.
Consider now, said Newton, the motion of a planet as

passes through
its
Mark
13-20(a)].
[Fig.
perihelion point
p and
off the ares
it
aphelion point a
its
pq and ab that would be
traversed in equal, short times just after passing these points.
The lengths of these ares are

by the law of equal areas,
from the sun

that at p and a the
related to the distances
using the faet
purely transverse to the radius veetor from F.
planet's velocity
is
Hence
good approximation we have
to a very
1*1*1
Now
T2*2
in the
passing
absence of any gravitational foree, the planet after
p would
attraction,
it
Because of the
travel along the tangent pT.
follows the curved path pg, which
is
indistinguishable
from a parabola over a short distance. (This is just like Newton's

see Chapter 8, p. 257.)
analysis of the motion of the moon
The
Fig.
to
planet "falls" through the distance Tq

13-20
(a) lllusirating
Newton's simple argument
deduce the inverse-square law from the motion ofa
planet near perihelion
diagram),
and aphelion. (Based on
the inverse-square law from the elliptic path
law ofeaual areas.
584
his
own
(h) Geometrical construetion for deducing
Motion under centrai forees
and the
(=
d{),
which
is
proportional to the square of the tangent pT.

the deviation Tq
di
where
much
in fact,
is,
less
than pT,
Remembering
we can put
that
Csi
is
But
the constant defining the shape of the parabola.
the parabolic curvature of the ellipse near the aphelion, a,

identical,
is
because of the symmetry, to the curvature near the
Thus we can
perihelion, p.
also put
d2 = Cs2
where
C is
the
same constant
as before
and d 2
the planet's path in going from a to b.

results,
di
d2
It
is
the deviation of
follows from these
taken together with the law of areas, that
rg_
ry 2
Since, however, the distances fallen in equal times are proportional to the accelerations
and hence to the
the gravitational forces acting
forces,
it
follows that
on the planet at the points
are also inversely as the squares of the distances r x
The above argument does not demonstrate the
and
/>
and a
r2
applicability
of the inverse-square law at other points around the orbit, but an

extension of the same basic geometrical approach can be used to
achieve
this,
although
symmetry of the
orbit.
it
no longer appeals to the geometrical

Figure 13-20(b) indicates the method.
Sectors of equal area are constructed, using various positions
(Pi,Ps,Pjd as starting points.

and qz reached by the planet
tangent lines at
P u P 2,
This defines the points q\, q 2 ,

after equal
and P% are
time
also drawn.
intervals.
The
The
radial dis-
placements due to the gravitational force are then given by
T2 q 2 , and T q s With a very carefully drawn figure one

2
can verify that these distances are in proportion to l/r . The
construction does, however, have to be extremely carefully done,
Trfu
:t
1
as the radial displacements are very small.
ELLIPTIC ORBITS: ANALYTICAL
We
TREATMENT
begin with the fundamental "pins-and-string" definition of
the ellipse, which requires that
The method has bcen nicely presented in the PSSC film "Elliptic Orbits,"
by Albert Baez, Education Dcvclopment Center, Newton, Mass., 1959. See
also the paper by Baez, Am. J. Phys., 28, 254 (1960).
585
Eiliplic orbits: analytical ircatment
Fig.
13-21
Basic geomet-
of an
rical features
elliplic
orbit wilh a cenler offorce
at Ihe focus F.
as
to
r'
(13-28)
2a
shown in Fig. 13-21, where the ellipse has a major axis equal
la and has its foci F and F' separated by a distance 2ea. First,
we need
trigonometry, to obtain a relation between the
little
and angular coordinates (r, 6) of an arbitrary point P.

Applying the law of cosines to the triangle FPF', we have
radial
r'
From Eq.
r
'2
(2ea)
4tarcosd
we have
(13-28), however,
4a
4ar
Equating these two expressions for
4eV -
4ear cos d
4a
r'
2
,
we
get
4ar
Hence
r(l
cos 0)
a(l
e )
or
We can
simplify this a
of the ellipse, which
aji
little
Using
!
r
586
this,
- Uaf =
(13-29)
by introducing the semiminor
the distance
is
FON we
geometry of the triangle

b
e)
tcosO
(\
ON
in Fig. 13-21.
axis, b,
By
the
have
2
t
Eq. (13-29) can be written as
= iL(I2
(13-30)
ecostf)
Motion under ccnlral
forccs
With
the help of this last equation, together with conserva-
momentum
tion of orbital
as expressed in the law of areas,
we
can deduce that the force acting on a moving particle at any

point
proportional to l/r
is
the radial
"
component of
2
.
The
essential step is to calculate
acceleration.
%-->($)'
Now by differentiating both sides of Eq.

we
By Eq. (13-4) we have
(13-30) with respect to
t,
get
dr
ta
dd
However, by the law of areas we have
d
r*
4=C
(13-32)
di
where
this,
a constant (equal to twice the areal velocity).
is
Using
the previous equation gives us
Cta
dr
d,'--* 6
Differentiating a second time,
_=__
Cta
<fV
cosfl
we
get
dd
Again using Eq. (13-32) to eliminate dd/dt we have
* =
^J
cose
b"
ri
dfi
To
obtain a T in Eq. (13-31),
quantity r(dd/dt)
(d6\
F
\di)
Combining
587
2
.
By Eq.
we must
subtract
from
this the
(13-32) this can be written as
C2
"rl
this
with the previous equation,
This looks complicated, but
if
equation for l/r [Eq. (13-30)]
we
we thus
we look back
see that
Elliptic orbits: analytical trcatmcnt
get
at the original
ea cos
b*
~r
Hence the term
parentheses
in
in
the above equation for a r
just a geometrical constant of the ellipse,
"'
is
and we have
= ~ ~bT
(,3 " 33)
72
Thus the operation of an inverse-square law is mathematically

verified for any elliptic orbit known to be taking place under the
aetion of a central foree direeted toward one focus.
the Iast qualification.
an
elliptic
It is
We can
as
at
ellipse,
Hence
is
no longer
See Problem 13-23.)
in a
rigorous form.
The parameter
equal to twice the constant rate of sweeping
said,
out area. But the total area of an ellipse
A =
is?
once use Eq. (13-33) to develop another important
Kepler's third law

we have
but the law of foree
Can you guess what it
the inverse square.
is,
have
path under the aetion of a foree direeted toward the
geometric center of the
result
(But note
perfcctly possible, for example, to
is
irab
the period
T of the
orbit
is
given by
T = 22^
C/2
i. e.,
C=
2-Kub
Substituting this value in Eq. (13-33)

2 a
A
4t
a
we
find
1
1
7-2
(13-34)
r2
However, by introducing the

tween the orbiting mass
specific
and a mass
law of gravitation befixed at F,
we
obtain
another expression for the radial acceleration:
GMm
'
Therefore,
aT
588
= -
Motion under
(13-35)
central forees
Fig.
13-22
Family ofelliptic orbils
of the same total energy, sharing tlie

focus F, where the center offorce is
located.
The major axes of the
el-
lipses are all equal.
Equating the right-hand sides of Eqs. (13-34) and (13-35), we

have the identity
.23
a
4ir
GM
T2
whence
-2 =
This
result,
Chapter
in
although identical
form with what we
we
considered only cireular orbits.
see that, according to Eq. (13-36), all orbits
axis have the
same period
If
Now we
having the same major
(for a given value of
are cireular or strongly flaltened.
identified
an important new
8 as Kcpler's third law, contains
Previously
feature.
in
M), whether they
one takes into account the
mass must be at one focus, a group of

same period but different eccentricities might
faet that the gravitating

elliptic orbits
of the
be as shown i n Fig. 13-22.

Kepler, in stating his third law, said that the squares of the
planetary periods are proportional to the cubes of the
We see now that the

"mcan distance" takes on a very sharp and
distances from the sun.
is
just the average of the
for
'mu =
a(l
t)
a(l
t)
IN
precise
is
identical with the
meaning;
it
distances of a
semimajor
axis, a,
from Eq. (13-29) or from Fig. 13-21, we have
rm in
ENERGY
rather vaguc phrase
maximum and minimum
planet from the sun. This
mean
rmax ~r
''min
-z
AN ELLIPTIC ORBIT
The purpose of
this seetion is to
show
that, as
with the orbital
period, the only geometrical parameter entering into the total
589
Energy
in
an elliptic orbit
energy
is
the length of the major axis of the elliptical path.
Since the total energy
is
constant,
at any convenient point in the orbit.
on
the
r
The
major axis
= /W* =
(Fig. 13-21), for
a(l
we
We
are free to evaluate
shall
it
choose the point a
which we have
t)
potential energy can be stated directly:
*W)
= -
-^r
+
a(l
The
kinetic energy
at a
is
is
little
%mvt = imr
harder to
come
by. Since the velocity
we have
purely transverse,
K=
(13-37)
e)
(f)"
With the help of Eq. (13-32)
this
becomes
mC 2
Specifically,
*(r,)
mC 2
2fl2(l +
) 2
Now the constant C is twice the rate of sweeping out area, which
means, as we saw before, that C = 2irab/T. Hence
_
2 2,2
4ir
a b
.2 i,.
4w a (1
_
_
7^
Substituting
T2
now
T2
for
C2 = GMa(l Using
2
e
from Eq. (13-36) we have
2
e
this expression for
C2
in the equation for tf(rmax )
we
find
that
Ifr
=
2a0
Combining the
(13 38)
e)
results expressed in Eqs. (13-37)
and (13-38) we
obtain the following formula for the total energy of the motion
E=
The
590
-G
Jp-
(13-39)
la
total energy of
Motion under
any
elliptic orbit is
central forccs
thus the same as that of
Fig.
A parlicle
13-23
in
an
what
elliptic orbit
it
at any poinl
has a speed equal
would acguire
in falling
inwardfrom the circle of

radius equal to the major axis of the
from
resi
ellipse.
a circular orbit whose diameter
is
equal in length to the major
axis of the ellipse.

It
may
be seen from Eq. (13-39) that any increase of
implies an increase in length of the major axis; the total energy
remains negative but becomes numerically smaller. The negative

total energy of an elliptic orbit expresses the fact that the orbiting
bound to the center of force and cannot escape unless a

amount of energy at least equal to GMm/2a is supplied.
If we consider an object at an arbitrary point in its orbit,
its gravitational potential energy is GMm/r and the total energy
must, by Eq. (13-39), be equal to GMm/2a. Thus we have
object
is
positive
2
i
E = smu
The amount
GMm
GMm
=
nt-Am
(13-40)
2a
of kinetic energy defined by this equation can be
considered with the help of a diagram (Fig. 13-23). Taking the

focus
of the ellipse as center, draw a circle whose radius
equal to the major
axis, 2a,
of the
ellipse.
To
is
find the speed of
the orbiting particle at a point P, imagine that the particle has
been released from
from I
to
rest at the point
/ on the
circle
and has
fallen
under the gravitational attraction. Then the kinetic
energy in Eq. (13-40) corresponds precisely to the change of

potential energy associated with the displacement
If
from / to P.
one could construct a device that would smoothly
particle into the direction of the tangent at
steer the
without changing
the magnitude of the velocity, the ensuing motion would be the

elliptic orbit
as shown.
MOTION NEAR THE EARTH'S SURFACE

With the background provided by the foregoing
elliptic orbits in
591
general, one can recognize that
Motion near ihe
earth's surface
analysis
all
of
low-level
Fig.
13-24
Limited trajectory above Ihe
a small pari of
earth's surface, seen as
an
ellipse with the earth's cenler al the
more
distanl focus.
trajectories at the earth's surface, hitherto regarded as parabolic
paths under a uniform g
are actually small portions of
field,
The approximation of
ellipses, as indicated in Fig. 13-24.
trajectory
by a parabola
is
in fact excellent,
but
strictly
the
one should
regard the high point of the trajectory as the apogee, a, of a
very narrow
a point
i
an object
If
ellipse.
is
launched with a speed v from
on the earth's surface, the
GMm =
p = _
2a
axis 2a
amount, say H.
by
GMm
Re
The major
total energy is given
is
Wc
larger than the earth's radius
by only a small
can then put
GMm
ReJ
Re \
Re
GMm
GMm
Re 2
Rp.
Hcnce
H-
2g
This distance
by
is
the
sum
vertically
upward,
the perigee point
In the event that the object
point.
fictitious perigee
maximum altitude h reached

Op from the earth's center to the
of the
the object, plus the distance
is
fired
the ellipse degenerates into a straight line
moves
and
into coincidence with the earth's center.
2
becomes equal to H, i.e., to o /2g,
as wc would calculate directly from simple kinematics.
In this case the value of h
just
INTERPLANETARY TRANSFER ORBITS

problem that used to be rather academic but has now becomc
very practical is that of sending a spacecraft from the carth to
592
Motion under ccniral
forccs
The most
another planet.
efncient
method
not to aim the
is
spacecraft radially inward or outward along a radial line

the sun, but to
let it
to the orbits of the earth
To
and the other planet
We
to Venus.
shall use the quite
mation that the orbits of the two planets are

at their
at
common
13-25;
in Fig.
The
center.
starts
it
out tangent to the earth 's orbit
AU.
is
This major axis

it
is
V.
thus the
The
sum
and Venus, which makes a
orbital radii of the earth
sun
would then be as
and joins the orbit of Venus tangentially at
two planets, and
good approxi-
circles with the
transfer orbit
of the major axis of the transfer orbit
1.72
in question.
take a specific example, consider the problem of getting
from the earth
shown
from
coast in an elliptic orbit that joins smoothly
length
of the
total of
intermediate between those of the
is
follows from Eq. (13-39) that the total energy
also intermediate between the values associated with the initial
and
final circular orbits.
craft needs to
Thus
to carry out the transfer the space-
be given a sudden retardation
at
E and
(if it is
to
be put in orbit with Venus) another sudden retardation at V. Let

us
now make
this quantitative.
The speed v a appropriate
to the earth's orbit
is
given by the
equation
GMsm
mvo
rB
where
Ms
is
GMS
the
mass of the
Therefore,
sun.
(13-41)
re
The
actual magnitude of this speed
earth's orbit radius rE
Fig.
13-25
(=
an
10
known directly from

km) and the length of
Interplanetary transfer
orbit from the earth to Venus.

orbit is
1.49
is
ellipse that
The
touches the
circular orbits of the two planets.
0.72AU
593
Interplanetary transfer orbits
the
the
year,
TE (=
2t
3.16
10
Thus we have
sec).
8
1.49
..
.
296km sec
10
3.16X10^
v i that the spacecraft must have at
The speed
the transfer orbit
E in
(13-40), by the
given, according to Eq.
is
order to follow
condition
GM m
s
E" "
- *" Wl
TjiT
e
GMs m
7T
Therefore,
-^ == ^ = ^f(-i)
\
0.86/
Thus, by Eq. (13-41),

vi
0.92i;o
The necessary
GMs
0.84
ra
re
we have
27.2
km/sec
retardation
thus
is
quite
small only about
2.5 km/sec.
Once placed
the transfer orbit, the spacecraft will take
in
half of an orbital period to join the orbit of
Venus
by the generalized form of Kepler's third law,

to the cube of the major axis, we have
is
at V.
Since,
proportional
3/2
TB =
\2.00/
0.807-b
Thus the journey takes about 0.40 of a terrestrial year, or about

146 days. During this time the speed of the spacecraft is conUsing the energy-conservation condition
tinually increasing.
once again, the speed v 2 at
,
imV2
GMsm
given by
GMsm
T72^
" "
"6772^
V is
Therefore,
V22
GMS (
02 * 1.27oo
The
\ _
- V536""W
-.2
37.7 km/sec
orbital speed of
Venus
is
about 34.9 km/sec.
Thus an im-
pulse sufficient to reduce the speed of the spacecraft

2.8
594
km/sec
will
complete the transfer operation.
Molion undcr central
forces
It
by about
may
be seen,
from
example,
this
how
the properties of the free orbital motions
can be judiciously exploited so as to
make such
transfers with a
relatively small expenditure of energy in rocket propulsion.
CALCULATING AN ORBIT FROM INITIAL CONDITIONS

Suppose that a particle
launched with a velocity v
is
point P, at a vector distance
How
(Fig. 13-26).
from the center of
do we deduce
the size, shape,
from a
force,
and orientation
of the subsequent orbit?
The
thing to
first
do
is
to test whether the total energy
is
by chance, zero). Only if it is

negative will we have a bounded orbit, and we shall limit our
attention here to such cases, i.e., to closed elliptic orbits. From
the values of v and r we know the total energy and hence the
positive or negative (or perhaps,
length of the major axis:
E=
%rrwo
GMm
GMm
Thus we know the distance a.

Next we can use the fact that
is
(13-42)
2a
ro
the orbital angular
Iro
At perigee
mvol
mvoro
= n) and
(r
are orthogonal, so that

/
mvir\
sin
apogee
(13-43)
<p
(r
r z ) the directions of v
we can put
mv2T2,
or
1
Fig.
13-26
T2
Elliptic
orbit resulting from
the launching
particle with
ofa
an
arbi-
trary velocity ?o at
vector distance
from
ro
the center
of
force (given that the

total energy is less
than zero).
595
momentum
uniquely defined
Calculating an orbit from
initial
conditions
and
We
can
insert the value of l/r as defined
by either of these equa-
tions in the expression for the total energy at apogee or perigee:
GMm
\mvi
vi
= la
This quadratic, when solved, has as
and v 2 from which we can
i>i
and
r2
its roots the values of both

once deduce the values of rj
at
This then fixes the eccentricity, by the relations
n =
-e)
a(l
r2
fl(l
e)
Finally, the orientation of the
the
vector
initial position
major
makes an angle
axis, relative to
,
is
which
determined through
the general polar equation of the curve [Eq. (13-29)]:
ro
_
1
Thus the
orbit
<
2
)
COS 00
is
completely specified, as shown in Fig. 13-26.
A FAMILY OF RELATED ORBITS

If
we have a given force
center
and a given launching
point,
it is
instructive to consider the variety of orbits that correspond to
various possible values of the total energy. In the particular case
of an attractive inverse-square force law, the situation can be

illustrated with the help of Fig. 13-27.
simplicity, that a particle
angles to the line
is
FP from
launched from
We
shall suppose, for
P in a
direction at right
the force center F.
Hyperbola
Parabola
Ellipse
Fig.
13-27
Family of orbits of
Jifferenl total energy but sharing
the focus
F {the
center offorce)
and the launching point P.
596
forces
If the launching
an almost straight
speed
line
is
close to zero, the particle follows
toward F;
strictly, it
would be an
elliptical
path with an extremcly small width and a major axis only very
slightly longer
At a
than FP.
slightly higher
launching speed, the orbit would re-
At some higher value of
would be the apogee.

orbit
would be a perfect
the perigee point
is
F at the
with
would lead to
increase of energy
now P
circle
i.e.,
The launching point
semble the orbit labeled "Ellipse 1."
the energy the
A still further
center.
once again, but
elliptic orbits
the force center
now
represents
the nearer of the two foci with respect to the launching point.
Ultimately the situation
precisely zero.
reached where the total energy
is
detailed analysis of the dynamics
the trajectory in this case
continually further
a parabola; the particle would
is
move
from the center of force and would approach
with vanishingly small velocity.
infinite distance
Any further increase
of launching speed produces a trajectory
that is one branch of a hyperbola ; the particle

infinity
is
shows that
now approaches
with a significant positive kinetic energy.
One
sees
by
this
kind of evolutionary picture that there
is
no
sharp distinction between the various trajectories shown in Fig.

13-27, despite the fact of their being mathematically different
forms of conic sections.
It
may,
in fact, be a quite difficult
matter to determine, on the basis of measurements made near P,

whether a given trajectory is part of an ellipse, a parabola, or a
This
hyperbola.
is
real consideration in the analysis of the
paths of comets through the solar system. The bounded orbit of

a
comet with a
total
indistinguishable
energy
from
the comet
if
energy only barely
than zero
is
almost
that of a hyperbolic orbit of small positive
is visible
famous comet named
only when
An
regions of the solar system.

the
less
after
it
penetrates the inner
outstanding example of this
is
Newton's friend Halley, who
recognized that the comet he observed in 1682 had been recorded
approaches to the sun at intervals of about 76 years.
in previous
With the help of Kepler's
third law
one can then
infer that its
major axis equal to (76) 2/3

times the diameter of the earth's orbit, or a distance of about
orbit
40
is,
in fact,
AU. The
in
Fig.
(~0.6
AU)
the
its
Neptune and
597
ellipse with a
orbit in relation to the rest of the solar system
shown
brightly; at
an
is
13-28.
At
its
nearest approach to the
is
sun
comet goes inside the orbit of Venus and shines
most distant points
it
goes beyond the orbit of
quite invisible over most of
family of related orbits
its
path.
Fig.
13-28
Orbit of
Halley's comel (period
about 76 years) passing
among
the orbits
of the planels.
CENTRAL FORCE MOTION AS A TWO-BODY PROBLEM
We
have, of course, been treating these planetary problems and
so on as two-body problems in the sense that the basis of the
motion
is
the interaction between one object and another, but
there has been something of an inconsistency.
Newtonian law
m), but
(e.g.,
we have assumed
that one
We
have used the
two masses
the sun
and any one of the
and must
We
fail
seriously
if
(M
and
mass (M) could be taken as
This can be a quite good approximation for
fixed.
true
to define the force between
planets), but
M and m are
it is
Mm
never rigorously
comparable.
have already seen an example of the correct approach
in
connection with a double-star system with circular orbits (p. 296);

the motion of both partners is recognized, and the displacement
mass as origin, as indicated

Fig. 13-29. The particles P and Q have coordinates ri and
with respect to the center of mass C; the vector distance from
to P is r. We then have
of each
is
referred to the center of
M+m
598
Motion under
cenlral forces
in
r2
Fig.
13-29
Binary system,
in
which the parlicles follow geometrically similar orbits aboul the
cenler ofmass. C, always at
opposite ends
of a
slraighl line
through C.
move only under
If the particles
exerted between them,

in
which
is
fixed
it is
and
the action of a central force F(r)
possible to choose a reference frame
the vectors
opposite with a length ratio equal to
of P with respect to
ari
C is
/d6\
M-+H,[d72-
are always exactly
\7t)\
for the radial
component
mM
M+ m [-()!
F is
(Note that
ticles.)
r2
Thus the statement of Newton's law

of the motion of P can be written
F(r)
and
then given by
\d
M/m. The radial acceleration
The
a function of the
coordinate,
r,
total separation,
would
identical equation
applied to the other particle,
(13-44a)
Q;
and the reduced mass
it
y.
r,
of the par-
from Newton's law
arise
involves only the relative
[=
mM/(M +
m)].
Thus
we can put
->[&-'(S)l
If
is
the gravitational force,
(13-44b)
G Mm/
'r
2
,
we
see
from Eq.
(13-44a) that the radial equation becomes
d\_
dfi
The
by
(de\ _
\dt)
total mass,
M alone
The
G(M + m)
M + m,
in the
r*
thus plays the role that was occupied
previous treatment.
fact that the partners in a
two-body system are following
common center of mass

has been beautifully shown in a computer-generated film by
geometrically similar orbits about their
599
Central force motion as a two-body problem
(b)
(a)
Fig. 13-30
appear
in
(o) Paths
oflWO members of a binary system as they might
an arbitrary reference frame.
(b)
Same
molions as seen in the
CM
frame. (From the film "Force, Mass and Motion," by F. W. Sinden, Bell
Telephone Laboratories and Education Developmenl Center Film Studio,
Newton, Mass., 1965.)
Frank Sinden. Figure 13-30 shows two stills from the film; one
is of the motions as observed in a frame in which the center of
mass
is itself
moving, and the other
refers the
motions to the
CM frame.
DEDUCING THE ORBIT FROM THE FORCE LAW
Earlier in this chapter
we showcd how
the operation of an inverse-
square law could be inferred from the observed faet that the orbit
of a planet
is
an
we pointed out
How
ellipse
with the sun at one focus. Later, however,
that parabolic
and hyperbolic
The answer
orbits
were also
we said in
Chapter 7, that Newton's second law can be used in two main
ways. We can infer the forees from the motions, or we can infer
possible.
do we know
this?
the motions from the forees.
is,
as
Gcncrally speaking, the latter
is
former and also leads to results of much greater

For examplc, the analysis of the path of one particular
easier than the
generality.
object over a limited trajectory near the earth's surface allows us

to conclude that a constant vertical acceleration, g,
But
if
we
start out
is
with the faet of this acceleration,
at work.
we can
quickly deduce that all trajectories near the earth's surface

(ignoring air resistance) are parabolas or parts of parabolas.
similar situation holds for ccntral forees,
and we
'This seetion can be omitted without loss of continuity.
600
Motion under
central forees
shall illustrate
power of the deductive use of Newton's laws
the
The
in
such problems.
basic equations governing such motions are, as
we have
seen, the following:
F =
ma,
A%-m
m
dt
The shape of the
orbit is something ihat can be described without
reference to the time;
given,
in these
be interested
in
is
just the spatial description of the curve
problems, by r as a function of
this
d.
Thus we
d 2 r/dt 2 and
dd/dt.
The
given by the second equation of (13-45):
is
shall
suppressing the explicit time dependence that
represented by the derivatives
doing
(13-45)
is
clue to
We
can
put
It
d6
= C
dt
r2
proves to be very advantageous in the analysis to introduce
the reciprocal of r as a variable.
Calling this u
we have
= -1
(1M6 >
"
d8
dt
Also, taking the
dr
first
derivative of r with respect to
we have
\_du
u* dt
dt
Using the chain
rule,
we can
dr _
}_dud$ "
dt
2 dd dt
"
rewrite this as follows:
du
dd
[This last step follows from Eq. (13-46).]
we
/,
Differentiating again,
get
Using Eqs. (13-46) and (13-47) gives us the following expression

of Newton's law as applied to the radial component of the motion:
Fr = ma T =
601
Deducing the
-mC 2 u (- +
2
orbit
uj
from ihc forec law
(13-48)
The value of developing this particular formulation of the

radial equation of motion shows up at once when we designate Fr
as a specific funetion of
r.
under gravity with a mass

F,
GMm
In particular, for the case of
fixed at the origin,
motion
we have
,. 2
GMmu
Substituting this in Eq. (13-48) then leads at once to the following
simple equation:
where
is
a constant of the motion.
If
we
rewrite this in the
form
-(uit is
A)
--tu-A)
easy to see that the integrated solution can be written (with
a suitable choice of the zero of 0) in the form

u
where
- A = B cos d
we have
-
is
another constant.
Returning
now
to r as a variable,
the following equation for the orbit:
= A
03-50)
Bcose
We
once to one feature of Eq. (13-50), resulting
shall point at
from our particular choice of the zero of
6.
This
is
that as 8
increases from zero, in either the positive or the negative sense,
the value of l/r decreases and so r increases (provided that

positive).
Thus the point corresponding to B
point of the orbit;
we
r is
passing through
its
is
minimum
is
the perigee
value,
which
shall call r, [see Fig. 13-31 (a)].
Equation (13-50) has a geometrical interpretation that can

Rewriting the
be deseribed with reference to Fig. 13-31 (b).
have
equation slightly, we
- = d=
ar
cos 6
where d = l/B and a
= A/B.
If
we take
a line
FD
of length
passing through the perigee and draw an axis at right angles to

this at D, then the orbit is the locus of a point P that moves so
602
Motion under
ccntral forees
Fig.
13-31
ticle at
(a) Par-
perigee in an
orbit under
an inverse-
sguare force. (6) Portion oflhe orbit,
show-
ing the geometrical

relationships of the
focus, the particle's

position,
and
the
directrix (.the line
DN).
that
DN
perpendicular distance from the line
its
multiple, a, of
its
distance (d
r cos 0)
is
a constant
from the focus F. This
corresponds to a general prescription for generating the various

conic sections.
To
interpret the result
of the constants
more
A and B
in
fully,
we must consider
Eq. (13-50).
The
the values
value of
is
defined in Eq. (13-49):
GM
A =
Now C
the constant value of r
is
dO/dt.
We
can express this in
terms of the radial distance and the speed at perigee:
C=
ii0i
Hence
A =
Now
GM
r,2 Wl 2
the potential energy and the kinetic energy at perigee are
given by the following expressions:
Vi
- - GMm
K\ = \moi
This permits us to write the constant
A = -
as follows:
2r t Ki
The value of B follows immediately from putting

(13-50)
itself:
-*-*-(' + a)
603
Deducing the orbit from (he force
lavv
in
Eq.
Now
consider the difference between
where
orbit.
This
and A
the /ow/ energy of the motion at every point in the
is
is
the key to the problem, for
we can now
recognize
three different situations that correspond to the three types of

orbit discussed earlier, according to whether
is
zero, negative,
or positive:
=0
(B
= A,<x=l):
>
(B
>
A,
< 1):
= A(a h
+ cos 6)
E<
(B
<
A,
>
1):
/1(1
A(a
cos
(?)
(13-51)
cos d)
These equations define a parabola, a hyperbola, and an

in that order.
The
first
two equations
them as
infinitely great (the first of
an).
of
The
r at
third equation defines
= x
and zero,
clearly permit r to
x, the
second as cos B
maximum and minimum
respectively.
and
the orbital
values
Further analysis would
relate the specific values of the orbit parameters to the
constants of the motion
ellipse,
become
dynamical
to the magnitudes of the energy
i.e.,
momentum.
Many
problems involving force laws other than the inverse

square can also be effectively attacked by the methods developed
at the beginning of this section
and culminating
in
Eq. (13-48).
RUTHERFORD SCATTERING
As another example of motion in an inverse-square central field
of force, we shall consider the defiection of an electrically charged
particle in the electric field of a much more massive object carrying
an electrical charge of the same sign. The field is repulsive, obeys
Coulomb's law, and has the equivalcnt
U'(r)
*Sm +
J-
potcntial energy
(13-52)
shown plotted in Fig. 13-32(a). k is the proportionality conCoulomb's law and q and q 2 are the electrical charges
on the two particles.
as
stant in
604
Motion under
central forccs
__a^ngnggg
Wbi-^*:
'"min
Fig.
13-32
(a)Effec-
tive radial potential-
energy diagram for a

particle v/Uh orbital
angular
in
momentum
a repuhive Coulomb
field.
(b)
i*
Plan view
(b)
ofthe trajectory ofan

alpha particle (q
symmetry
Axis of
r mln
i) in
the neighborhood
of
a massive nuclear
charge
(qz).
Motion
is
possible only for positive energies () and all such
motions are unbounded, characterized by a distance of nearest

approach, rmin
particle.
which depends on the energy of the moving
Becausc the particle retraces
speed on the
way out
that
it
all
the values of radial
had on the way
in,
and because the
angular velocity (dd/dt) of the particle depends only on

r
from O, the trajectory
will
its
distance
be symmetrical as shown in
Fig. 13-32(b).
Historically, the understanding of this type of
motion played
a basic role in one of the most important experiments of this

century.
About 1910 Lord Rutherford and
his students, especially
Geiger and Marsden, performed a series of experiments on the

scattering of a
beam of alpha
particles
by thin metallic
foils.
Thesc experiments showed that most of the mass of atoms

conccntratcd in a small positively charged nucleus.
is
Presumably
atom surrounded this nucleus like a cloud.

This nuclear model of an atom was in sharp contrast to that
previously proposed by J. J. Thomson, which was essentially a
the electrons in the
ball of distributed positive
embedded.
605
Rutherford scattering
charge
in
which the electrons were
Fig.
13-33
Scatter-
ing of alpha particles
by the nuclei
in
a thin
metalik foil.
Figure 13-33
using a thin gold
is
a schematic diagram of one such experiment,
foil
as a target for the alpha particles.
colli-
mated beam of alpha particles (helium nuclei) from a polonium

-7
(4000 A) in
source is incident on a gold foil about 4 X 10
Although most of the alpha
thickness.
to pass through the
foil,
particles
were observed
dcflected chiefly through small angles
(forward scattering), a few were found to be deflected through

angles greater than 90 (backward scattering). The fraction under-
going backward scattering was exceedingly small, only a few

Rutherford reasoned that alpha particles
parts in a million.
could not be scattered backward by electrons in the gold atoms
because electrons have such a small mass relative to the mass of
He 2+
In fact, since this mass ratio
is
of the order of 1/7000,
the scattering effect of the electrons should be quite negligible

even in forward direction. The occurrence of backward scattering
can be accounted for only if alpha particles pass very close to a
mass that is very large compared to the mass of alpha particles.

This argument led Rutherford to propose an atomic model with
a very small but massive nucleus. If this is a correct model, one
should be able to predict the relative number of alpha particles
scattered in different directions under the influence of the
field
that
surrounds a much more
nucleus. This
was done and the quantitative experimental
agreed with the calculations. Let us see

scattering
For a
606
is
Coulomb
massive positively charged gold
how
results
such a calculation of
obtained.
thin
foil,
Molion under
an alpha
particle scattered
central forces
by one of the gold
nuclei (there are about 6
10
19
gold
atoms/mm 3
in the foil)
has a small chance of being deflected appreciably by a second

nucleus before it emerges from the foil. Therefore, we can consider all scattering
of the beam to be the
First, then,
processes.
we must
particle by one gold nucleus.
an alpha
we cannot aim each

relative number deflected
Next, since
we must compute
alpha particle,
result of single scattering
find the deflection of
the
through a certain angle, taking into account
possible "aiming
all
errors."
Although we can use the methods of satellite orbits to obtain

the deflection of an alpha particle by a gold nucleus,
present a
much
simpler and more direct argument.
we
shall
Consider an
alpha particle (charge q t and mass m) moving with a speed v

toward a gold nucleus of charge q 2 as shown in Fig. 13-34.
more nearly u
Clearly, the deflection will be larger, the
points at the charge q>.
The
distance b in the figure
parameter defined earlier in this chapter
(p.
is
570) and
is
the impact
a measure
of the aiming error. Since at large distances from q, the potential

energy of m
%mv
in
the field of q 2
particle regains
conserved in the encounter.

its
amount equal
<p
Geomelry
of a Rutherfordseatterlng event.
607
Hence the alpha
change the direction of
to the angle
This
speed after scattering, and the only
initial
effect of the process is to
13-34
negligibly small, the kinetic energy
at such distances is the total energy of the motion.
total energy is
Fig.
is
Ruthcrford scattering
in Fig. 13-34.
To
its
motion by an
be sure, the alpha
down as
particle slows
regains
of
/ is
total
by
given
dt
= moob = mr
The
cess
it
on the way out. In addition, the angular

about q 2 is conserved and this constant angular
original speed
its
momentum
momentum
/
approaches the gold nucleus, but
it
change of
const.
(13-53)
momentum A(mv)
pro-
in the scattering
the difference of the two vectors, each of magnitude mvo,
is
shown
and
in Fig. 13-35,
equal in magnitude to
10
2mvo sin -
A(mo)
is
(13-54)
This must be equal to the total impulse supplied by the

foree
is
F of
Fig. 13-34 during the scattering process.
This impulse
the veetor
Ap
From
ponent
F dt
Fx
symmetry of
the
of
Fig.
3-34,
we
see that only the
com-
contributes to this impulse, because the perpen-
dicular contributions
from Fy
corresponding contributions at points above
axis just cancel the
the
indicated in Fig. 13-35.
Fx di =
is
parallel to
x as
Thus, Newton's law of motion gives us
Fcos
and we must evaluate the
Ap =
on the trajectory below the
This makes sense, because A(/wv)
axis.
Ap =
at points
6 dt
= A(nw) = 2mv
integral.
sin
Writing this integral as
kqiq2 cos 6
dt
r*
and using Eq. (13-53), we have

*
Ap m
kg \q 2 f
vob
Fig.
in
Hmv
13-35
J >,
cos Ode
Net dynamical
terms of the impulse
Ap
= -~^ (sin 62 -
result
lliat
vob
of a scattering event
changes the direetion
but not the magnitude of the alpha-partiele

)
608
Motion under central forees
momentum.
sin 0i)
(13-55)
di
and 02 are the values of
we
Fig. 13-34
[(ir
*-+(^)
<p)/2]
to
toEq.
From
after scattering.
cos (v/2), Eq. (13-55) becomes
cos r
Ap =
Equating
and
see that
* (tp)
Since sin
8 before
this expression for A/ to the value
(13-54),
we
of A(mv) according
find
tanf = î||
This
tells us,
(13-56)
for each value of the impact parameter b, the

If the beam of
we can proceed to
angle of scattering of particles of a given energy.
alpha particles
is
essentially monoenergetic,
use Eq. (13-56) to calculate the relative numbers of the incident

particles that are scattered
through different angles y.
This
involves finding the fraction of the incident alpha particles that
have impact parameters betwecn b and b
db and from
this
the fraction scattered into the corresponding range of angles
<p.
CROSS SECTIONS FOR SCATTERING

It
is
customary to express the
relative
numbers of
particles
scattered through different angles in terms of a quantity called the

scattering cross section of the particle that does the scattering.
The primary
dcfinition of a cross section
effective target area presented
incident beam.
To
by each
is
simply that
it is
scattering center to the
develop this quantitatively, consider a greatly
magnified picture of a very small square of a scattering

[Fig. 13-36(a)]
thickness of the
and we
shall
depths
Now
is
foil
through the
Each scattering center blocks out an area

foil is
no overlapping of
<r,
so thin that, as viewed from

the cross sections at various
the material of the foil has a certain characteristic
of atoms per unit volume. Thus
if the thin slice is a

and thickness Ax, the number of atoms in it is
With each atom wc associate a nuclear cross section <x,
n,
square of edge
609
foil.
right
in the foil (see the figure).
number,
n/ 2 Ax.
and imagine that one can look
assume that the
the front, there
the
Fig. J 3-36
Sehemat ic view ofa portion ofa scatter-
(a)
ing foil, with each nueleus presenling an effective target
area a. (b) The total target area
ofa
nueleus can be
subdivided into pantai cross seetions corresponding to

the rings contained
between neighboring ualues of the
impaet parameter, b.
amount of area blocked with respect to the incoming

2
partieles is ani Ax. The total area within which this portion is
2
This then means that the fraetion, f, of
blocked out is just I
so that the
the total area that

ani
/-
Ax
is
obstructed
071
is
given by
Ajc
/2
Since the incident partieles are striking the

positions as measured
random
tances (even though the

laterally,
tieles
beam
foil at
completely
on the scale of interatomic disas a whole is limited in extent
within perhaps a millimeter or so), the fraetion of par-
falling within a nuelear target area is identical with the
above. Thus if n' alpha partieles approach the

and An' of them undergo a nuelear scattering interaetion of some kind, we have
fraetion
/ given
scattering foil
/=^-<rA*
n'
Hence from a measurement of
610
Motion under
(13-57)
An'/n', using a scattering foil of
central forees
Fig.
13-37
Relation
between scattering
angles and impact
parameters.
thickness and composition, the effective cross section of
known
1
an individual nucleus can be deduced.
One
often speaks of partial as well as total scattering cross
This concept
sections.
is
especially important in the analysis of
"Rutherford scattering" and of

partial cross section
one
many
similar processes.
has a very direct interpretation. Imagine that
looking toward a scattering nucleus whose center
is
Then one can

between the impact parameters b and b
ring defines a partial cross section da
point
at the
db.
The
area of this
(13-58)
Eq. (13-56) implies a unique connection between the value
of b and the consequent scattering angle

13-37.
Fig.
is
picture a ring contained
in Fig. 13-36(b).
da = 2Tb db
Now
The
<p.
This
Since the partial cross section
defined by Eq. (13-58),
it
is
is
indicated in
completely
follows that the use of Eq. (13-56)
leads to a specific prediction about the relative

particles scattered into angles
make
da
between
<p
and
number of alpha
ip
d<p.
Let us
this quantitative.
Writing Eq. (13-56)
in the
form
s-cotmvo'
we have
,.
db
-kqiq 2r esc 2
2mvo 2
Vj
d(fi
2
'In this deseription, we have ignored the electrostatic "sereening" provided

by the electrons around a nucleus. Such sereening drastically affects the
scattering process for large impact parameters (comparable to an atomic
radius).
611
Lam
LXI. The
of Vefierion of * Particle* througK Lafjf

B>j Dr. H. Geioek and E. Mabsdkk t-
AngUi*.
n former paper } one of us

IN paasnge
of a particles through
oa
tlio
has sliown that in the

matter tho deflexions are,
nveruge, small nnd. of ihe order of a few degri'r->
In tho expuriments a narrow pencil of a particles fell
only.
un a zinc-anlphido screen in vacuum, and the distribntion
o! the scintillations on the screcn wasobserved when dinVu-iu
metal foiU were placed in Ihe path of ihe a particles.
Frimi
the distribution obtained, tlie most probable anglo of seaitering could bo deduced, and it as sliown that the resuita
could be cxplained on the assiimption tbat tlu; dcttcxion oi
a single a pnrticle is tho resnltant of a large nunibor of wrv
small detlc\ions causcd by the passugc of the a partiebthrough the succcssive individual atoms of the scattering
sobstance.
Ct-iuimniicAL-i!
t ./.-. rf-iV.
,4i*rf,*/.
OnummImSmI by
WVm. Umk.
Pn.f. B. HullK-tford.F.U-S.
CioiKrr, Koy. Boe, l'roc. \ul. l\xxiii.
i. 402 (1910>;
I H,
p. S)ti(lUl-J).
*vl \xtxih
In au earlier paper *, howevcr, we pointed ont that

ide? n re som uli es turned through very large angle*.
Tlils VtU niude ovidcnt by the faet tbat when a ]iarticles fail
mi a metal plnte, a small fraotion of them, ahout 1/8000 in
lho 0M0 of platinnm, appears to l>e dift'iisoly reflectod.
This
iinioiuit of rchVxion, alibough small, i$, however, too largo to
Iri o\pliiined on ihe above siinple theory of scattering.
It is
ensy to cnlculnte from the expe.rimentaf data that the probahility of a deflciion through on angle of 90 is vnnisfiingly
.mal), and of n diffcrent order to lho value found experimenuilly.
Profeasor Ruthcrford t has rceently devcloped a theory to
nccount for tbo scattering of a particles through these large
nnglcs, the ussumption being that the denVxions are the
result of an intimate encoonter of an a particle with a
-ungle atom of the matter traversed.
In this iheory an atom
ii supposed to con*i9t of i* strong positivo or negative contral
charge concentrated within a sphere of less than about
3x10"" cm. radio;, and sarronnded by electricity of the
opposite ign distributed throughout the remainder of the
atom of about 10~* cm. radius.
In considering the defleiion of an a pnrticle directed against such an atom, tho
main dofleiion-effoct can be supposed to be doe to tho central
concentrated cbarge which will cause tho particle to describe
BB hyperbola witli tho centre of the atom as one focus.
The angle lietween tbe directions of the particle before
and after deflexion will depeodon tbe perpendicnlar distanoe
of tbe initial trajectory from the centre of the atom. Tho
fraclion of the a particles whose paths are sufficiently near
to the centre of tho atom will, however, be small, so tbat the
probability of an a particle snffering a large deflexion of this
natnre will be correspondiogly small.
Tbus, assuming a
narrow pencil of a particles directed against a thin sheet of
matter containing atoms distribnted at random thronghont
its volume, if the scattered particles are counted by tlie
i.-iii' iil;i*
they produce on a ziuc-sulphide screen distanoe r from tho point of incidence of tbe pencil in a direction
v t
inaking nn angle
H, the nnmber of a particles fatling
on unil area of the screen per second is deduced to be equal to
!'-i:
At tbo suggestion of Prof. llutberford, wo haVfl carriid

out experimenH to ti-st the main conclusions of tbe abovo
theory. Tho tollowing [toints were invesligtited
i
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
with angle.
with luieknera of scattering material.
with atomic weight of scattering matori:il.
with volocity of incidt-nt a particles.
The fraetion of particles M-uttcred through a dofinito
Variation
Variation
Variation
Variation
angle.
Tho main
difhcutty of Ihe experiments has arisan from tlminff n very intense and narrow sonreo or
a particlos owing to Uip mallncs* of tbe scattering effect.
Ali tbe meaureiiients have bcen carriod out by obforving
necessity of
the scintillntions due to tbe scattered a prticles'on a incaulpbide teroen, and during the coiirse of tho experimentr>
over 100,000 sein u liati ons liaro been counted. It mav lc

mentioncd in anticipation that all the i<->ul;s of our investigati,>n aro in good agreeinent with the theoretical doductioiis
of Prof. Kutberford, rmd afford strong evidence of the correetness of ihe undorlying nssumption that an atom 00ntain>
m strong clmrge at the centre of dimensions, small oomiiurwl
with tho diameter of the atom.
(1)
Variation of .%\illeri(i with
"Wo have already pointed out that to

oftccts an intonso pencil of particles
fiirthor nccossjiry that
an evncanted
the
pati) of tlie
.\riqle.
obtiiin mettDtlruhlf
is rouuirod,
ll
pnrticles shoulil
in
Ih'
avoij conmlicntioilri de t the

itbsbrption and scattering of the air.
Tiic appamtns tisi'il i*
ahown in tig. 1. and mainly consisted of u strong uyHmlrh'iil
metal bos 1(, which contaiiied the source of partifiloi It.
in
ehaiiib.'r to
the scatlering foil F, nnd a microseope al to which tho zincsnlpliido screen S was rigidly attaclicd.
Tlie bos was fastenod
down to n graduated eireiilnr |>latform A, which could bo
rotated by means nf B conical airtight joint
By rotating
ihe platform tho U>x and microseone nioved wilh it, whilst
tho sciittering foil and radiating sOurce remaincd in jiosition,
lK>ing attached to tho tube T, whieh was fastened to the
lnndard L. The \>ox B was elosed by the ground-glass
plato P, and could I* cslumsted tlirough tho tnltc 'f.
./'
-'"
'
Qnt&* cosec* d/2
whcre
it
H. Geigtr
the
number of *
ud
E. Mareden, Roy. Soc. Proc
t E. Rulherfoid,
original pencil,
material,
and
PUL
Mag. toL
particles per second in
ssi. p.
vol.
the
lxxaiL p. 406
069 (1911).
n the nnmber of atoms in unit volume of the

the thickness of tbe foil. The quantity
2NrE
wbere N# is the central cbarge of the atom, nnd m. E, and

are the respective mass, cbarge, and velocity of the o particle.
The number of deflected a particles is thus proportional to
fUNiv' <*>/'.', {-) thickness of scattering material t if tlie
S.ickness is small, (3) the square of tlie central charge Nc of
the atoms of tlio particular matter employed to scatter tho
liarticles, (4) the inverse fourth power of the velocity u of
the incident a particles.
)
Tho source of a pnrticles employed was similar to that

.]: originally by Rutherford and Boyds * in their experiments on the miture of the * particle. It consisted of o
-nn)) thin-walled glass tube about 1 mm. in diameter, containing a large quantity of well purified radium emanation.
particles emitted by the emanation and its activo
The
deposit could pass through the glass wnlb without much reduetion of range. For tnese experiments tho unbomogeneitv
uf tbe source, due to tbe different a particles from the emonation, Ra A and Rn C, does not interfere with the Application
of tbo law of scattering with angle as deduced from the
theory, as each group of a particles is scattered according to
the
same law.
means of a diaphragm placed at D, a pencil of a parwas directed normally nn to tbe scattering foil F. By
Ity
ticles
E. Kuthcrford ind T. Koyda, Phfl. Mtg.
vol. xvii. p.
281 (1909).
rotating the microscope tbe m particles scattered ia different

Althoagh over
directioos oonld be observed on the screen S.
100 millicnries ot radium emanBtioo were available for tbe
esperiments, the smallness of the effect for the btrger angles
of defleiion oeceuttated ahort distances of screen and sonrce
from the scattering foil. Ia some eiperimenls tbe distance
between the eoaroe and scattering oil as 2*5 cm., aod the
screen movod in a circle of 1'6 cm. radius, white in other
eiperiments these distances were increased. Obseivations
were taken in variooa experimenta for angles of deflexion
from 5 to 150. When measoring the scattering throngh
iarge angles the sino-snlphjde Bcreen had to be turned
very near to the sonrce, and the
and y rays prodnccd a
oonsiderable laminescence od t, thns malang oonntings of
the scintillatioDs dillioult.
The effect of the /8 rays was
rednced as far as poasible by enolosing tho socrco in a lead
hox sbown shaded in the diagram. The amount of lead was,
however, Hmited by considerations of the Bpace taken up by
it, and
consecpiently observations conld not be mode for
angles of deflezion between 150 and 180
Table VTI.
Variation of Scattering with Velocity.
I.
IV.
R*UUto
XumbnKof
T.1.M Of
*-ilUilltlOTl
11.
BopUof
pM4klM
kMtaof
&
ft?r lOkTil.^
per miiiut..
5-5
4-76
io
247
1-21
290
2
S
406
ssa
1-60
33-4
2-51
2-84
1-84
432
1-04
9-23
V.
H*.
1-91
25
24
22
23
28
23
28
44
81
101
255
in the investigation of the scattering throngh relatively

small angles the distances of source nnd seroen from the
scatteruig foil were increased considerably in order to obtain
beams of smaller solid angle.
Table
1.
n.
Aiigl. of
d-C-;.OL.
IV.
III.
Ooi.
NaiiibroT
Uumb.r of
Klnlil-
ClDlil-
!ationt,S.
VI.
V.
tara.
'/B'
Summary.
Tho expcrimcnts deseribed in the foregoing paper were
Carrieu out to test a theory of the atom proposed by Prof.
Kutherford, the main fentnre of whicli is tbat there exi$t*
ut the cuntre of the atom an intense highly concentrated
jlectricol charge.
The verification is based o* the laws of
''il'Tiii;; which were deduced from
this tboory.
The
II.
.i,,-.,-2-
l.lions.
l'ollowing rrl:iiions
L.'**
N.
hm lcn
verified expcrimcntally
^~
(1) Tho numbor of particles emerging from a scattering

at nnanglu d> witli the original boam varies as l/iin* if>/2,
when the c particle$ are conntod on a definito area at a constant distanci from the foil.
This rolation has bcen tested
*or nngles varying from D to 150, and over this range tli"
namber of o particles varied from I to 250,000 in good
ngreeuient witli tho theory.
(2) Tbe nninl>er of m particles scattored in a definito
direetion is directly proportional to the thickness of tlie
-caltering foil for small thicknesscs.
For larger thicknesscs
the decrease of velocity of the a particles in the foil causes a
Mjinewhat more rapid increase in the ainotmt- of scattering.
(3) The scatbjring per atom of foil* of d!fTen>nt materials
varies approzimately as the sqnare of the atomic weight.
This relation was tested for foils of atomic weight from that
.f carbon to that of gold.
(4) The amount of scattering by a given foil is npproximutely proportional to the
lonrth pomr of thn
velocity of tho inciilent a particles.
This relation was tested
over a range of velocities sach that tlie namber of scattered
particles varied as 1 10.
(5) Quantitative esperiments show that the fraetion of
a particles of UaC, which is scattvred through an angle of
15 by n gold foil of 1 mm. air equivnlent (2'lx I0" J cm.),
T
is 3"7x 10~ when the scattered particles are countcd on n
icreen of 1 sq. mm. arca ploccd at a disiance of 1 cm. from
Frorn this figure and the foregoing
the scattering foil.
re.nnlts, it cati be calcul.ited that the number of elementary
charges coinposing the centre of the atom is eqnal to half the
foil
....
135
12)
105
.....
1-38
1-79
2-53
7-25
75
60
43
136
320
999
1760
5390
20300
105400
16
46-6
....
57-5
957
225
090
445
30
22-5
13
30
22-5....
15
10
7-5
22-2
27-4
ai-o
47-3
1-15
5S
223
690
3445
17330
64650
276300
M
16-6
506
1710
288
314
20
273
19-3
33-1
108
43
18-4
18-7
18-8
:.!
Sll
20
477
29-8
21-2
1435
18
3300
7800
27300
132000
38
35
23-6
21N
30
695
291
35-0
3911
H
4
0024
0024
0O27
011
OOI2
0O14
482
OM
0031
0115
200
0011
ooia
1107
MO
iDWN
Variation with Thickneu of Material,
In investigating the variation of scattering with thioknes*

of material, it seemed necessary to use a homogeneous sonrce
of a particles, for ac-ording to the tbeory the effeot of the
change of velocity with inoreasing thiokness will be very
appreciable for a particles of low velocity.
>
atomic weight.
'$'
7*
ji
U'
1/
oi
12
FACSIMILE EXCERPTS
't
FROM THE
iQui**tt*T ee rem.
For all the metal* esamined th* pointslie on straight line*

which mes ihrough the origin. The eiperiments thoreforc
prove tbat for small thicknefses of matter the scattering
proportional to the tbickness.
is
PHILOSOPHICAL
MAGAZINE
VOLUME
25,
1913
(We have
suppressed the negative sign that
Thus the
creases as b increases.)
tells
us that
ip
de-
partial cross section, as given
by Eq. (13-58), becomes

cos (y/2) d<p
( kgigtf
*\mv<fi) sin3(v/2)
a _
Now
the scattering experiment
a function of <p, the
is
actually
number of alpha
done by observing, as
particles that enter a detector
subtending a certain fixed solid angle at the place on the
where the scattering processes are occurring.

measure of the process
solid angle.
cross section, which
is
2tt sin
is
<p
f d<? =
foil
direct
amount of scattering per element of
the
provided by the so-called differential
d<x divided
between the directions
dQ =
is
This measure
Thus
and
/2)
This theoretical result for
Coulomb
pared with experimental observation, using an equation analogous

to Eq. (13-57) but
now
limiting attention to scattering into a
certain solid angle Afi at a scattering angle
<p:
A/=*Ax(^jAn
nAx
(lt)
In Eq. (13-59), q\
(13-60)
is
the charge
on the alpha
particles,
the elementary charge) and q 2 (= Ze) is

2
is just twice the kinetic
the charge on the scattering nucleus. mo
(qi
2e,
where
is
The dependence of the observed

number
scattering on Z, the atomic
of the scattering nucleus, on
the energy of the alpha particles and on the angle of scattering <e
energy of the alpha particles.
agrees very well with the predictions of Eq. (13-59).
One would
expect deviations from the theory under two kinds of conditions:

1.
If the
fraction
impact parameter b
is
so large as to be a significant
of an atomic radius, the nuclear charge
shielded by the surrounding electron cloud,

scattering
is
partially
correspondingly reduced, compared to that predicted
by Eq. (13-56).
614
is
and the angle of
Motion under
ccntral ibrces
If the
2.
impact parameter
comes within range of the
so small that the alpha particle
is
specifically nuclear forces,
one can no
longer expect the scattering to conform to that calculated according to Coulomb's law for a point charge.
Since deviations o f type 2 from the Rutherford scattering law

[Eq. (13-59)] occur for those alpha particles which get in close
become apparent
to the scattering nucleus, they will
ward
scattering, especially for alpha particles
From
this
in the back-
of higher energy.
the observation of the energy of alpha particles for
back scattering
one gets an upper
starts to depart
which
from the Rutherford formula,
For
manner that the gold nucleus
-14
has a radius less than about 1.5 X 10
m (= 15 F). This
may be compared to the radius of the gold atom which is about
-10 m. The ratio of the radius of the atom to that of
1.5 X 10
4
so that the volume of the atom is
the nucleus is thus about 10
I2
of the order of 10
times that of its nucleus. The massive nucleus
limit for the size of the scattering nucleus.
the case of gold, one finds
in this
is
thus concentrated into an extremely small fra^tion of the
whole atomic volume, and the deflection of an alpha particle

occurs as
it
penetrating
passes through a region close to the nucleus, after

the
electrostatic
provided
shield
by the atomic
electrons.
AN HISTORICAL NOTE
Lord Rutherford (1871-1937), born
Nobel
prize in chemistry in 1908
mental transmutation of matter
New
in
experimental physicist of remarkable
skill.
Zealand, was an
He
and achieved the

in
received the
first
experi-
1919 when he bombarded
nitrogen with alpha particles, producing an isotope of oxygen.
The
steps that led to his discovery of the atomic nucleus are
interestingly expressed in Rutherford's
Now 1 myself was

some
own words:
very interested in the next stage, so
will give
would like to use this example to

show how you often stumble upon facts by accident. In the
early days I had observed the scaitering of a-particles, and Dr.
you
it
in
Geiger in
detail,
and
my laboratory had examined
it
in detail.
He found,
in
heavy metal, that the scattering was usually small,

of the order of one degree. One day Geiger came to me and
said, "Don't you think that young Marsden, whom I am trainthin pieces of
ing in radioaclive methods, ought to begin a small research?"
615
An
hislorical notc
Now
had thought that
any a-particles can

tell
you
since
in confidence that
we knew
so
too,
"Why
not
let
him
see
I
if
may
did not believe that they would be,
was a very fast massivc particle,

and you could show that if the
that the a-particle
with a great deal of energy,

scattering
said,
be scattered ihrough a large angle?"
was due to the accumulated
effect
of a
number of small
chance of an a-particle's being scattered backwards was very small. Then I remembered two or three days
scatterings the
Geiger coming to me in great excitement and saying, "We

have been able to get some of the a-particles coming back." It was quite the most incredible event that has ever
wards
later
happened
fired
to
me
in
my
lifc.
It
was almost
a 15-inch shell at a piece of
tissue
if you
came back
as incredible as
paper and
it
and hit you. On consideration I realized that this scattering

backwards must be the result of a single collision, and when I
made calculations I saw that it was impossible to get anything
of that order of magnitude unless you took a system in which the
greater part of the mass of the
minute nucleus.
was then
It
that
atom was concentrated in a

had the idea of an atom with
a minute massive centre carrying a charge.

matically
the
what laws the
number of
worked out matheand I found that
scattering should obey,
particles scattered through a given angle should
be proportional to the thickness of the scattering
foil,
the square
of the nuclear charge, and inversely proportional to the fourth

power of the velocity. These deduetions were later verified by
Geiger and Marsden
On
pp. 612-613
in
a series of beautiful experiments.
we have reproduced some
the original paper by Geiger and Marsden.

caleulate
the
cxpected
It is
excerpts from
interesting to
baekward scattering (> 90) on the
basis of the most widely accepted atomic model of 1910. This

was the Thomson model, in which the negative electrons were
imagined to be distributed throughout a sphere of uniform posi_8

cm. A passing alpha particle
tive charge of radius about 10
could be deflected by the clectrostatic repulsion of the positive
charge, which constituted most of the
maximum
deflection
However, "multiple
in
single
scattering*'
mass of the atom.
The
encounter was quite small.
from several atoms might oecur
From Background w Modern Science (ten lectures by various seientists at

Cambridgc University in 1936; J. Needham and W. Pagel, eds.), Cambridge
University Press, England (1938).
2
The electrons, as we mentioned carlicr, are so light compared to the alpha
particles that they would be simply brushed aside in a collision between
the two.
616
Molion under central
forees
in sufficiently thick foils,
For a gold
large.
foil
10
-4
producing a net deflection which
cm thick
is
such as Geiger and Marsden
Thomson
used for some of their experiments, the
theory pre-
dicted that the fraction of alpha particles scattered at angles
would be about one out of every 10 1000 That

tantamount to saying that it would never happen. (Recall, for
greater than 90
is
the purposes of comparison, that the total
and neutrons
electrons, protons,
all
the
of the observ-
80
No wonder Rutherford was

.)
when Geiger and Marsden observed for a foil of this
able universe
astonished
number of
in all the galaxies
only about 10
is
thickness that approximately one out of every 10 4 alpha particles
was
dcflected at angles greater than 90.
PROBLEMS
The
13-1
circular orbits
F(r) are found
under the action of a certain central force
to have the
all
same
rate of
sweeping out area by the
radius vector, independent of the orbital radius.

varies with
13-2
In the Bohr model of the hydrogen
moves
a circular orbit around an
in
Coulomb
under the central

(a)
Determine
how F
r.
atom an
= ke 2 /r 2
force F(r)
electron (mass
m)
stationary proton,
effectively
.
Obtain an expression for the speed v of the electron as a
function of r.
(b)
Obtain an expression for the orbital angular
as a function of
orbit
is
Introduce Bohr's postulate (of the so-called "old quantum
(c)
theory,"
momentum
r.
now
superseded) that the angular
equal to nh/2ir, where h
momentum
in a circular
Obtain an
Planck's constant.
is
expression for the permitted orbital radii.
(d) Calculate
of the system from the
equation
= -
W)
Hence
F(r)dr
'00
an expression for the
find
total
energy of the quantized system
state
of the atom (corresponding to
as a function of n.
(e)
energy,
(k
measured
in
numcrical values of the orbital radius and the

electron
volts,
= 9 X 10 N-m 2 /C 2 e = 1.6 X
= h/2ir = 1.05 X 10 -34 J-sec.)
13-3
617
For the lowest energy
1) calculate the
mass
Problcms
is
10
needed to ionize the atom.
_19
joined to a fixed point
C;
m =
by a
9.1
X KT 31
string
kg;
of length
/.
Initially the string is slack
and the mass
uo along a straight
At
line.
its closest
is
moving with constant speed
approach the distance of the
mass from O is h. When the mass reaches a distance / from O, the

string becomes taut and the mass goes into a circular path around O.
Find the ratio of the
final kinetic
energy of the mass to
(Neglect any effects of gravity.)
kinetic energy.
Where did
its initial
the energy
go?
13-4
particle A, of
from a second
when A
is
particle,
mass m,
is
acted on by the gravitational force
B, which remains fbced at the origin.
B (r =
very far from
oo),
Initially,
has a velocity v o directed along
The perpendicular distance between B

A is deflected from its initial course
by B and moves along the trajectory shown in the figure. The shortest
distance between this trajectory and B is found to be d. Deduce the
mass of B in terms of the quantities given and the gravitational con-
shown
the line
and
in the figure.
this line is
The
D.
particle
stant G.
Vo
r
D
.Trajectory
13-5
force
particle of
mass
is a
Am/r 3 where A
,
moves
in the field of a repulsive central
constant.
At
a very large distance
force center the particle has speed vo and
Show
that the closest

rmia
13-6
(b 2
comes
is b.
to the center of force is given by
A/vo 2 ) 1 ' 2
no atmosphere has mass

from the surface with a speed
escape speed. By considering conserva-
particle is fired off
equal to three quarters of the

tion of total energy
distance that
it
and angular momentum,

and
tential-energy curve, given
V'tr)
for case (b).
(b) tangentially.
Draw
if it
Sketch the effective po-
by
GMm
verify
calculate the farthest
reaches (measured from the center of the planet)
off (a) radially
and thus
from the
impact parameter
nonrotating, spherical planet with
M and radius R.
is fired
its
2
/
2mr2
the line representing the total energy of the motion,
your
result.
Imagine a spherical, nonrotating planet of mass M, radius R,

that has no atmosphere. A satellite is fired from the surface of the
planet with speed vo at 30 to the local vcrtical. In its subsequent
13-7
orbit the satellite reaches a
618
Mol ion under
maximum
cenlral forccs
distance of
5R/2 from
the center
Using the principles of conservation of energy and
of the planet.
angular
momentum, show
vo
13-8
particle
force,
k/r 3
that
(5GA//4/?)" 2
moves under
At
the influence of a central attractive
a very large (effectively infinite) distance away,
it
Concomponent
has a nonzero velocity that does not point toward the center.
struct the effective potential-energy
diagram for the radial
of the motion. What conclusions can you draw about the dependence
on
r of the radial
13-9
(b)
satellite in
a circular orbit around the earth
fires
Without going into detailed calculations, consider
rocket.
orbit
component of velocity?
is
changed according to whether the rocket
backward;
toward the earth; and
(c)
is fired (a)
a small
how
the
forward
(d) perpendicular to the
plane of the orbit.
13-10
Two
spacecraft are coasting in exactly the
around the
An astronaut in
How
in the other craft.
can he do it?
posed by Dr. Lee DuBridge

Physical Society
13-11 The
on April
in
27, 1960.)
of an earth
elliptical orbit
(r2
= a
c).
satellite
has major axis 2a and
the earth 's center
2b.
Consider the
(This question was
an after-dinner speech to the American
The distance between

focus is 2c. The period is T.
(a) Verify that b = (a 2 - c 2 )
(b)
circular orbit
Qualitatively describe the
various possible paths of transfer open to him.
minor axis
same
one is a few hundred yards behind the other.

the rear wants to throw a ham sandwich to his partner
earth, but
1'
vector are at right angles.
the other
2
.
= a
satellite at perigee (ri
At these two points
and
velocity vector
its
and apogee
and its radius
c)
Verify that conservation of energy implies
that
i mv\
GMm
GMm
+c
2
,
= *mv2
Verify also that conservation of angular
-f
(c)
Ua -
From
the
<0i
= Ha
above
_
= E
momentum
implies that
+ c)v2
relationships, deduce the following results,
corresponding to Eqs. (13-36) and (13-39) in the text:
T2 =
619
4rV/CM
13-12
When
the satellite
satellite
Problcins
of mass
is
at
E = -GMm/2a
and
its
is
in
an
elliptical orbit
perigee, a distance
about the earth.
Ro from
the center of
the earth,
much
traveling with a speed vo-
it is
(a) If the length of the
what
from
the earth) in terms of G,
2V3
earth,
M,
is
Show
its
elliptical orbit is 4/?o,
apogee (the
maximum
distance
M, and Rof
that the length of the
minor
axis of the elliptical orbit
i?o. a d find the period of the satellite in terms of Vo and Ro-
13-13
major axis of the
the speed of the satellite at
is
(b)
is
The mass of the
greater than m.
satellite
of mass
is
traveling at speed
r>o
in a circular orbit
of radius ro under the gravitational force of a fbced mass at O.
Taking the potential energy to be zero
(a)
the total mechanical energy of the satellite
At a
(b)
certain point
of motion of the
What
B in
Its closest
is
at r
oo
show
that
J/mo2
the orbit (see the figure) the direction
suddenly changed without any change in
of the vehcity.
the magnitude
elliptic orbit.
ro/5.
satellite is
is
As
a result the satellite goes into an
distance of approach to
(at point
P)
is
now
the speed of the satellite at P, expressed as a multiple
ofuo?
Through what angle a
(c)
the satellite turned at the point
13-14
small satellite
is
(see the figure)
was the
velocity of
B?
in a circular orbit of radius
around the
The direction of the satellite's velocity is now changed, causing

The change in
it to move in an elliptical orbit around the earth.
velocity is made in such a manner that the satellite loses half its orbital
angular momentum, but its total energy remains unchanged. Calculate, in terms of n, the perigee and apogee distances of the new
earth.
orbit (measured with respect to the earth's center).
13-15
An
experimental rocket
is fired
from Cape Kennedy with an
speed oo and angle d to the horizontal (see the figure). Neglecting air friction and the earth's rotational motion, calculate the maxi-
initial
mum
from the center of the earth that the rocket achieves in

terms of the earth's mass and radius (M and R), the gravitational
constant G, and
and vo.
13-16
distance
of mass m is traveling in a perfectly circular orbit

about the earth (mass M). An explosion breaks up the
into two equal fragments, cach of mass m/2. Immediately
of radius
satellite
620
satellite
Motion under
central forces
the two fragments have radial components of
after the explosion
velocity equal to o/2,
where vo
is
the orbital speed of the satellite
prior to the explosion; in the reference
frame of the
satellite at
the
instant of the explosion the fragments appear to separate along the

line joining the satellite to the center of the earth.
In terms of G,
(a)
angular
momentum
M, m, and
what are the energy and the
r,
(with respect to the earth's center) of each frag-
ment?
(b)
Make
orbits of the
and the
a sketeh showing the original circular orbit
In making the sketeh, use the faet that
two fragments.
the major axis of the elliptic orbit of a satellite
is
inversely proportional
to the total energy.
13-17
spaceship
in
is
an
around the
elliptical orbit
a certain amount of fuel for orbit alteration.

should
Do
this fuel
earth.
Where
similarity
between
this
down
problem and the one cona chute (Problem 10-13)?
13-18 The commander of a spaceship that has shut down
is
is
has
be used to attain the greatest distance from earth?
you notice any
cerning a roeket ignited after falling
and
It
in the orbit
its
engines
coasting near a strange-appearing gas cloud notes that the ship
following a circular path that will lead directly into the cloud (see
He
the figure).
momentum
also deduces
from the
with respect to the cloud
is
ship's
motion that
not changing.
its
What
angular
attractive
account for such an orbit?
(central) foree could
Spaceship
13-19 (a)
Make an
analysis of an earth-to-Mars orbit transfer similar
to that carried out in the text for the transfer to Venus.

earth
and Mars are
in circular orbits of radii 1
Assume
and 1.52
AU,
that
re-
spectively.
(b) In part (a),
and
in the diseussion in the text, the gravita-
tional fields of the planets are neglected.
(The problem was taken to
be simply that of shifting from one orbit to another, not from the
surface of one planet to the surface of the other.)
from the earth
621
Problems
is
the earth's field equal in
At what
distance
magnitude to that of the
sun? Similarly,
at
what distance from Mars
the sun's field equaled
is
by that of the planet? Further, compare the work done against the sun's
gravity in the transfer with that
done against the earth's
with the energy gained from the gravitational
field
gravity,
and
of Mars.
13-20 The problem of dropping a spacecraft into the sun from the
earth's orbit with the application of
minimum
possible impulse (given
to the spacecraft by firing a rocket engine) is not solved
by
firing the
rocket in a direction opposite to the earth's orbital motion so as to
reduce the velocity of the spacecraft to zero.
accomplish the goal with a smaller rocket.
be a
Qtnr>
(1
Falls into
means of a
brief rocket
sun
burn the spacecraft
is
in the direction of the orbit velocity, so that
orbit
whose
its
C4&
is
Boost
Sun
speeded up tangentially
it
assumes an
perihelion coincides with the firing point.
of this orbit the spacecraft
reduce
the initial orbit to
with the sun at the center (see the figure). By
of radius r t
circle
two-step process can
Assume
At
elliptical
the aphelion
given a backward impulse sufficient to
space velocity to zero, so that
it
will subsequently fail into
the sun. (As in the previous transfer problem, the effects of the earth's
gravity are neglected.)
(a)
For a given value of the aphelion distance, r2 of the space-
craft, calculate the required
(b)
and so
increment of speed given to
Find the speed of the spacecraft
find the
sum
at first firing.
of the speed increments that must be given to the
two
spacecraft in the
it
at its aphelion distance,
steps to
make
it
fail
into the sun. This
sum
pro-
vides a measure of the total impulse that the rocket engine must be
able to supply.
its initial
Compare
[Note: This problem
Am.
J.
this
sum
earth orbit for the case

is
r-z
with the speed of the spacecraft in
10n.
discussed by E. Feenberg, "Orbit to the Sun,"
Phys., 28, 497 (1960).]
13-21 The sun loses mass at the rate of about 4
What change
in the length of the year should this
10
tons/sec.
have produced
within the span of recorded history (~5000 yr)? Note that the equation for circular
spirals
radius
motion can be employed (even though the earth
away from the sun) because the fractional yearly change in

is so small. The other condition needed to describe the gradual
shift is the over-all
of the system.
conservation of angular
(This problem
was given
lem 8-19.)
622
Motion under
central forces
momentum about
the
CM
in a simplified form as Prob-
13-22
particle of
mass
moves about
/(r)e
with the attraction given by
measured from C.
particle as
Xv,
retarding force
C, find
its
and
the position of the
is
If the particle is also subjected
to a
momentum Lo about
has angular
initially
momentum
angular
a massive center of force C,
where r
r,
as a function of time.
13-23 Consider a central force in a horizontal plane given by F(r)
kr,
where
example, of the pendulum encountered
pendulum
Rarely
in the laboratory.
is
physically confined to swing in only one vertical plane.)
(a)
a force.
(This provides a good description, for
a constant.
is
A:
particle
of mass
is
moving under
the influence of such
has position vector ro and velocity vo as
Initially the particle
measured from the stationary force
up a Cartesian co-
Set
center.
ordinate system with the xy plane containing ro and vo, and find the
Does the orbit

in mind the
time dependence of the position (x, y) of the particle.
(Keep
correspond to any particular geometric curve?
and the gravitational problem.)
differences between this interaction
What
physical quantities are conserved ?
Suppose the
(b)
What
radius R.
is its
a circular orbit of
particle is originally in
orbital speed ?
If at
maximum
doubled, what will be the
some point
value of r in
velocity
its
is
subsequent
its
motion?
13-24 According to general
a mass
tential energy of
the addition of a term
the speed of
is slightly
(a)
relativity theory, the gravitational
orbiting about a
GMmC 2 /c 2 r
where
C =
of this
i. e.,
Show
the period predicted by
relativistic
correction
effect
if
of the
the effect
term on the radial
famous
You may
find it useful to refer
this question.
direction
and
containing n particles per unit volume
an attenuation given by
dN(x)
623
arrive at the
of atoms traveling in the positive
medium
r3
Mercury's orbit precesses at the rate of
back to Problem 8-20, which also deals with
A beam
To 2 ~
relativistic
you can thereby
about 43 seconds of arc per century.
passing through a
),
greatest for the planet closest to the sun,
is
see
(12x 2 r 2 /c 2 7"o 2
Newtonian theory.
by Kepler's third law, we have
result that the perihelion of
where
is
(b) Since,
Mercury. Consider the
suffers
r 2 dd/dt
that the fractional change in the period of a circular
and angular periods, and
13-25
po-
modified by
light.
smaller
7"o is
is
and e is
Thus the period of a circular orbit of radius r
than would be predicted by Newtonian theory.
,
orbit of radius r due to this relativistic term
where
mass
is
- AnN(x)
the cross section for scattering of
Problems
an atom
in the
beam by
an atom of the medium. Therefore,
x = 0, the number
Noe~Anx
still
if
beam contains No atoms at

beam at x is just N(x) =
the
traveling in the
up
(a) Set
a simple
model of beam attenuation that gives the
results stated above.
(b)
The graph summarizes a set of measurements

beam of potassium atoms by argon gas
tenuation of a
pressures
of the atat various
pressures are given in millimeters of mercury;
(the
the
0C throughout). (These data are from the film "The

Size of Atoms from an Atomic Beam Experiment," by J. G. King,
Education Development Center, Newton, Mass., 1961.) Deduce the
cross section for the scattcring of a potassium atom by an argon atom.
19
3
molecules.) Check
(1 cm of a perfect gas at STP contains 2.7 X 10
temperature
is
whether the
results for different values of the pressufe agree.
(c) If the
potassium and argon atoms are visualized simply as

respectively, what is implied about
hard spheres of radii rK and rA

rK
and rA by
13-26
the result of part (b)?
(a) In the
Rutherford scattering problem one can calculate a
distance of closest approach do for alpha particles of a given energy
approaching a nucleus head on.
Verify that do
is
given by do
2kqiq2/mvo 2 .
(b)
10
-14
ticles
m,
two protons, separated by
force of repulsion between
The
is 2.3
N.
Use
this to
deduce the value of do for alpha par-
(charge 2e) of kinetic energy 5
MeV
approaching nuclei of gold
(charge 79e).
(c)
By
introducing do, the expression for the fraction of in-
cident alpha particles scattered into (Kl at
624
Motion undcr
central forces
f>
becomes
where n
is
the
dti
number of
of the path through the
nuclei per unit
foil.
Putting
volume and As
dQ =
2tt sin
fraction of alpha particles scattered through angles
/(>w) =
(d)
foil
of gold leaf 10
Problem s
-4
cm
>
is
the length
show
<po is
that the
given by
thick
is
bombarded with alpha
MeV. Out of 1
how many would be deflected through 90 or
4
gold - 1.9 X 10 kg/m 3 atomic weight = 197.)
million alpha particles, incident
foil,
more? (Density of
625
d<p,
5'Wcot 2 ^
particles of energy 5
normally on the
<p
In nature
we have
to deal,
not with material points, but with
material bodies offinite extent. But we
may
regard every
body as composed ofvery many material points .... This

reduces the question ofthe eauations ofmotion of material
bodies to that ofthe mechanics ofsystems of material
points.
max planck, General Mechanics
(1916)
14
Extended systems
and rotational
dynamics
nearly all OUR discussion of dynamics so
far has been limited
to the translational motions of particles regarded as point masses.
About
the only exception has been our brief consideration of the
vibration of a diatomic molecule (Chapter 10).

ticle
has structure;
degree of
rigidity.
physical object
has a
it
The
must
full
finite size
In
many
lesser
description of the motion of any real
include, in addition to the
center of mass, a consideration of
motions.
But every par-
and a greater or
its
instances one
rotation
may
motion of
and other
its
internal
regard a complex, ex-
tended object as being an assemblage of the ideal particles of

basic mechanics.
topics, touching
In this chapter
upon what are
in
we shall discuss a number of

many respects widely different
physical systems, yet having in
common
involve the motions of two or
more
shall
the feature that they
individual particles.
We
be devoting spccial attention to those physical systems in
which particles interact strongly with one another and,

instances,
we
the system
is
shall treat the interactions as
efTectively rigid.
The
in
discussion will range from
molecules to flywheels to galaxies; different though they
seem (and indeed
some
being so strong that
may
have important properties in

chapter will be concerned with rotational
are), they also
common. Most of this

motion, but we shall begin by developing a couple of important
627
general results that apply to the instantaneous motions of a
many
collection of arbitrarily
engaged
particles
any type of
in
motion whatsoever.
MOMENTUM AND
KINETIC ENERGY OF A MANY-PARTICLE SYSTEM

we analyzed
In Chapter 9
the dynamics of two-particle systems
as described in an arbitrary frame (the laboratory) and in the
(CM) frame
unique center-of-mass
selves.
defined by the particles them-
We
saw how the introduction of the center of mass allows

separate motions relative to the center of mass from
one to
We
bodily motions of the system as a whole.

that this possibility exists for
makes
result that
any system of
shall suppose that our system
of masses i,,
tions
n,
m2 m
,
r 2 , r 3,
t 2 , V3,
ities i%,
The
is
it
and
is
our
sizes.
made up of
particles
located instantaneously at the posi-
and moving instantaneously with the
now show
very important simplifications in
for
analysis of complete objects of arbitrary shapes
We
shall
particles;
and
position
veloc-
velocity of the center of
mass, C, are then defined by the following equations:
Mt = min +
M\ = lTi +
c
+ "3r3 +
ffJ2*2 + W3V3 +
2r2
where
M = mi +
We can
"2
nti
express these results
more compactly as
follows:
(14-1)
where the
suffix
of particles
runs from
partiele,
now
i,
the other particles
by symbols such as
628
to
N (N being the
the statement of
in the system.
to an external foree, F,,

all
total
number
in the system).
Consider
one
and also to
of the system.
f,*,
F = ma
In general
as
it
it
applies to
may
internal interaetions
We
shall
any
be subjected
denote these
to be read as the foree exerted
Cxtendcd systems and rotational dynamics
on
from
latter
partiele

by
particle k.
particle
We
2 f = i (j**d
now
can
proceed to write a similar equation for every other
particle in the system
the right-hand side
momentum
of the
the specific statement of Newton's law for
as follows:
i is
F,
Then
'
and add them
is,
all
by Eq. (14-1),
of a single particle of mass
center-of-mass velocity v c
sum
What about
part of
less
of which particles they are applied to.
let
us call
the
it fj nt
(F ext ) of
all
M traveling
at the
The
the external forces, regard-
The second part
a double summation over
is
this,
change
the left-hand side?
first
it is
When we do
up.
just the rate of
all
the interactions
that can occur between the particles in pairs:
fint
Now
that
if
2_< 2_< f*
you consider what
summation
this
can be broken down into a
it
of the type
f,-*
specific case,
other words,
sum of
f*,.
N=
3,
(It
may
you
will see
of pairs of contributions
set
help you to take the simplest
and write out
madc up of a
it is
entails,
set
all
the terms in detail.)
of terms, each of which
In
is
the
the forces of action and reaction between two particles.
Since, however,
Newtonian mechanics has
it
as a basic tenet that
and reaction are equal and opposite, each

gives zero, and it follows that the resultant
the forces of action
one of these pairs

of
all
the internal forces, fint ,
is itself
(This
zero.
is,
of course,
an ancient piece of folk wisdom, as expressed colloquially

statement
"You
can't puli yourself
in the
up by your bootstraps.")
Thus, for any system of particles whatever, we have a statement

of Newton's law exactly like that for a single particle of the total
mass
M:
Ft =
| (Mv = M~f
di
at
(14-2)
c)
Figure 14-1 shows an example of this result
in
action.
The
center of mass of a complex object, with innumerable internal

interactions, follows a simple parabolic path
The
total kinetic
'Earlier, in dealing
energy of the system
more convenient
on particle
also
amenable to a
Momentum and
we
shall be
2.
The
F )2
revised definition
and should not

making of it.
for our present purposes
confusion in the brief use that
629
under gravity.
with two-partiele systems only, we used the symbol
to denote the foree exerted by particle

is
is
lead to
K. E. of a many-particle system
any
Fig. 14-1
The center
ofmass ofa complicated object follows
a simple parabolic
path under the net
gravitational force.
Photograph by Prof.
Harold E. Edgerton,
of a drum
M. I. T.,
majorelte tossing a
balon.
flashes
Time between
was 1/60
Dashed
path
lines
sec.
show
ofCM before
the baton was released
and
after
it
was
caught again.
v 3>
*i> v 2>
Thus
we
In this case
simple analysis.
shall introduce the velocities
of tne particles relative to the center of mass.
the velocity, \u of any particle as measured in the laboratory
can be written as
v,-
vc
The
kinetic energy
Ki of
this particle
can thus be written as follows:
Ki = mtV{
wi(v.--v;)
= \nnWi + v c ) K= imMf + '.M
v c)
v*)
i"*"
Thus we have
Ki
Let us
K',
now
(m,v<)
vc
+ \niiV2
consider the result of
summing
the individual kinetic
energies such as Ki for all the particles in the system.
The
first
term on the right gives us the total kinetic energy, K', of all the
gives us
particles relative to the center of mass. The last term
630
Extended systems
anci rotational
dynamics
the kinetic energy of a particle of the total mass,
with the speed v c of the center of mass.
And
vanishes, because by the definition of the center of
M, moving
the middle term
mass we have
mic'i
and hence
23 mfliyvt
Thus, for any system of
K=
A
particles,
we can put
+ \Mo?
K'
(14-3)
very familiar example of such a system
container
If the
tainer.
momentum
motion
TK.
zero
N molecules
The
a gas
frame and the
0) but the kinetic energy
Suppose we have
contains
It
is
in
a Con-
at rest in the laboratory the total
the laboratory
(i.e.,
large.
is
of mass
is
and vc
coincide
is
K' of
mole of gas
(N =
CM
frame
the internal
at temperature
Avogadro's number), each
total kinetic energy of the internal
motion
is
given by
2
K' =
Jjffo(i/i
2
2
i>'
+ tS)
mean squared speed
Introducing the
v^, this can be written
K' = \Nmovl = %Mvl
where
is
From
the molecular weight.
the kinetic theory of gases, however [see, for example,
Eq. (9-39)], the pressure

is
of the gas,
if it
occupies a volume V,
given by
P = frmovl
(n
(14^t)
= number
with n
= N/V
(14-5)
of molecules per unit volume, and
N molecules in a volume
V.)
From Eq.
(14-5)
we have assumed
we have
PV = \Mol
and combining
K'
where
'R
631
this
with Eq. (14-4) gives us
= %PV = %RT
is
the universal gas constant.
8.32 J/(mole-K)
Momentum and
'
We know
that
mole of
0.0821 Iiter-atm/(mole-K)
K. E. of a many-particle system
gas occupies a volume of 22.4
(=
K'
10
(1.013
10 )(2.24
a pressure of
at
liters
N/m 2 ) at 0C.
10~ 2 )
3.4
is
that molecular motions are
atm
Hence
about equal to the kinetic energy of a

field events, traveling at nearly 70 mph!
This
in
1.013
10 3 J
16-lb shot, as used
a good thing
It is
random.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
we recognizcd
In Chapter 13
1,
that the orbital angular
You
dynamical quantity.
momentum")
is
will recall that
an important
(the
"moment of
defined through the following equation:
(mv)
C 4" 6 )
the actual magnitude of
Thus
momentum,
is
of a particle with respect to a center of force
depends on the particular choice
of origin from which the position vector r of the particle
measured.
If,
as in the situations
we
considered, there
is
is
well-
defined fixed center of force, the appropriate choice of origin

clear.
momentum
In general, however, the angular
dividual
moving
particle
not a uniquely definable quantity.
is
two
But as soon as one has
is
of an in-
or
more
particles, or a single object
that cannot be approximated as a point particle, it does become

possible to speak unambiguously of the internal angular momentum of the complete system. Let us see how.
To
and
introduce the discussion, consider
specific situation.
Two
particles,
joined by a very light rigid bar that
first
of masses
is
a very simple
w about an
dicular to the plane of the diagram.
angular
momentum of
the
two
are
pivoted at the center of
The system
mass, C, of the two particles [see Fig. 14-2(a)].

rotates with angular velocity
m2
m, and
axis through
We shall calculate
particles
about a
perpen-
the total
parallel axis
through an arbitrary origin, O. With respect to O, the orbital

2
angular momentum of mi is counterclockwise and that of
of the combined
is clockwise. To calculate the actual magnitude
angular momentum, we can draw a line OA parallel to the line
joining the masses.
this line
and
intersect
The
it
velocity vectors are perpendicular to
at the points
A and
Let
632
OD =
d.
Then the
total
angular
A
OA
B.
parallel to these velocity vectors intersects
line
through
at a point
momentum
H.Klended systems and rotational dynamics
D.
of the two
14-2
Fig.
its
(a)
two-body system rotaiing about
rigid
The angular momentum can be
center of mass, C.
calculaled with respect to

(b) Individual
C or
to
cm arbitrary point, O.
and center-of-mass motions
in
an
arbi-
trary two-parlicle system.
particles with respect to
Lo =
m\Vi(ft
=
where
(rmvi
and
r[
common
r'i)
term
r'2 are
r'
2)
(lf i'"!
m2U2r'2 )
the distances of the particles
The second term
momentum, L c about
,
parentheses
in
miPs(d
maDsV +
center of mass.
total angular
first
given by the following expression:
is
is
from
in parentheses
their
is
the axis through C.
the
The
zero; this follows at once from the
we have taken C to bc at rest and therefore we are in

zero-momentum frame (or we could write v t = wr( and
faet that
the
vz
w/'a
Thus
in
and invoke the definition of the center of mass as such).

this
momentum
case
we have L
parallel to the true rotational axis
v>
cor'
2,
= L c the
rotational angular
of the system has the same value about any axis

the
magnitude of
through C. Sinceoi
this
total
angular
(rrn/t
+ m2
r'2
)co
Introducing the distance r bctween the particles, we have

/W2
/.
mi
mi
Bfl
/772
Substituting these valucs in the cxpression for
633
A n.s u
ar
momen u m
I
Lc
and
momentum
given by
Lc =
cor ,'
gives
is
mim2
Lc =
r
+ m2
mi
is
called the
is
(We
For such a system
Le =
mass of the system.
and the quantity
moment of
shall
consider
inertia,
of a
I,
convenient to put
it is
(14-8)
we have
where, in the present case,

2
/2
i*r
+ m
/2
m\ri
2 r2
consider the more general case of a system of
now
moving with
particles
Again we
Fig. 14-2(b).
that the center of
arbitrary velocities,
and
mass
at rest
is
shown
in
momentum
we make no assumption
relative to O.
Instead we
time
this
may have some
it
as
shall refer the total angular
to an arbitrary origin O,
assume that
p.r
more complex
h>
Let us
mo-
result for the angular
of a so-called "rigid rotator,"
cases later.)
two
the reduccd
2 )] is
connected system.
(14-7)
an important
is
an example of what
rigidly
\ir
Equation (14-7)
mentum
u =
m \m 2 /{m + m
where /* [=
... _.
velocity v c
We
can always orient
our diagram so that the origin O and the veetor r from m 2 to m\

lie in the plane of the paper, but the velocity veetors v 1; v 2 and
,
vc
total
angular
momentum
defined by the
tributions associated with

If
ri
and
Lo =
Let us
shown
r 2 , as
n X
now
(wivi)
Vi
=
=
r2
separately.
i and
m2
with respect to
(/M2V2)
introduce the positions and velocities of the particles
r'i
+r
v'i
of mass:
fz
Vc
V2
=
=
F2
*2
+ r*
+V
Then we have
L =
(ri
re)
.(v'i
This can be rearranged into a
Lo
(ri
miv\
vc)
+ r 2 X m 2v 2
re
(mi
+ w 2 )v
sum
+ ('"iri + >2r2) X v
+ r X (miv'i + m2v 2
634
are
we have
in the figure,
relative to the center

ri
and
the position veetors of
now consider the

veetor sum of the con-
Let us
need not be confined to this plane.
(6
r c)
X m2 (v2 +
ve)
of four terms as follows:

)
c
)
Extended systems and rotatjonal dynamics
Now
from the
follows
it
definition of the center of
mass that the
second and third of the above terms vanish, for we have

mir'i
miy'i
+
+
m2T2 =
WJ2V2
The first term in the expression for Lq is the combined angular

momentum, L c of the particles about C, and so we have
,
L = Lc
rc
(miT'O
X M\c
(14-9)
where
Lc =
Thus
r'i
+ r2 X
momentum about
the total angular
momentum
mentum associated
(m2 v 2)
the net angular
is
about the center of mass, plus the orbital angular mo-
If the particles
with the motion of the center of mass
have a
rigid
about C, we can use Eq. (14-7) or (14-8) to give the

expression for the magnitude of
in
good
thus in Eq. (14-9)
angular
momentum
make
it
clear that equiv-
for a system of arbitrarily
we have
explicit
Eq. (14-9).
study of the above analysis will
alent results hold
many
particles;
a strong basis for the analysis of
in general.
Notice in particular that
center of mass of an arbitrary system of moving particles

rest,
then the total angular
to Lc, about any point.
momentum
14-3
The rotalional angular momentum of a bisame value about the axis P of the
635
Angular
it
has about
its
momentum
the
is
at
The angular momentum of a rotating

same value about
cycle wheel has the
pedal wheel as
if
has the same value, equal
bicycle wheel, for instance (Fig. 14-3), has the

Fig.
itself.
connection and so rotate as a unit
own axis through C.
a horizontal axis through the point P on the bicyclc frame as it

has about its own axis through C, because the wheel has no net
translational velocity with respect to either point.
For any two-particlc system,
rigidly connected or not, the
Lc
can be conveniently expressed in terms of the relative

coordinate r of the two masses and their relative velocity vrel
We take the expression for L c in Eq. (14-9):
value of
U=
and we
ri
(miv'i)
(ma V2 )
r'2
and
substitute for r J
first
t'
2 in terms of
r.
From
the
defining equations
mir'i
m2X>2 =
v'2
ri
we have
It
m2
ri
m\
mi
\2
mi
rri2
+ m2
then follows that L can be written as follows:

m\rrt2
mi
(-r
v'i
+rX
y'a)
ni2
i.e.,
U = Mf X
(v'2
v',)
(14-10)
(^v rel )
In the particular case of a rigid system rotating with angular

velocity u,
Vrcl
If
is
we can
= X
further put
perpendicular to r this reduces Eq. (14-10) to Eq. (14-7);
otherwise the result
is
slightly
more complicated.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM AS A FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITY

The preceding analysis has
established that
two connected masses,
regarded as a single system with mass and
We have, in fact, L
applying to any
In
/tt
the present case, with
Lc =
636
liôi
nr(w
have what can
Now there is a general veclor identity

A X (B X C) = B(A C) - C(A B).
A = C = r, B = o>, this leads to the result
triple vector
size,
(w
r).
product:
r)
properly be dcscribed as an intrinsic angular
one
momentum about
Regardless of the actual motion of the
the center of mass.
CM,
But
can identify this rotational property of the system.
momentum took on a
angular
even more basic aspect when
it
was discovered, in the development of quantum mechanics, that

there was a natural unit of angular momentum, equal to Planck's
constant h divided by 2jt:
Basic unit of angular
momentum =
/ir
=
This
1.054
of coursc a very tiny unit, but
is
10~34 kg-m 2/sec
implies enormously
it
high speeds of rotation in systems of atomic
size.
N2
such as
two
discussed
point masses a fixed distance apart.
has two equal nuclei, each of mass about 2.3

separated by about
inertia
1.1
Eq. (14-8)]
[cf.
A (=
is
1.1
10
-10
m).
Nitrogen
10
-2C kg,
The moment of
thus given by
= 2/n(V2) 2
If
Let us con-
For many purposes a diatomic molecule,

can be regarded as a rigid system such as we have
one example.
sider
2(2.3
1.4
1CT 26 )(5.5
10 _4C kg/m 2
10- n ) 2 kg-m 2
we put
/a.
then
we
1.054
10" 34 kg-m 2 /sec
find that
7.5
10 u sec-'
The frequency
(rps) corresponding to this
about 10"
-1
sec
would be u/2t, or
Frequencies of this order are typical of
molecules behaving as rigid rotators and can be studied through

the techniques of microwave spectroscopy (the frequency just
mentioned would correspond to

1
may be noted
wavelength of 3 mm).
that these rotational frequencies are far
lower (by about two orders of magnitude) than the typical
quency of molecular vibration calculated

I
n actual molecules there
vibrational
is
usually a
and rotational motions, the
at the
end of Chapter
fre-
10.
complex admixture of
latter
providing a kind
of fine detail superimposed on the former. In molecular spectros-
copy one speaks of "rotation-vibration bands" arising

way.
637
Angular momentum as
fundamental cjuamiU
in this
Even more fundamentally,
it
appears that
all
the elementary
particles
of the universe have an intrinsic angular
which
some
is
momentum
integral multiple (including zero) of h/Aw.
In
our most familiar building blocks, nucleons and

electrons, have just h/4r, At this level, however, the specification
particular,
of what,
if
anything,
is
rotating
becomes a moot question; one
simply contents oneself with the fact of an intrinsic angular
momentum
in
all
that has the important property of being conserved
the interactions
and rearrangements of such
This conservation property of angular
momentum
particles.
in general is
the subject of the next seetion.

Fig. 14-4
The conservation of angular momentum. A seguence showing a man
making a baekward somersaull. These photographs were taken by Eadweard
Muybridge, apioneer of motion photography at the beginning of the 20th

(From Eadweard Muybridge, The Human Figure in Motion, Dover
century.
Publications,
638
New
York, 1955.
Reprinted through permission of the publisher.)
Extended systcm.s and rotational dynamics
CONSERVATION OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM

Many
interesting experiments can be
performed that
the important property that the total internal angular
of a system of particles
Some of
absent.
familiar to
you
conserved
is
external influences are
if
the qualitative demonstrations are
the
illustrate
momentum
no doubt
speeding up of a whirling ice skater, for
example, or of an cxpert gymnast when he hunches his body after
beginning a somersault (Fig. 14-4).
do
quite unskilled person
on a
freely
pivotcd stool, gets himself turning slowly with a couple of
dumb-
(e.g.,
a professor) can
bells held at
similar tricks
if
he
sits
arm's length, and then pulls the dumbbells inward
[Fig. 14-5(a)].
The conservation of internal angular momentum holds good,

whatever internal
Some
rearrangements of the system take place.
particularly nice consequences of this conservation
shown
if
onc has
good flywheel
extra loading of lead
can
sit
on a pivoted
hand him the wheel
momentum L w
about a
is
as
e.g.,
around the rim.
For example, one person
stool [Fig. 14-5(b)]

after
it
and another person can
has been set spinning with angular
shown (corresponding to clockwise rotation

upward). The person on the stool
vertical axis pointing
not himself rotating, but the system, person
Fig. 14-5
momentum:
Experiments on the consercation of angular

(a) The person on the stool rotates faster
if he pulls the
dumbbells inward. (b) and
the stool begins to rotate
when he
(c)
The
man on
inverls the spinning
wheel.
639
can be
a bicycle wheel with an
Conservation of angular
momentum
stool,
has the
momentum Lw If the wheel is now inmomentum about its own center

changed to -L,r It follows that the system of two
angular
total internal
vertcd
its
of mass
is
M (the person) and m (the wheel), must acquire a clock-
masses,
+ 2L K
[Fig.
momentum
with a total rotational angular
wise rotation
14-5(c)].
handed to the
total
rotational angular
who
assistant,
momentum
angular
wheel
If the
inverts
raised to
is
in this
new
and hands
it
3Ltt
If the
..
5LW Thus angular momentum can

.
and forth
such operations
in paekets in
is
back, the
it
person on the
stool again inverts the wheel, the general rotation of
raised to
of
orientation
M+m
is
be transferred back
although
going beyond the conservation of total angular
here
we
momentum
are
in a
completely isolated system.
The formal proof of the conservation of angular momentum

The total internal angular momentum (with
difficult.
respect to the center of mass or to any other point in the CM
frame) is given, according to Eq. (14-9), by
is
not
U=Z
fi
04-11)
(m.vO
Let us consider the variation of
Lc
with time.
Differentiating,
we have
^=E
where
first
a! is
v;
(m.*)
r'i
t><a',)
the acceleration of partiele
summation
idcntically zero.
CM. The
relative to the
because every produet
vanishes,
In the second summation, we
v,-
v<
is
shall write a, as
the veetor difference between the true acceleration, a,, of partiele
i,
as measured in an inertial frame, and the acceleration a c
(= dsjdl) of the
a c may exist even
Thus we have
center of mass.
in
(It is
important to rcalize that
a frame in which v c
^=Er',Xm,(a,-a
is
zero at some instant.)
c)
clt
r'
(m.a e )
Z mfij X
ac
However, by the definition of the CM, the summation in the

second term is zero. The first term is the total torque about C
of
all
the forees aeting
foree aeting
on the
on any given
partiele.
bination of an external foree
640
partieles,
F,-
because
m&i
is
the net
This foree may be a com-
and a
set of internal forees f,*;
Extcndcd svsicms and rotational dynamics
we put
thus
m <a, =
F,-
ta
Substituting this statement of m,-a< in the equation for
dL c/dt we
therefore have
dL
7-2
''
F,
dt
Now,
EZ
ri
as in our earlier discussion of the total linear
momentum
of a system of particles, we can arrange the double summation

involving internal forces into pairs of terms, in this case of the
type
ri
If,
t*
ri
f*,
however, we can assume that the forces of interaction be-
tween any two particles are equal, opposite forces along the
line
joining them [Fig. 14-6(a)], then each such pair of torques adds
up
to zero, because each force has the
Thus we
respect to C.
M,
where
(14-12)
spell
it
Zr;xF.
is
is
same
lever
CD
arm
LM;
(14-12)
the torque exerted by F, about the
CM.
Equation
a very basic equation of rotational dynamics;
out
in
with
arrive at a very simple equation
we
shall
words:
Regardless of any acceleration that the center of mass of a system
may have as a result of a net extemal force exerted

on the system, the rate of change of internal angular momentum
about the
s equal to the total torque of the ex terna forces
of particles
CM
about the
Fig.
14-6
(a)
CM.
The
equal and opposite

internal forces be-
tween two particles
In particular, therefore, if the net torque about the center of
mass
is
zero, the internal angular
whatever internal rearrangements
momentum remains constant,

may go on within the system.
can produce no toraue

abon t
if they are
along the line joining

the particles.
(b) If
the forces are not
along the line joining

the particles they
produce a toraue
which
is,
nullified
however,
by other
internal forces (see
discussion in the text).
641
Conservation of angular
momentum
[Our derivation of Eq. (14-12) contains one weak

is
internal interactions
that the forces
link.
This
which we conclude that the net torque of the
the argument by
zero.
is
and
f,*
perfectly possible to imagine
It is
are equal in magnitude
ft,
and opposite
conforming to Newton's third law, without
in direction, thus
having them act along the same line [see Fig. 14-6(b)].
In this
case they would constitute a couple with a resultant torque
about
The vanishing
or any other point.
of the net torque
of the internal forces, and the consequent conservation of total

angular
momentum
external forces are absent,
if
good
result that holds
in general;
it
is
however a
does not depend on the
limited assumption that the forces of interaction act along the

lines joining pairs of particles.
in
support of this proposition
matics at
all
can
It
first
powerful theoretical argument
but requiring virtually no mathe-
be made on the basis of the uniformity and
isotropy of space.
Consider
runs as follows.
momentum
the conservation of the total linear
of a system of particles.
This holds good
if
the total potential
energy, U, of the system remains unaffected by linear displace-
ment, because the vanishing of grad
of any net
foree.
invariance of
less
axiomatic;
If
we know
U corresponds to
with respect to linear displacements
it
is
more or
corresponds to our belief that absolute position
along a line has no significance
way, we can argue
in physics.
In an exactly similar
that the total potential energy, U, associated
with the internal forces of a system of particles

insensitive to
the absence
that external forces are absent, the
is
complctely
of the
a rotation through an arbitrary angle
Now just as we can evaluate a foree from
system as a whole.
a potential-energy funetion through relations of the type
dx
so
we can evaluate torques through
M, =
where
tion
is
relations of the type
-~
z is
(14-13)
the torque about the axis z around which the rota-
imagined. Hencc,
if
U is independent
of
0,
therc can be
no net torque, regardless of the detailed charaeter of the internal

Thus we can conclude that the conservation of
interactions.
total internal angular momentum of any isolated system must
hold true in general.]
642
r.xtended svstcms
and
rotalional
dynamics
MOMENTS OF
INERTIA OF EXTENDED OBJECTS

For an arbitrary system of
momentum
angular
nX
Lc =
This
defined
is
the intrinsic rotational
particles,
by the equation
(14-14)
(mi\i)
just a restatement of Eq. (14-11) except that
is
we
now
are
choosing an origin at the center of mass and using the unprimed
symbols
r,-
and
v,'
to denote the position vectors
and the
velocities
We
CM.
of the individual particles with respect to the
shall
now
consider in detail the application of Eq. (14-14) to a system
that
is
we
rotating as a unit with an angular velocity
well-defined geometrical
symmetry and
rotating about an axis
is
of symmetry through the center of mass.

such an
object, the linear velocity v;
momentum
hence the total angular
Lc =
""
mi(to
is
is
For each
given by
particle in
= u X
v*
r,-,
and
given by
(14-15)
r,)
Let us consider the contribution to

ticles,
In particular,
<o.
concern ourselves with the case of an object that has
shall
L c from
a pair of par-
and y, of equal masses (because of the symmetry) situated
symmetrically with rcspcct to the axis of rotation as shown in

Fig. 14-7 (a).
Particle
has a velocity u
/'
of the diagram; the magnitude

Fig.
14-7
(a) Conlribulions
v,
rigid object.
(b)
Main
r,
down
is
into the plane
given by
by two symmetrically
placed particles to the net rotational angular
of a
of this velocity
spin axis
momentum
and two
otlter
principal axes bfinertia of an object with well-defined
symmetry.
MBaHnHUaHHB||HBMHnHBMM|
Rotation axis
I,
r,
x(m,v,)
)\,
643
Moments
0>
t,
ofinertia ofextended objects
u,-
where
cor, sin 0,
ojRi
the perpendicular distancc of the particle
/?; is
from the
The angular momentum of this particle is then a vector h

Its magnitude is given by
directed as shown in the diagram.
but
since
v,
is
perpendicular
to r, itself, we have
(mn)\,
X
axis.
|r,-
simply
/,
Now
m,co/?,r,
we
if
see that
it
momentum ly of particle j, we
h but points in a different
consider the angular
has the same magnitude as
dircction, in such a
way
that the
components of
1,
and
per-
\j
pendicular to the rotation axis cancel, but their components

parallel to the axis add.
Thus, when we consider carrying out
summation reprcsented by Eq. (14-15) for the complete

system, we need take only the component of angular momentum
the
parallel to
particle
is
to
thus given by k sin
lisindi
It is clear
The relevant contribution

0,, and we have
for each particle.
muaRiTi sin B\
m {R, u
that the total rotational angular
vector in the direction of
U = fe millA u
for
itself,
/u
momentum
is
then a
and we can put
(14-16)
where
/
E mRi
(14-17)
Equation (14-17) then defines the moment of

plete system
If
we
about a given axis of symmetry.
normal rotational axis

it
com-
consider an object with a well-defined symmetry, such
as a flywheel [Fig. 14-7(b)]
that
inertia of the
possesses.
If
it is
may
we
clear that the obvious
axis the
not be the only axis of symmetry
label this
normal rotational
axis as z,
then any other axis perpendicular to z and passing through the

center of mass is also an axis of symmetry (although not of
complete rotational symmetry) for the purposes of the kind of
sibility
we have presented above. Thus we recognize the posof defining, in addition to h, two other moments of
inertia,
Jz and Iu , about a pair of independent axes perpendicular
analysis
to z
and to one another. These three quantities (Ix Iu I2) are

as the principal moments of inertia of the object. In the
known
644
we would of course have
case illustrated,
It is
important to recognize that
rotation, as defincd
Ju (*h)-
only when the axis of
by the direction of u, coincides with an
moment of
axis corresponding to a principal
rotational angular
Ix
it is
momentum
Lc
vector
and can be expressed simply as
We
/co.
is
inertia that the
parallel to
shall,
itself
however, be con-
cerned mostly with situations in which this is the case. [It is a

remarkable fact that for any cbject at all, even if it has no kind
of symmetry, onc can
L and u
axes for which
find a set of three orthogonal rotation
still
are parallel.
'
axes allows us to identify three principal
The existence of these

moments of inertia for
an object of completely arbitrary shape.]
For an object composcd of so many
we can
effectively continuous,
write the
particles that
moment of
inertia
it
is
about
a given symmetry axis as an integral instead of a summation:
/
where
dm
distance r
dm
(14-18)
an clement of mass situated at a perpendicular

from the axis through the center of mass.
is
Special cases
1.
Uniform
(The axis
ring.
is
[Fig. 14-8(a)]
(Ring)
2.
Uniform
we have
M and
its
radius
(14-19)
This can be regarded as a set of concentric
14-8(b).
An
material lying between r and r

the area of the whole disk
is
is
simply
MR 2
disk.
rings, as in Fig.
taken to be perpendicular to
mass of the ring
If the
the plane of the ring.)
is
is
individual ring
dr.
wR 2
Its
area
is
is
made of
thus
2-wr dr,
the
and
Hence the mass of the ring
given by
2vrdr
A/f
2M
Substituting this in Eq. (14-18)
(Disk)
2M
we have
r/l
/
/
.)
r dr
MR 2
(14-20)
2
'For a proof of this statement, see, for example, K. R. Symon, Mechanics,
cd., Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1960.
2nd
645
Moments of inertia of extended
objects
Fig.
14-8
Geometrically
s impie objects
with exactly
cakulable moments ofinertia: (a) ring, (b) disk,
(c)
bar
or rod, and {d) solid sphere.
The same
3.
result applies to a long cylinder, regardcd as a pile
(The axis of rolation
of disks.
pendicular to
its
length.)
distance r goes from
to
the axis of the cylinder.)
is
Uniform Bar. (The axis
is
taken through the center, per-
The length of
L/2 on each
the bar
side.
is
If the
L, so the radial
bar
is
uniform,
wc have
dm =
dr
2
We
evaluate J r dm from r
take account of both ends:
(Uniform bar or rod)
result
to r
'--H
= L/2 and
double
ML*
of exactly this same form holds also for the
inertia of a flat
to the
board of length
about an
dimension, that passes through the
it,
to
(14-21)
moment of
axis, perpendicular
CM
and
lies in
the
plane of the board.

4.
646
Sphere.
[Any
axis through the center.
See Fig. 14-8(d).]
We
shall
(For a derivation, see
quote this result without proof.
almost any calculus text.)

(Sphere)
It
may
= f MR 2
(14-22)
be noted that in each case the
mass of the
moment of
object, times the square of
inertia
is
the
a characteristic linear
dimension, times a numerical coefficient not very different from

It is
moment
of inertia
It is quite
common
hard to be wildly wrong in estimating the
of a body, even without detailed calculation.

practice to write the
moment
times the square of a Iength
1.
of inertia simply as the total mass

that
is
called the radius ofgyration
about the axis in question:

I
= Mk 2
(14-23)
for the special cases considered above,
Thus
we have
the following
values of the radius of gyration

Object
Radius of gyration
Ring
Disk
/s/2
(=
0.707/?)
Bar (Iength L)
L/2y/l
(=
0.289Z.)
Ry/I/5
(= 0.632)
Sphcrc
TWO THEOREMS CONCERNING MOMENTS OF

The
calculation of
moments of
INERTIA
inertia
with the help of two theorems that

first
(k)
we
can often be simplified

shall
now
present.
of them applics to any kind of object; the second
is
The
applicable
only to objects that can be treated, to some approximation, as

flat
objects of negligible thickness.
The theorem of parallel axes
When we
moment of inertia" of an object we

moment of inertia about a symmetry axis
center of mass. There are, however, many
speak of "the
normally mean the
drawn through the
situations in which the actual physical axis of rotation does not
pass through the
theorem that
CM.
In such cases one can
directly relates the
given axis to the
moment
moment
make
use of a
of inertia about the
of inertia about a parallel axis through
the center of mass.
Figurc 14-9(a) illustratcs the situation.
647
Two
Suppose that the
theorems concerning moments of
inertia
Fig. 14-9
gram
lo
(a) Dia-
show
ihe basis
of ihe parallel-axis
theorem. (b) Use of
Ihe paral/el-axis
theorem makes easy

such cakulations as
finding ihe
moment of
ihe cylinder abotit Ihe
hinge
A A'.
given axis
perpendicular to the plane of the paper and passes
is
Imagine a parallel axis through C, and
through the point O.
up of a set of thin slices parallel

to the plane of the paper. The vector distance from the axis
through O to the axis through C is a constant, h. Within any
consider the object as being built
one
slice
consider elements of mass such as
we can
from
in the figure, a vector distance r
The contribution dl
axis
dlo
The
dm
through
h2
is
(h
2h-
dm
r'
to the
moment
(h
r')
term on the right
last
to the
and
moment
r'
dm
from C.
at point
We
have
of inertia about the
then given by
dm =
dm
dm
of
is,
r'
dm
dm
r')
however, just the contribution of
of inertia about the parallel axis through C.
Thus we have
dlo
h2
dm
+ 2hr'dm +
dlc
can now carry out the summation or integration of all such

contributions, first within the slice and then over all the slices
We
that build
up to the complete
h
J
By
2/i
r'
dm
This gives us
Ic
the definition of the center of mass, the middle term on the
right
The first term is simply the total mass. M, of

Thus we finally have the following result:
times h
is
object
648
dm +
object.
zero.
Extended svsleim and rotational dynamics
the
(Parallel-axis
If
(14-24a)
M and
+ Mh 2
(14-24a)
we can
the radius of gyration k,
theorem)
= M(k 2 +
/o
h 2)
(14-24b)
be seen from Eqs. (14-24a) and (14-24b) that the
may
of inertia of an object about an arbitrary axis
than
write Eq.
the alternative form:
in
(Parallcl-axis
It
to express Ic , according to Eq. (14-23), in terms
we choose
of the mass
h=
theorem)
moment
its
Example.
A
A A'
shown
always greater
of inertia about a parallel axis through the
about an axis
axis, as
is
moment
cylinder of mass
lying in
its
and radius
CM.
hinged
is
surface and running parallel to
in Fig. 14-9(b).
What
is
its
moment
its
of inertia
about AA"?
We know
MR
by Eq. (14-20) that the value of Jc for
this case is
Hence by Eq. (14-24a), with h = R, we have
/2.
Ia A'
hMR 2 + MR 2 = %MR 2
Theorem of perpendicular axes

Suppose now that we have a
flat
object of arbitrary shape, cut
out of thin sheet material [Fig. 14-10(a)].
trary origin
dicular to
now the moment of inertia,

An element of mass dm, a
Consider
it.
object about the z axis.
from the
axis,
-P
makes the contribution
= x2
Iz
of the
distance r
dm, and we have
dm
However, since
r
Let us take an arbi-
plane of the object, and a z axis perpen-
in the
r lies in the
+y
xy plane, we have
Thus we can put
h =
dm
Since the object
simply defines the
(Flat objects)
649
Two
is
flat,
dm
however, the
moment
first
is
known
l.
/,
term on the right
of inertia I of the object about the
and the second term correspondingly
axis,
This
is
Iz . Thus we have
(14-25)
as the perpendicular-axis theorem.
theorems concernins moments of
Its
usefulness
inertia
Fig.
14-10
(a)
Diagram
to
pendiatlar-axis theorem.
show the basis of the per-
(b)
and
(c) Flat objecls to
which the perpeitdicular-axis theorem ean be usefutly

applied.
(d) Calculation
of the momenl of inertia ofa
circular lid abont the axis

parullel-axis
and
A A' exp!oils bolh
the
the perpendicular-axis theorems.
can be illustrated by two different kinds of examples:
Exampk
An
1.
object
plate [Fig. 14-10(b)].
axis through
By Eq.
Ix
It
iri
the
is its
form ofa uniform rectangular

moment of inertia about an
center and perpendicular to
(14-21)
its
plane?
we have
_ Ma_
Ml/_
"
12
'
12
follows at once that
/;
650
_
~
its
is
What
M(a
2
)
12
F,xtcndcd systems and rolational dvnamics
What
and radius R.
uniform disk has mass
moment of inertia about an axis along one of its own
Example
is its
2.
diameters, say the
axis in Fig. 14-10(c)?
This illustrates a more elegant use of the perpendicular-axis

theorem. The direct calculation of the moment of inertia of a
We know,
disk about a diameter would be quite awkward.
moment
ever, that the
We
diameter.
/,
also
of inertia has the same value about any
know, by Eq.
(14-20), the
moment
about the axis perpendicular to the disk through
Thus we can
at
/,+ /,-
how-
of inertia
its
center.
a situation in which
we can
once put
2/x
/,
= -=-
Therefore,
MR
Finally, in Fig. 14-10(d),
exploit both of the
in the plane of the disk
moment
the
above theorems.
of a cylindrical tank)
lid
we show
circular disk (e.g., the
pivoted about an axis
is
and
tangent to
is
its
A A'
about the axis through
moment
of inertia
perpendicular to the disk,
the perpendicular-axis theorem to deduce that the
about the axis
parallel-axis
that the
is
DD'
is
MR
We
/4.
we
MR 2 /2
first
use
moment of
can then use the
theorem, Eqs. (14-24a) and (14-24b), to deduce
moment
of inertia about AA'
Mr2 j.
4- +
,
Iaa
What
of inertia of the disk about AA'l
Beginning with Eq. (14-20) for the
inertia
that lies
periphery.
wp
MR
is
given by
5Mr2
4
not worth memorizing for its own sake; the

important thing is to realize that in these two theorems we have
Such a
result
a powerful
for
is
way of extending
a few basic results, as represented
example by Eqs. (14-19) through (14-22), to handle a whole
variety of
more complicated
situations.
KINETIC ENERGY OF ROTATING OBJECTS
rotating system of course has kinetic energy
rotation about
651
its
center of mass.
Thanks
Kinetic energy of rotating objects
by
virtue of
its
to the general validity
of Eq. (14-3) this can be calculated separately and added to
any kinetic energy associated with motion of thc center of mass
When
itself.
about an
it
of mass m, distance r from the
has a speed wr and hence a kinetic energy imo} 2 r 2

total kinetic energy of rotation is thus given by
axis,
Arot
i 2 v^
2> 2-1
Hence,
a "rigid" object rotates with angular velocity
axis, a particle within
the
if
2
mr */'
CM
The
(14-26)
has a speed v c with respect to the Iab-
oratory, the total kinetic energy as measured in the laboratory
is
given by
K=
/co
For an object
ikfo. a
(14-27)
that rolls along the ground, there will be a purely
geometrical connection between v c and

radius R, vc
uR).
expressed in terms of
If
a round
rigid object rolls
solid cylinder rolls
its total
down
kinetic energy at
%MR and w =
2
for a wheel of
(e. g.,
(or v c) alone.
conservation of energy to caleulate

if
In such a case the kinetic energy can be
down
its
a slope,
we can apply
For example,
acceleration.
a slope of angle d [Fig. 14-11 (a)],
any instant
is
given by putting /
v c /R in Eq. (14-27):
= f Mv\
Let us, at this point, drop the suffrx c on v c and
represent what
we can properly call the

Thcn in a short space
the rolling object.
of the total kinetic energy
is
let
the symbol v
translational speed of
of time
di,
the change
given by
dK = f Mu dv
7^\
M,
Fig. 14-11
(a)
Disk or cylinder
down an inelined plane.

(6) Mass deseending at thc end
of a rope wrapped around a
rolling
J'
fiywlieel.
(a)
652
Extended systcms and rotattona! dynamics
(b)
a corresponding change of gravitational poof the cylinder travels a distance

tential energy. I n time di the
means a (negative) change of
which
the
slope,
parallel
to
vdt
However, there
is
CM
vertical coordinate
equal to
vdt sin
Hence
d.
= Mgvdt sin 6
dll
Putting
dK + dU =
we have
|A/0
<to
- Mgo di sin 6 =
whence
do
2
= g
sin
It is interesting
and
that this result
is
independent of both the mass
the radius of the cylinder; only the fact that
cylinder
important.
is
Ali solid
characteristic acceleration in rolling

is
it
is
a solid
spheres have some differcnt
down such
a slope.
(What
it?)
It
may
be noted that the need to create rotational kinetic
energy causcs the linear acceleration of a rolling object to be
always
have
lcss
slope.
The
the motion.
what
than the acceleration that the same object would
could simply
if it
slide,
without
friction,
down
the
same
on
rotational inertia acts, in effect, as a kind of brake
This inertial property can be exploited in the some-
difTerent context represented
by
Fig. 14-1 l(b).
descends under gravity at the end of a rope that
is
mass
wound around
on a fixed axis through C. The flywheel has

2
of
inertia
/ (= Mk ) and a radius R. The angular
a moment
a flywheel mounted
velocity
of the wheel
divided by R.
Thus the
is
equal to the linear velocity v of
whole system
is
kinetic energy of the
given by
K=
\mi?
The change of
653
/co
potential energy of
in
descending a distance h
Kinetic energy of rotating objects
is,
however, simply mgh. The speed v acquired by
ing a distance h from rest
A-m
therefore given
is
descend-
in
by
=mgh
+ H^)
or
Thus the
acceleration g' can be reduced to
any desired fraction
of g so as to produce a gentle, controlled descent.
Another aspect of rotational

rotating object
The
capacity.
sense
is
kinetic energy is that a large

an energy reservoir of possibly very large
is
use of flywheels as energy-storage devices in this
an important feature of
sorts of machines, giving to
all
much improved stability with respect to sudden

One of the most impressive examples of the
of flywheels for energy storage is in the National Magnet
such systems a
changes of load.
use
There are two flywheels, each being an
Laboratory at M.I.T.
assembly of circular plates of
mass of 85
tons.
They are
steel,
is
in. in
diameter, with a
part of a generating system for pro-
ducing extremely strong magnetic

rotation of each flywheel
190
fields.
The normal speed of
390 rpm. From these figures we have
(for each flywheel)
M=
/
01
R = 2.4 m
X 10 4 kg
= %MR 2 2 X 10 s kg-m 2
= 2tt X 390/60 40 rad/sec
7.7
Therefore,
K=
i/o> 2
When one
1.6
10
of these flywheels
is
used as a power source,
of rotation can be lowered from 390 to 300
means
that about
at the rate of
sponding to
40%
about
rpm
its
speed
in 5 sec.
This
of the stored energy can be drawn upon,
8%
per second.
this is close to
15
The power output
M W enough,
while
it
corre-
lasts, to
equal the total rate of electrical energy consumption of a town

of about 20,000 inhabitants.
ANGULAR MOMENTUM CONSERVATION AND KINETIC ENERGY

The conservation of
654
rotational angular
momentum
Exlcnded systems and rotational dynamics
has some
Fig.
14-12 (a) Pair ofobjecls
rolating at fixed distances
about iheir center ofmass.

(b) Rotaiional
displacements
accompanied by a change of
radial distance between the
objects.
(b)
(a)
interesting implications for the total kinetic energy of a system
that changes
shape or
its
To
size.
take the simplest possible
example, consider a system of two masses rotating about their

center of mass [Fig. 14-1 2(a)].
of mass
We
shall
assume that the center
stationary in our frame of reference, but in the absence
is
of external forces
it
does not have to be defined by a fixed pivot
or anything of that kind.
Suppose that the system
w about an
if
is
axis perpendicular to the plane of the diagram.
the distances of the masses
(with
mî =
ISl
We
rotating with an angular velocity
m^r-i),
Oi?i
l>2
from
are rj
Then
r z , respectively
we have
Uf2
can then proceed at once to write
total angular
and
momentum and
down
expressions for the
the total kinetic energy:
L c = (min 2 + m2r2 2 )oi

K = iOitin8 + mara8)8
It
simplify
will
[=
mm
the
moment of
things
+m
/(mi
2 )],
inertia /
if
we
introduce the reduced mass
the relative separation
(= nr 2 ).
We
r{=
r,
r 2 ),
m
and
then have
L = ixr 2 w = /w (= const.)
K = yr 2 w 2 = i/ 2
e
Combining
K =
these
arrive at the following result:
(14-28)
2 M r2
Consider
2/
now what happens
together under
655
two equations, we
Angular
some mutual
momentum
if
the particles
interaction
draw
closer
e.g., the puli of a
conservalion and kinetic energy
The value of L c
spring or elastic cord that connects them.
mains constant, but
and the moment of
w and
hence the values of
come from?
extra energy
must
Clearly,
Where does the
increase.
has to be supplied through
it
work done by the internal forces that puli

One can feel this very directly if one does
the
re-
inertia / decrease;
gether.
the masses tothe cxperiment
of sitting on a rotating stool with two weights at arm's length
and then pulling the weights inward toward the
One
I4-5(a)].
way of
very simplc
axis
[cf.
Fig.
interpreting this from the
standpoint of the rotating frame
itself is to
change of ATassociated with
change of r. From Eq. (14-28)
a small
consider the small
we have
2
L
AK = --Âr
Substituting
AK =
But
Lc =
fir
u, this becomes
fiw 2 rAr
magnitudc of the ccntrifugal force that
nu> r is the
is
trying
(from the standpoint of the rotating frame) to make the masses

fiy
apart.
to hold the
force equal
and opposite to
this
masses at a constant separation
must be supplied
r,
and an amount
work equal to this force times the magnitude of the displacement Ar is needed to puli the masses toward one another. (Note
that, in the case we have assumed, Ar is negative and so AK is
of
positive.)
From
the standpoint of a stationary obscrvcr, of course,
the change of kinetic energy can be understood in terms of the

fact that if r is
interaction, f 12
changing
and
f2
i,
the masses (e.g., the curve
AN
which would not be the case

ares [e.g.,
AK
in
Fig.
14-12(b)], the radial forces of
[Fig.
have components along the paths of
if
for
so that
work
is
done,
the masses remained on circular
14-1 2(b)] with the radial forces always
perpendicular to the displaccments and velocities.
The
fact that the increase in rotational kinetic energy of
contraeting system must

places restrietions
oecur at
all in
on the
come from the
internal
interaetions
possibility that such contraetion can
a particular case.
callcd for in the kinetic energy
If the increase that

is
greater than the
would be
work that
could be supplied by the internal forces, then the contraetion
cannot take place.
may
656
Especially interesting situations of this type
arise in the gravitational contraetion
and condensation of a
slowly rotating galaxy or
The mutual
star.
U, of any system of particles
gravitational energy,
always negative and becomes
is
and the
(Remember that,
more so as the
linear dimensions of the system shrink
particles of the
system come
for
a two-particle system,
closer together.
U = Gm^m^/r.)
Thus, qualitatively
we recognize a source of the extra kinetic energy needed.

There is more to it than this, however, because the magnitudes
at least,
of the corresponding changes
AK and AU,
for a given
The
radius of the system, are not automatically equal.
in the
them
will
increase,
and
this
in the system.
total energy
AK
If
would be required to
simply could not happen.
than AU, however, there would be
AK
If
were
less
a surplus of released gravita-
by developing random
tional energy that could be disposed of

particle
depend on the magnitude of
and on the precise distribution of matter
would be larger than AU, the
AR
change
motions (heating) and by radiation of heat and
light
into space.
With the help of

the discussion can be
certain cxtrcmc simplifying assumptions
made
Suppose, in particular,
quantitative.
that the contraction occurs in such a
way
that the system mcrely
undergoes a change of linear scale without altering the relative

distributions of density or velocity. This
dimensions shrink by a factor

the center
is
if
the linear
n, the density at distance
times the original density at
r.
r/n from
The moment of
then simply proportional to the square of any charac-
inertia, /, is
teristic
means that
dimension of the system
can be considered as being
outer radius
e.g., its
if it
a spherical object with an identifiable
boundary. Thus the kinetic energy
K (= L
The assumed uniform contraction
also increases the potential
/21) varies as
/R 2
energy (~\/r) between every pair of particles by the factor

It
follows that the total (negative) potential energy
l/R.
Under
the system
is
E(R) =
of
given by an equation of the form
-f
is
(14-29)
given dimensionally, and perhaps even in
order of magnitude, by the combination
mass.
n.
varies as
these assumptions, therefore, the total energy
The constant A
total
Similarly,
is
proportional to
the universal gravitation constant.
of a sphere of matter
is
L 2 /2M,
where
GM 2
is
where
the
is
(The gravitational self-cncrgy
of the order of
see
/R
Prob-
lem 11-31.)
657
Angular
momentum
conservation and kinetic energy
Fig.
14-13
Depen-
dence ofkinetic, potential,
and
total
energy on radiusfor a
rotating system held
together by gravitational attraction.
The two
shown graphThe whole situation is
contributions to E, and their sum, are

1
ically as functions of
in Fig. 14-13.
very reminiscent of our discussion of energy diagrams in Chapters

10 and 11, and
it is
clear that
we can
calculate a radius
corresponds to an equilibrium configuration of
Fig.
14-14
sioe stages
tion
minimum
Succes-
of contrac-
of a rotating gas
cloud toform a disk-
shaped galaxy.
658
Extended svstems and rotational dynamics
Rm
that
energy:
Example
Fig. 14-15
of a rolaling galaxy,
seen almost edge on
(NGC 4565
in the
constellalion
Coma
Berenices). (Photo-
graph front the Hale

Observatories).
m + R2
dR
R
If
2A
- --
we put A
L 2 /2M and B
GM
2
,
we then have
Rm~ GM3
(14-30)
which would indicate the way

similar galaxies might
in
which the
linear
dimensions of
depend on the mass and the
total angular
momentum.
Figure 14-14 indicates the more probable trend of a contracting rotating mass.
of
L c can
energy,
it
Since contraction parallel to the direction
take place without any increase of rotational kinetic

is
quite reasonable that this type of deformation can
continue after a limit has been reached to the contraction radially
inward toward the axis of rotation.
One can
certainly under-
stand in these terms the progression through stages

(c) of Fig. 14-14,
which might well
result in the
(a), (b),
and
kind of galactic
structure actually observed (Fig. 14-15).
TORSIONAL OSCILLATIONS AND RIGID PENDULUMS

One
659
of the most valuable and widely used physical systems
Torsional oscillalions and
rigicl
pcndulums
Fig.
14-16
Simple torsional
(o)
pendulum, (b) Diagram to

Indicate the
work done
in twist-
ing a lorsion fiber.
(b)
(a)
mass suspended from a
consists of a
wire, fiber, or other device
that provides a torquc in response to a twist [Fig.
The restoring torque comes from an
elastic
14-16(a)].
deformation of the
suspension and, like the linear deformations discussed in connection with the linear harmonic oscillator problem
such angular deformations usually result
in
in
Chapter
7,
a restoring effect
proportional to the deformation.
These torsion devices are often used in static measurements

for example in ammeters, where a steady current passing
through the instrumen t may be used (with the help of a per-
manent magnet)
deflection that
to
produce a steady torque, leading to a steady
torsional oscillation of such a system
The
importance.
veniently
made
But the
free
is also of interest
and
the meter reading of the current.
is
analysis of this oscillatory motion
in
is
very con-
terms of the constant total energy of the
rotating system.
We shall
suppose that the suspended mass has a
moment of
inertia / about the axis defined by the torsion fiber.
angle of deflection around this axis (we shall call

be
Then
6.
the kinetic energy
K is given
it
Let the
the z axis)
by
-Hi)
The
(14-31)
potential energy
is
the
work done
in twisting the
ends
of the suspension through an angle 6 relative to one another.

Zy assumed
If we let the fiber define a z axis, the restoring torque
proportional to
where
6, is
given by
= -c8
is
the torsion constant (measured in
(14-32)
m-N/rad or
mensionally cquivalcnt units).
660
di-
not hard to guess that, by analogy with a stretched

will lead to a storage of
It is
spring, a system that obeys Eq. (14-31)
potential energy proportional to 6
2
.
To make
this quantitative
we need only consider one simple idea. Suppose we are looking

down the axis of a torsion wire [Fig. 14-16(b)] to which is
attached a lever arm of length r. A force F is applicd at right
angles to thc end of the lever, just sufficient to overcome the
torque
This means that
a.
rF =
-M.
Suppose that the angle of twist is increased by dd. Then the end
of the lever moves through a distancc r dO, and the work done
by
given by
is
dW =
Frdd = -M.dd
Hence thc total potential energy stored

from its normal configuration to a twist
vw
Jo
cBdOm \ce
in
e, is
chanical energy of thc system
which
(14-33)
^ c
= E (=
is
me-
see that the total
given by
(14_34)
const)
thc familiar form of a harmonic-oscillator equation.
is
The period
T=
It is
given by
Combining Eqs. (14-31) and (14-33), we
**(S)
the system, in going
will
be given by
'
(14-35)
2*(-J
worth noting, by the way, that the rclation between
z,
as
given by Eq. (14-32), and U(e), as given by Eq. (14-33), satisfies

the general relation betwccn potential energy
we
cited
earlicr
momentum
'
and torque that
[Eq. (14-13)] in our diseussion of angular-
conservation:
dU
-le
Situations very similar to those of the torsional oscillator

are
represented
by
so-called
rigid
pendulum
object free to swing about a horizontal axis, as
661
an
arbitrary
shown
Torsional oscillations and rigid pendulums
in Fig.
Fig.
14-17
ample ofa
(a)
dulum, (b) Period of

oscillation
rrl
Ex-
rigid pen-
ofa
pendulum as a funclion
r
Mg
'
rigid
.^
/ '
Ihe dislance h
of
belween the
CM and
/j
Ihe poinl ofsuspen-
(b)
(a)
^^'B^tfi
Let us suppose that this axis
14-17(a).
center of mass.
vertical distancc h
A(l
cos
below
is
\Mgh6
K = \Mo? +
is
CM moves along a circular

CM to rise through the distance
given by
(14-36)
is
equal to the kinetic energy
associated with the linear velocity of the

rotation about the
the systcm is
the
kinetic energy of the system
The
if
small the consequent increase of gravitational
d); if d is
6,
This causes the
h.
potential energy
U(d)
a distancc h from the
the axis through O, but
displaced through an angle
arc of radius
is
Normally, therefore, the center of mass
CM,
plus the energy of
CM
^1
[The term representing the rotational energy about
in this
equation embodies an important feature. If the object has the

angular velocity dO/dt about its true axis of rotation through O,
every point in it also has the angular velocity dO/dt about a
parallel axis
matter.
through C, or through any other point for that

propcrly speak of the angular velocity of a ro-
One can
tating object without reference to
Any
line
drawn on
rate of angular displacement as
Returning
662
now
specific axis of rotation.
a rotating disk, for example, has the
one of
the radii.]
to the expression for K,
wc can put
same
'- h
Tt
Thus we can
write
= l(Mh 2
K(0)
fc )
(jjfy
or
K(9)
where Io
($j
the
is
moment
of inertia of the object about the axis
through O, and the whole motion of every point in the object

expressed, as
we know
can be,
it
is
terms of pure rotation about
in
this axis.
For our present purposes,

Ie
this,
Mk 2
the form
in
where k
it
is
most illuminating to write

If we do
the radius of gyration.
is
we have
Kifi)
iMC 2 +
(14-37)
P^J
The equation of energy conservation, given by adding the

of Eqs. (14-36) and (14-37),
%M(Ji
k )(-jj
is
2
\MghQ = E (=
in
a systematic
the axis:
T(h)
way on
2tt
-i-
The
period
that
CM
from
the distancc h of the
2V' 2
(14-39)
This period would become infinitely long for h

axis passing through
(14-38)
const.)
This defines simple harmonic vibrations with a
depends
results
thus
CM) and
over-all variation of
has a
with h
For any given value of
h,
minimum
is
as
value
shown
(rotational
Tm for h =
in Fig.
k.
14 17(b).
the period of oscillation corre-
sponds to that of an "cquivalcnt simple pendulum" of length

/
such that
,2
/
663
'
+
.
,2
Torsional oscillations and rigid pendulums
MOTION UNDER COMBINED FORCES AND TORQUES

Near the beginning of
this chapter
we developed
the
two
results
which, between them, provide the basis for analyzing the motion
of extended objects under any circumstances.
These
results are
as follows:
1.
The
change of linear momentum
rate of
equal to the
Expressed in terms of the motion of the
resultant external force.
becomes
center of mass, this statement
M = Ma
is
rfv c
F^ =
(14-40)
dt
where
2.
is
the total mass.
The rate of change of angular momentum about the

mass is equal to the resultant torque of the external
center of
forces about the
CM
M = ^ (L)
dt
(14-41)
we
In the present section
which
shall limit ourselvcs to cases in
both the torque and the angular motion are about an axis parallel
to the axis of
symmetry of the object
[as defined in the discussion
This means that we can put
leading up to Eq. (14-16)].
Lc =
Icu, and Eq. (14-41) takes on the following special form:

(Special case,
where a
is
Le
\\
/t
^=
Ica
(14-42)
dt
a vector representing the angular acceleration.

in which Eqs.
Let us at once consider a specific situation

(14-40) and (14-42) are applicable.
An
airplane
down. When one of the landing wheels

the ground,
it
just touching
makes contact with
has a large horizontal velocity v a but no angular
motion; therefore,
it is
bound
watched a plane landing
will
to skid at
touchdown there are
forces
tacts with the external
Anyone who has

puff of smoke
initial
this violent skidding.
After
on the wheel applied at its two conits axle and the place where the
world
wheel touches the ground.
first.
have seen the
from burning rubbcr rcsulting from
the
first
is
The
forces at the axle pass through
CM and so can exert no torque.
The normal componcnt, N,
of the force of contact with the ground also passes through the
CM
664
furthermore, since
is
vertical,
it
does not affcct the hori-
liuended systems and rolational dynamics
zontal motion of the wheel.

in
Thus we have two
forces to consider
analyzing the forward motion of the wheel and
These are a force F, pushing the wheel forward at the
motion.
axle,
and a
force 5 acting backward,

By Eq. (14-40) we then have
frictional
Fig. 14-18(a).
F-
We
rotational
its
shown
as
in
= Mac
ff
can guess that ac
is
negative, because the wheel remains
attached to the plane (we hope) and the reaction force
applied by the wheel to the plane represents an unbalanced force

that
acting to decelerate the plane as a whole.
is
that a c
is
ve
constant,
vo
+a
(ae
ct
When we
we
ff.
the linear motion,
where k
is
radius.
If
constant,
u =
14-18
(14-43)
0)
/CF
about
its
torque
= Mk 2
is in
We have,
= Mka
at
R
at
(b)
The
ofany point
on a wheel
is
the
superposilion of the
linear motion
center
of the
and the rotation
about the center, as
shown for an arbitrary

point
P and for
the
special cases repre-
sented by the top and
bottom points,
A and
B.
665
actual
Motion under combined
is
(14-44)
landing wheel of an
velocity
its
further that the angular acceleration
and motions for a

airplane.
the
by Eq. (14-42),
the radius of gyration of the wheel and
we assume
we have
is
down
such a direction as to speed

in fact,
Forces
(a)
Furthermore, although 5 acts to slow
up the angular motion.
we assume
look at the rotational component of the motion,
frictional force
Fig.
<
see that the only force that produces a torque
If
we then have
forces
and torqucs
As long
as the skidding goes on, Eqs. (14-43)
and (14-44)
operate separately to define the linear and angular velocities
of the wheel.
At any
instant, the resultant velocity of
on the rim of the wheel

velocity v c of
as
shown
C and
the veetor
is
sum
a velocity of magnitude
in Fig. 14-1 8(b).
any point
of the horizontal
uR along the
tangent,
This then allows us to identify the
condition for the skidding to stop. Skidding means the existence
of relative motion between the ground and the point on the
wheel that
is
instantaneously in contaet with
defines our rest
frame for
this
Since the ground
it.
problem, the cessation of skidding
requires that the velocity of the lowest point, B,
on the wheel
zero. This velocity, v B is, however, the resultant of v c

forward and coR baekward. Thus we have
becomes
VB
Vc
wR
Skidding therefore stops, and rolling begins, when we have

vc
= uR
Using Eqs. (14-43) and (14-44), we see that

time
such that
vo
By
ac t
= aRt
using the dynamical equations that define the actual values
of ac and a,
we can
find the time
which ve has been reduced from
To
oecurs at a
this
and hence the amount by
its initial
solve the problem completcly,
value u n at this instant.
we would
also have to consider
the linear deceleration imposed on the total mass of the plane
by
air resistance
and by the forees of the type
F due
to all the
wheels together.
The above problem
is
a valuable one because
it
does em-
phasize the separate consideration of linear and angular motions.
On
the other hand,
tions.
does not lend
it
simpler problem of the
ball (c.g., a
bowling
to well-defined calcula-
same type
is
represented by a
ball) being projectcd horizontally
floor [Fig. 14-19(a)].
Furthermore, we can
and the angular
acceleration.
use our knowledge of the cocfficicnt of
and the wcight of the
ball to define the
magnitude of fr:
The equations of motion then become the following:
666
along the
In this case the frictional foree alonc pro-
vides both the linear deceleration
frietion
itself
Extended svstems and rolational dynamics
Fig.
14-19
(a) Forces
and motions for a

projecled
ftoor.
ball
dong a
(b) Circular
object accelerating
down a
slope.
It
may
either roli or slip,
depending on the angle
of the slope and the

coefficient offriction.
liMg = Ma
,xMgR = Mk 2 a
Hence,
we assume that the ball

and no rotation, we have
if
velocity v
vc
v,
Rolling (v c
starts
out with horizontal
fXgt
= uR)
then begins at a time defined by the following
equation:
R2
=
M^'roll
**?
TJ
'roU
or
Vo
/roli
ngO
The
+ /m
linear velocity at this instant is therefore given
D*oll
=
1
by
Ideally, the ball
k2/R2
would then continue
to roli indefinitely at this
speed.
If
may
we can assume
rolling
from the
outset, the calculations
bc cvcn more direct. Consider, for example, a problem such
as that of a cylinder rolling
down
a slope, which
we solved
earlier
by energy conservation. We shall now

terms of the forces and torques acting [see Fig. 14-1 9(b)]. We
resolve the contact force at the plane into normal and tangential
analyze
667
Motion undcr combincd
forces
it
explicitly in
and torcjucs
components,
and
dicular to the plane,
maximum
Since there
S.
we have
no acceleration perpen-
is
= Mg
cos
available value of S, equal to
we must check
point in the calculation
sumption of rolling
begin with,
At some
B.
to see whether the as-
consistent with this limitation.
is
we proceed
tions of rotation,
This defines a
8.
ixMg cos
as though this were assured.
and of
linear acceleration
But to
The equa-
along the plane,
are as follows
5R =
Mg sin B
Mk 2a
S = Maa
In this case, however,
we
also have the purely geometrical con-
nection between linear and angular accelerations
if
slipping
is
not to occur:
ac
= aR
Solving the two dynamical equations with the help of this "equa-
we
tion of constraint,"
ac
g sin
=
1
at once find
+ k2/
we put k 2 = R 2 /2 (corrcsponding to a uniform disk or

cylinder) we arrive once again at the result obtained on page 653.
Once we have the value of ac or a demanded by this solution,
we should check to see whether the associated value of 'S is under
the permitted ceiling. I f not, we must begin again with the value
If
of S set equal to
its
maximum
value /xN, and calculate the linear
and angular accelerations separately.

problem
is
Either way, however, the
soluble in definite terms.
One could
easily multiply
examples of
this
kind of analysis,
but once one has clearly grasped the basic approach defined by
Eqs. (14-îO) and (14-42) the solution to any particular problem
of
this
type should present no
difficulties.
IMPULSIVE FORCES AND TOROUES

Anyone who has played
game
that involves hitting a ball with
a bat or a racket will have experienced the satisfying feeling that
comes from
bat or racket
one
668
is
hitting the ball just right,

is
whcn
doing the work unaided.
conscious of the sense of
effort,
it
seems that the
More
often, perhaps,
or cven a painful sting in
the hands,
when the
ball
does not make contact at the optimum
These are both manifestatipns of the dynamical phe-
point.
nomena
that occur
when
a rigid object
(e. g.,
a bat)
is
to a sudden impulse by the impact of the ball.

The simplest example of this kind of behavior
plication of
an impulse to an object that
is
subjected
is
the ap-
not restrained in any
Imagine, for this purpose, an object, as shown in Fig.
way.
14-20(a), resting
on a
F for
jected to a foree
frictionless horizontal surface
and sub-
a time At along a line at a distance b from
the center of mass, C.
As
a result of this the center of mass
acquires a velocity v c and the object acquires an angular velocity

w.
Applying our basic equations [Eqs. (14-40) and (14-42)] we
have
FAt =
bFAt If
Mv
Mk 2
we denote
o>
the magnitude of the impulse by Ap, representing
the integral of
Fover
time, whatever
its
precise variation,
we have
Ap
w =
~
M
Mk*
These equations, bctween them, determine the subsequent motion

of every point
Fig. 14-20 (a)
in
the object.
The quantity b Ap
An
object completely free

to recoil is given
sudden impulse by a
foree passing through
the point A.
(b)
object recehes
impulse like that

(a) but is
The
an
in
now foreed
to pivot about O.
(c)
suspended base-
ball bal is struck

the ball.
by
If the point
of impact
is
correclly
chosen, the bal pivots
about
without pro-
ducing any impulsice

foree there.
669
Impulsive forees and torques
is
the angular

C due
impulse about
And, just as a
dimensions of linear momentum, so an
angular impulse has the dimensions of angular momentum.
to the linear impulse Ap.
linear impulse has the
The
situation
changed considerably
is
if
the objcct
is
attached
some point O, at a distance h

14-20(b)]. We must now assume that the
to a fbced axis passing through
CM
from the
[see Fig.
Ap due
impulse
to
accompanied by another impulse Ap'
is
We now
applied to the object by the pivot.
have
+ Ap'
= Mve
bAp - hAp' = Mk 2u
Ap
If
we take Ap and
M,
the values of
k,
and h as known, we have
v c u, and Ap'
three quantities undetermincd
and
so far only
two equations. But we also have an equation of constraint; the

point
O must
rcmain at
As
rest.
Fig. 14-20(b) shows,
we must
have
vo
and
Vc
uh
this requires that
= A
oc
If
one solves these equations
bk
>
Clearly Ap'
*2
Ap' (do
it!)
one finds
may be
values of b, k, and
for
h.
of cither sign, depcnding on the precise
And we
can
now
identify
a condition that
allows Ap' to be zero; this means that even though the pivot
present at O,
when
it is
the impulse
Ap
is
applied, or in other
automatically remains at
rest.
the above equation for Ap',
bh
2
A-
is
not called upon to supply any restraining force
The
words the point
necessary condition, from
is
or
-*
This locates a point
A on
below the center of mass.

point
670
itsclf is
the axis of the object, a distance
The
distance
of
A from
givcn by
Extended systems and rolational dynamics
k /h
the pivot
If
you
+ _____
refer
back to Eq. (14-39) you
will see that
/ is
identical
with thc length of a simple pendulum having the same period as
our object would have
if
allowed to swing about a horizontal
axis through O.
We
actually have here a
good dynamical
basis for locating
the right point on a bat or racket at which the ball should be
This point is called the center of percussion. If one

suspends a baseball bat, for example, on a long string [Fig.
struck.
14-20(c)], one can study directly the effect of
making
the impact
with the ball occur at various distances on the far side of the
from the region around
center of mass
normally be held.
kick to the
If
CA
is
If
left (if
CA
the ball
too small, then
is
where the bat would
too large, the impact causes
comes from the
itself
kicks to the right.
2
proper value (k' /h) so that
If
CA
to
as shown).
left,
has just the
the center of percussion, the
is
bat begins to rotate freely about O, which acts as a self-defined
One could
pivot.
thus predict the
optimum
by a pendulum experiment and then
see
location of
how
things
first
work
in
practice.
BACKGROUND TO GYROSCOPIC MOTION

Everybody
everybody
intrigued by gyroscopic devices,
is
feels that their
behavior
somehow
and probably
the face of
flies in
the usual rules of mechanics, even though intellectually one
knows
that this cannot be the case. It cannot be denied, however,
seem surprising and
that gyroscopic motions often

this of course
the
is
main source of
The primc requirement
for
standing or gyroscopic behavior
momentum
as a vector.
central quantity,
one must
And
the appreciation
is
full
the
phenomena
cffectivc,
fail far
the rotational angular
Background
momentum
as the
in
more
terms of angular rather
Once one has achieved
rcadily into a rational pattern.
although rather empirical, way of demonstrat-
ing the vector charaeter of angular
671
and under-
also Icarn to think primarily in terms
than linear velocities and accelerations.
An
and
awareness of angular
with angular
of torques rather than forces, and
this,
bizarre,
their fascination.
momentum
momenta of sevcral
to gyroscopic
motion
is
to
show that
separate flywheels can
HHBDBBBBBB
Fig. 14-21
(a)
An array of ihree
motor-driven flywheels
can be adjusted to hace zero total spin

(b)
momentum,
The vector addition ofthe three angular momenta
to gice zero.
be
made
to
flywheels
wheel has
add up
on a
its
to zero.
This can be donc by mounting the
'
board
freely pivoted
own motor
and measurable rotation
drive
rate.
of the flywheels are also known.

flywheels, as
[Fig.
14-21
(a)].
We
shall take the case
set at different orientations.
shown,
Each
fly-
and can be run at a controlled

The relative moments of inertia
of three
The system
is
statically balanced with respect to the pivot and has no pre-
ferred orientation
flywheels
easily
is
if
the flywheels are not rotating.
set spinning at high speed, the
recognizable gyroscopic stability;
preserve a given orientation.
If
one of the
system acquires an
the
board tends to
Setting a second flywheel into
But
rotation does not change the situation qualitativcly.
if
now
the third flywheel is set spinning, one can suddenly reach a condition in which the gyroscopic stability vanishes; the board will
tend to flop over as

It is
if it
simply had a few dead weights on
then possible to verify that this condition
is
achieved
it.
when
momenta, as veetors, have a zero resultant

as shown in Fig. 14-21(b). The values of these angular momenta
are given by Li = I%ui, L 2 = I2P2, and L s = /3M3.
The above is a particularly simple situation to visualize,
the individual angular
because
we have
individual flywheels, each with just one, readily
identified contribution to
The experiment deseribed

A Vector Quantity," by
its
angular
momentum.
It is
licrc is shown in the film "Angular Momentum

A. Lemonick, Education Development Center,
Newton, Mass., 1962.
672
basic to
Extended svstcms and rotational dynamics
we recognize
may have simultaneous con-
the analysis of gyroscopic problems, however, that

the possibility that a single object
tributions, along different axcs, to
An
momentum.
its
essential preliminary to this,
not needed to consider previously,

angular velocity
total rotational angular
itself
as a vector.
If
is
which we have
the fuli implication of
it is
to be possible to speak
of the angular velocity vector of a rotating object, then the instantaneous linear velocity,
w X
of any point in the object
r,
must also be describable as the vector sum of the linear velocities

due to component angular velocities x a>, and oi z along orthog,
onal axes. The validity of this description also requires that,

were present, the motion
if only one component of usay a z
of the object would be pure rotation about the axis (x)
To
how
see
case, consider the situation
rectangular board
about an axis
work
shown
these ideas do
made
is
in Fig.
(in the plane of the
14-22.
uniform
to rotate with angular velocity
board) making an angle
an axis of x drawn parallel to one pair of edges.
motion of a point
in question.
correctly in a simple specific
with
Consider the
with coordinates deseribed equivalently by
The instantaneous
velocity of P, as given
by
(x, y) or
(r, 8).
w X
vertically upward from the plane of the diagram and
its
r,
is
magnitude
is
with the
to the rotation axis.
Thus we
given directly by the produet of
perpendicular distance
PN
from P
have
u
o>r sin (8
= wr
sin 8
S)
cos 5
However, by resolving
o> x
x =
Fig.
14-22
to
cos B
r cos 9
o)
wr cos 8 sin
u>
and
= w
y =
along the x and y axes, we have
sin S
r sin 8
Angular velocity
as a vector. The rotational
dynamics of the rotating board

can be complelely anatyzed in
terms of the component s of u
along the x and y axes.
673
Background to gyroscopic motion
This means that the expression for v can be rewritten as follows:

o
We
oi z
o> u
what we would get from

motions with
see that, physically, this is exactly
superposition
the
angular velocites
two separate
of
rotational
w z and w v about the x and y axes, respectively.

now to the angular momentum of the whole
axis of u. The linear momentum of an element
Let us proceed
board about the
dm at P is u dm, and its contribution to the angular

momentum about o> is v dm multiplied by the distance PN.
of mass
Since v
equal to
itself is
of the rotational angular
we
times PN,
see that the
momentum L u about
magnitude
the axis of
<o is
given by the following integral:
L =
/dm
f
Expanding
sin
cor
(6
8)
by writing out the expression
this
8) in
we have
full,
La =
03
cos
That
sin
dm
2w
sin 5 cos S
f r'-
S j r
sin
cos
dm
sin 6 cos 5 rfm
is,
2
La = w cos
Now
the
2w
first
&
sin 5
tw
of inertia, Ix and
And
for sin (0
dm + w sin 2
cos 5
x dm
8 I
xy dm
I'
/,
respectively,
about the principal
the third integral (an example of
inertia) vanishes, as
of
element of mass
moments
axes x and y.
integrals are the definitions of the
dm
what
one can see from the
at (x, y) there is
is
called a produet
faet that for
an equal element
at (x,
each
y).
Thus we have
La =
IxU cos 2 5
/ôj sin- 8
Introducing the components
La =
Ix<x
cos 5
+ V> sin
This shows that the angular
674
u x and
co
of u, this can bc written

(14-45)
momentum about
the axis of
E.Ktcndcd systems and rotational dynamics
to is
what we would
precisely
separate angular
from the projections along w of
get
momenta
and / about the x and y axes.
h<s>x
combination of the angular momenta
[In general, the vector
Iz ux and IyOy will also have a component perpendicular to u,
combination of
Lu
momentum
angular
total vector
and the
with
of the board
We
other component.
this
interrupt the present discussion to consider this other
is
the
shall
not
component
of L. (See, however, Problem 14-30.)]

Finally, let us look at the total rotational kinetic energy.
This
is
defined by
K=
Putting v
K=
We
2
/
dm
= r sin(0
w
r sin
5),
2
(0
this
S)
becomes
dm
see that the expression for
same
involves precisely the
integral that appeared in the calculation of
L a and we
,
there-
fore have
K=
2
2
( cos &)IZ
Substituting
w cos
(<o
Sin
= w T w sin
,
S)IU
<o,
we thus
arrive at the
result
K=
We
W + *W
d 4"46)
see, then, (at least in the special case discussed
the dynamics of a rotating object
above)
how
analyzable into separate
is
contributions associated with component rotations about the

principal axes.
it
is
Although we shall not take the matter any further here,

not difficult to show that results of the form that we have
developed are true in general.
The
essential starting point is
again the vector property of angular velocity, and we shall close

this discussion with
a few additional remarks about
rigid object, pivoted at the
CM
or at
some other
the motion of any given point in the object
is
that.
For
fixed point,
confined to the
Any given change in position can be produced by rotations about three chosen axes. It is, however,
surface of a sphere.
'See, for
675
example, K. R. Symon, op.
cit.
(see p. 645).
Background to gyroscopic motion
impossible to represent these
finite
angular displacements as
rotation vectors with x, y, and z as axes, because (as
we noted
in
Chapter 2) the resultant of two successive displacements depends
on the order
Fig.
14-23
in
which they are made
[Fig.
14-23(a) shows a
(a) Finite
angular displace-
ments do not commute. Starting fram

the point A, two successive 90 clockwise
rotations aboitt the
and y axes lead
to the
very different points
and E, depending
on the order
in
which
the rotations are
made.
The
(.b)
infini-
lesimal displacements
on which the
of angular
definition
velocity
is
based do have the

commutative property
andjustify the treat-
ment
ofu asa
The small
ment
(co
vector.
displace-
r) St
can
be obtained as the
resultant
of small
rotations
of the posi-
tion vector t about the
x and y axes. The

and 1 1 are
drawn perpendicular
vectors ri
o the x and y axes,
respectively, from the

tip
of the T
vector.
676
Fxtended sysletns and rotational dynamics
Thus there does not
rather extreme example].
exist a
unique
angular displacement, characterized by an axis direction and a

magnitude, that represents the combination of two or more
However, the
individual rotations.
like that
of linear velocity,
during a time
is
definition of angular velocity,
based on infinitesimal displacements
When one
that becomes zero in the limit.
Si
considers the combination of displacements of this type [Fig.

14-23(b)] one finds that the vector
sum
is
unique, regardless of
the order of addition, and can always be represented by a single

infinitesimal rotation through the angle w S/, where is the
sum of is
vector
jwj,,
and
sumed,
k<o2
wz =
for simplicity, that
our diagram we have
(In
calculation of the linear velocity of
as-
we choose
to spell out the
any point
If
0.)
in
terms of
components, we thus have

v
(iaix
+ iu +
Using the relations

it is
easy to establish that

v
It
kco.)
may
- u
i(o)z
2 y)
0,
this
j(&>iX
be noted that the
(i*
)y
kz)
= -j X
k,
and so on,
equation gives us
uz z) +
last
k(o*y
w^)
term corresponds exactly to the
we obtained in our special example of the rotating

everywhere). It is
and z =
which we took w z =
value of v that
board
(for
often convenient, as with any vector cross product expressed in
orthogonal components, to write the general expression for v as

a determinant:
i
Oli
Uy
01,
GYROSCOPE N STEADY PRECESSION

I
gyroscope
is
basically just a flywheel that
is
mounted so that
it has three different possible axes of rotation, which can if

desired be made orthogonal to one another. The first axis is the
normal spin axis of the flywheel
itself ;
the other
two allow
this
any direction. Figure 14-24 shows how this

achicved
by
mounting the flywheel inside a pair of freely
can be
spin axis to
tilt
in
pivoted gimbal rings.
Our concern
will
not be with the details
of the arrangement but with the dynamics of the response of the
677
Gyroscope
in
steady precession
14-24 (a) GyrOSCOpe with Us gimbal rings lying

same plang, (b) Gyroscope with Us gimbal rings
Fig.
the
in
perpendiculur, sfiowing l/w ucailabiliiy of ihree mulually
perpendieidar axes ofrotalion.
flywheel to torqucs of various kinds, granted that the complete

latitudc in angular position exists.
One of
the simplest and
do with a gyroscope
axis
and then
set
is
most
to start
one end of
its
schematically in Fig. 14-25(a).
it
striking tricks that
one can
spinning about a horizontal
down on a pivot,
The gyroscope then
axis
as
shown
begins to
its axis OA, instead of slumping downward, promove around so that the extreme end A scttles down
some initial irregularitics that we shall diseuss later) into
precess;
i.e.,
cecds to
(after
a horizontal circular path at conslant speed.
Wc
can explain this
as a direct conscquencc of the torque aeting on the flywheel,
but by
way
of introduetion
let
us
first
consider a different situation
that probably appears childishly simple.
with angular velocity
torque
is
01
about
applied about that
its
The
flywheel
axis [Fig.
same
is
spinning
14-25(b)] and a
axis for a timc
Si.
Then
of course the rotation rate simply specds up or slows down.
The general equation for the rate of change of angular momentum under the aetion of a torquc [Eq. (14-41)] is
M,
678
=!*>
\icndcd systems and rotationai dvnamics
[f
<^
Precession
Itu
CO
M<.8t
(b)
(a)
Fig. 14-25 (a) Gyro-
scope
in
cession.
sleady pre(b) Addition
of angular
to
momentum
Jt
a flywheel about the
spin axis itself. (c) Addition
of angular
momentum
to
a fly-
lo>
wheel at right angles
C:>
to the initial spin axis,

resulting in precession.
(C)
but
it
reduces in this case to the special form given in Eq. (14-42):
M, =
.dia
/
di
and we have
Si
= SL =
8w
The angular momentum vctor simply
gets longer or shorter
without changing direction.
Consider
The
now
the circumstances in which precession occurs.
flywheel, supported at one
vertical
downward
force at the pivot
force F at
a couple whose axis

axis.
its
is
horizontal
momentum
c St
to change the direction of
If
we denote by
St
= L hp
Gyroscope
v.
and an equal, opposite

These two forces constitute
and
this
at right angles to the spin
couple adds an amount of
The
without changing
result of this
its
magnitude.
the angle between the axis of the flywheel and
some Standard horizontal

M,
axis, is subjected to
at right angles to L.
is
ip
its
CM
[Fig. 14-25(c)].
In a time St the torque of
angular
679
end of
reference axis (x)
we have
If the distance
where
from the pivot
mass
is /,
we have
L =
/w,
we then
to the center of
= Fg l = Mgl
mass of the
the
is
flywheel.
Putting
find that
where
the angular velocity of precession about the vertical
9. is
(z) axis,
as shown in
Fig.
Equation (14-47) gives
14-25(c).
quantitative expression to the property of gyroscopic stability.
The necessary condition
is
cessional angular velocity
make Iw
to
is
be
can, within certain limits,
large, so that the pre-
small under an applied torque and
made
negligible
a practical
in
gyroscopic system.
Notice the relationship between the directions of the various
The
vectors involved here.
we
(a condition that
is
also horizontal
cession
and
is
axis,
horizontal
is
moment). The torque vector
The
always perpendicular to L.
described by an angular velocity vector
is
along the z
perpendicular to both
The above discussion shows

motion
momentum
spin angular
shall relax in a
Cl
pre-
directed
and M.
that the steady precessional
a direct consequence of the basic vector relation be-
is
tween torque and the rate of change of angular momentum.
One
last
remark may help to put the
result in contcxt.
placed one end of the flywheel axis on the pivot

the flywheel
fail
down
any
initial spin,
immediately,
vertical plane.
momentum
its
What we
If
we
without giving
then the flywheel would of course
center following a circular arc in a
see here is again the addition of angular
about a horizontal axis by virtue of the gravitational
torque, but in this case there
mentum to which
it
is
no pre-existing spin angular mo-
can be added, and the consequences appear
(and are) very different.
MORE ABOUT PRECESSIONAL MOTION

The kind of steady
section
is
horizontal.
precessional motion described in the last
not confined to flywheels spinning with their axes
gyroscope
the vertical [Fig.
set
cession of just the kind that
680
down
with
its
axis at
14-26(a)] will quickly settle
we have
discussed.
an angle
down
Its
I:xtended systems and rotational dynamics
d to
into pre-
axis sweeps
Fig. 14-26 (a) Steady
precession with gyro-
scope axis at an arbitrary angle to the

vertical.
(b) Vector
diagram to show the

change ofangular
momentum
time St in
in
a short
(a).
out a cone of semiangle
Moreover, quantitative
as indicated.
B,
measurements would show that the time to complete one circuit

of precession is almost independent of 6 for a given value of the
spin angular velocity
where
is
fi
w and
always nearly equal to 2x/fi,

This result
calculated according to Eq. (14-47).
entirely reasonable
when one considers
torque for the inclination 6
amount of rotation about

is
is
is
reduced to
that the gravitational
Mg! sin
the z axis in time
equal to the angular impulse
c St
is
but that the
0,
St [see Fig. 14-26(b)]
divided by the projection
lu sin 5 of L onto a horizontal plane. Thus the quotient of these

two quantities is independent of 6. For all its plausibility, however, this result
is
motion
cessional
not quite correct. The reason

itself
is
that the pre-
implies a further contribution to the
must be taken into account. We

1
shall give a primitive argument to suggest what this entails.
Consider the motion of a point P on the spin axis of the
gyroscope [Fig. 14-27(a)]. Its instantaneous velocity is due to
angular
momentum, and
this
the precession alone and
is
of magnitude Qr sin
into the plane of the diagram. This
6,
same motion can be described
alternatively in terms of a certain angular velocity
whole flywheel has about an axis perpendicular to

All
we need
co2
'The
681
rest
to
do
is
downward
w2
its
to put
sin
of this section can bc omitted without loss of continuity.
Morc about
preccssional motion
that the
spin axis.
Fig.
14-27
(a)
precessing gyroscope
has angular oelocity
about an axis perpendicular to

axis.
(b)
angular
vector
its
spin
The
total
momentum
ofa precessing
gyroscope
is
not par-
allel to the spin.
With
this value of
w 2 we can
describe the additional velocity,
due to precession, of any point

direction of oi 2 corresponds to
Thus we can
of the fiywheel.
angular
momentum
in
and the moments of
in
the gyroscope.
However, the
one of the principal axes of inertia

write an expression for the total
terms of the angular velocities u\ and
inertia I\
and / 2
for rotation
oj
2,
about these
axes:
L =
/iWl
(14-48)
/ 2 2
Now we know
the
way
in
which
L is
changing with time, for
in
steady precession the whole system turns with angular velocity
Si
about the
vertical (z) axis.
Thus we have the simple and very
important equation
r
dL
flxL
(14-49)
corresponding to the rate of change of any vector that

at the rate
=
at
Now
SI.
/i(ii
is
rotating
In the present case this therefore gives us
wj)
/2 (J
co 2 )
we look at the geometry of the situation [Fig. l4-27(a)

and (b)], we see that /jii X i is a vector of length Ilw\ sin
pointing down into the papcr, and /2 ii X w 2 is a vector of length
I2 ila> 2 cos B pointing up from the paper. Together they form a
horizontal vector, pointing down into the paper, of magnitude
if
given by
682
- hwl cos d
/iwifl sin 6
dt
However, we have seen that u 2
/iwifi sin d
htf
fl
sin
0.
Thus we
find that
sin 6 cos 6
dt
momentum
same direction, we have
equal to the
Setting this rate of change of angular

gravitational torque in the
Mgl sin
/iwiS2 sin d
h& 2 sin 6 cos d
or
Mgl =
/2 2 cos 9
particular case d
For the
produce
/iwiSJ
But we see that
we
jt/2 (spin axis horizontal)
the simple result expressed
section.
(14-50)
re-
by Eq. (14-47) in the previous
in general
we
are confronted with a
quadratic equation leading to two different values of Q. One

of these represents a slow precession at a rate not very different
from Mgl/IiUi, and this represents the normal situation. In

principle, however, one can also obtain a fast precession, although
it is
difficult to start
motion to achieve
it.
operated in the usual
the gyroscope off with just the right
In practice, as long as the gyroscope
way with
a large value of
wu
is
the possibility
of the fast precession can be ignored.
GYROSCOPES N NAVIGATION
I
We
a very rudimentary discussion of the use of
shall give here
and
gyroscopes as devices for direction finding, guidance,
To
control.
introduce the subject, we shall describe another of the simple
and
initially
surprising features of gyroscopic behavior.
If a
set spinning
about
mounted in its gimbal rings, is

axis, and the outer gimbal ring
horizontal
a
gyroscope,
is
rotated in a hori-
zontal plane [Fig. 14-28(a)], then the inner gimbal ring, carrying
the flywheel,
first lay,
and
tilts
up out of
after a
the horizontal plane in
which
fcw oscillations, damped out by
axis of spin of the gyroscope settles
down along a
it,
too,
friction, the
vertical di-
rection.
if one recmounted can
This behavior can be qualitatively understood

ognizes that the pivots on which the inner gimbal
is
supply torques about the vertical direction and about the spin
683
Gyroscopes
in
navigatton
HHHni
Flg.
14-28
force
ils
(a)
torque app/ied lo a gyroseope can
spin axis lo
(b) Reorienlation
lili.
ofa gyro-
seope through lorque indttced by ihe earth's roialional

molion.
(c) Principle
ofa gyroscopic compass. The
earth's rolalion causes a difference of levels in ihe U-
tube anaclied lo Ihe gyroseope frame,

toryue
makes
and
ihe resulling
ihe gyroseope axis liirn lo align wilh
norlh-soulh direelion.
axis of the fiywheel, but not
themselves.
This
momentum about
tilting begins.
last
about the axis connecting the pivots

implying conservation of angular
the axis AA', can be used to explain
The attempt
in a horizontal plane
of angular
faet,
momentum
would, by
along AA'.
an equal and oppositc angular

keeps the angular
itself,
The
introduce a
tilting
the
component
motion provides
momentum component
momentum about AA'
equal to zero.
torques that can bc supplied via the forees at
684
why
to rotate the spin axis of the gyroseope
A and
l:\tcnded systems and rotational dynamics
that
The
A' are able
to perform the main task of canceling out angular momentum

about the axis BB' and creating angular momentum about the
vertical
axis,
angular
will
corresponding to the reorientation of the spin

horizontal to vertical. This process
momentum /w from
continue until the axis of the flywheel
is fully
aligned with
the axis of the torque.
were
Imagine now that a gyroscope, mounted as described above,

set spinning with its axis initially horizontal and in an
east-west direction at a point on the equator [Fig. 14-28(b)].

Then the rotation of the earth itself would apply just such a
torque to the gyroscope, about an axis parallel to the earth's

axis of rotation. The gyroscope would therefore, in the course
of time, pass through the succession of positions indicated in
Fig. 14-28(b) until its spin axis was pointing true north, after
which
it
would continue to act as a compass pointing
in this
direction.
In order to
make
a nonmagnetic compass of this type
gyrocompass for general navigational purposes, use
is
of the gravitational torque that comes into existence
gyroscope
is
unbalanced.
This can be exploited in the
dicated schematically in Fig.

liquid
is
14-28(c).
clamped to the inner gimbal
made
if
the
way
in-
U-tube containing
(The outer gimbal
ring.
ring is omitted from the diagram, but must be assumed present.)

If one imagines an initial situation in which the axis of the
gyroscope
lies
east-west, the preservation
of this orientation
would, through the earth's rotation, bring about a difference of

levels in the two arms of the U-tube, because the ncw local
horizontal
makes an angle with the
of levels results
axis,
in a net gravitational
and the gyroscope
original one.
This difference
torque parallel to the earth's
reorients itself in the
manner alrcady
described, turning within the outer gimbal ring, until the plane
containing the U-tubc and the spin axis of the gyroscope
is
north-south meridian.
guidance systems make use of very similar phenomena. Once a gyroscope has been set spinning about a chosen
parallel to the local

Inertial
to deviate
from
axis,
any motion that would cause
calls
into existence a torque that can be used as an error signal
it
this direction
to control corrective maneuvers. The same techniques, in essence,

can be used for stabilization of ships or vehicles against un-
desirable rolling motions.
Somc
phcnomcna
685
of the
most important applications of gyroscopic
are in aircraft instruments.
Gyroscopes
in
navigation
A free (perfectly balanced)
gyroscope can give a constant indication of a chosen reference

direction for checking the correct course,
and a
gravitationally
loaded gyroscope can be used to identify the true vertical at
and so define an artificial horizon against which

can measure the angles of bank and climb.
times
all
the pilot
ATOMS AND NUCLEI AS GYROSCOPES

We
mentioned
that
is
earlier the intrinsic
"spin" angular
possessed by elementary particles.
momentum
Iarge fraction of all
atomic nuclei and neutral atoms also have such angular mo-
mentum,
in
amounts corresponding to simple multiples of the

This gives to these particles a natural gyro-
natural unit h/2w.
The
scopic stability.
ways accompanied by
spin angular
intrinsic
momentum
magnetism;
it is
is,
as
however,
if
the
al-
atom or
nucleus contains a tiny bar magnet pointing along the direction
of
its
spin axis,
and
in the
presence of a magnetic
field this
leads
to steady precessional motion.
The
basic
phenomenon can be
of a simple classical model.
well described with the help
Figure 14-29 portrays a spherical
particle with its spin axis at angle d to a
imagine a bar magnet inside the

poles of this
magnet experience
parallel to B, as
shown.
magnetic
particle, the
field.
If
we
north and south
forces in opposite directions
These forces produce a torque with
its
up out of the plane of the diagram. In the absence

of the spin this torque would simply cause the magnet (after
axis pointing
Fig.
14-29
Atoms and nuclei
magnets and precess
686
in
are like spinning
a magnetic field.
Extended svstcms and rolational dvnamics
some preliminary oscillations) to align itself with the field, like

a compass needle. The existence of an intrinsic angular momentum L, however, changes the situation and leads to precession
in the direction indicated.
An
we
expression for the rate of precession
magnet
picture the
by a distance
the torque
is
is
easily derived if
as having poles of strength
The foree F on each

given by
/.
pole
is
equal to
separated
mB,
so that
= mBI sin 6
We can write the produet ml as a single quantity, p the magnelic

dipole
moment of
If
we
Thus we have
(14-51a)
/iBsinfl
and the magnetic moment
write the magnetic field
we can deseribe the torque completely by
veetors,
the partiele.
= M X B
as
the equation
(14-51b)
mowe then have
Setting the torque equal to the rate of change of angular
mentum
due to a precessional angular velocity
nB sin
2,
= QL sin d
or
Q = *
The
existcnce
(14-52)
and the
rate of this precession
can be detected by
pieking up the tiny electrical signals that the rotating atomic or

nuelear magnet can cause, by electromagnetic induetion, in a coil
Of
placed nearby.
is
course the signal from an individual partiele
almost inconceivably small, but by using a sample containing

numbers of identical particles, all precessing in the same way,
vast
the effect becomes measurable.
magnetism
and was
in this
first
way
is
'
known
The
studied by F. Bloch
dently,
and by
Nobel
prizc in
different
detection of nuelear spin
as nuelear magnetic induetion
methods)
and
in
E.
M.
1946.
Purcell (indepen-
They shared
the
1952 for this work, and in his Nobel lecture
We
shall not go inlo the special techniques used to observe the precession.
For an introduetory account one cannot do better than to read the Nobel
lectures by F. Bloch and E. M. Purcell in Nobel Lectures, Pliysics, 1942-1962.
Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1964.
687
Atoms and
nuelei
a<>
gyroscopes
Purcell said: "I have not yet lost a feeling of wonder,

delight, that this delicate
motion should reside
things around us, revealing itself only to

I
remember,
on snow with new eyes.

step
our
in the winter of
first
experiments
it.
my
door-
field."
about 2500
in the earth's
The fundamental experiments
rps.
however, done at a magnetic
field
IN
TERMS OF
were,
about 10,000 times greater
than this and hence at a correspondingly higher valuc of
GYROSCOPIC MOTION
for
looking
There the snow lay around
(The actual precessional frequency of protons

is
ordinary
in all the
him who looks
great heaps of protons quietly precessing in the carth's
magnetic
field
and of
fi.)
= ma"
Although the thoroughgoing use of angular quantities is certainly

the most fruitful approach to gyroscopic phenomena, one.may
still
wish to see how the motions relate back to a basic statcment
of Newton's law for individual particles.
We
shall therefore give
here a simple example of an analysis in these terms.
a primitive gyroscopc
madc
symmetrically at distances
of four equal masses m,
from a spindle, with
Picture
mounted
thcir
CM
from the pivot point [Fig. 14-30(a)]. Consider the

when one of the masses (No. 1) is at its highest point,
traveling horizontally. The point C has a linear velocity V (= fi/)
due to the precession, and each mass has a velocity v (= ur)
relative to C.
Mass 1 thus has, instantaneously, a velocity
Vi (= v V) backward with respect to the precessional direction, and mass 3 has a velocity i> 3 (= v + V) forward at this
instant (we assumc v > V). During a short time 5/, the precession turns the axis of rotation through the angle il 5t, and this
changes the directions of the velocities Vj and v 3 in the manner
shown in Fig. 14-30(b). Physically, this means that mass 1 has
to be accelerated radial ly outward from the precession axis, and
mass 3 has to be accelerated radially inward. The forces to
supply these extra accelerations have to come from the supporting spokes, and if we consider the situation as it appears from
distance
situation
the side (looking horizontally, perpendicular to the spin axis),

can be omitted wilhout loss of continuity.
This analysis owes a debt to an article by F. W. Sears, Am. J. Phys., 7, 342
'This section
2
(1939).
Am.
688
See also E. F. Barker,
J. Phys., 33,
Am.
J. Phys., 28,
808 (1960), and
847 (1965).
Extended systems and rotalional dynaraics
J.
L. Snider,
Fig.
14-30
(a)
Simple gyroscope made offour con-
centrated masses.
(b)
v 3 in a shorl time
Si.
velocities
of masses
Changes of ihe velocilies i and

(c) Forces needed to change the
and
3,
corresponding to the pre-
cessional lorque.
see that the spokes must apply a net clockwise torque about C.
Masses 2 and 4 do not require any such forces and torques be-
we
cause their instantaneous velocities, being vertical, are not re-
by the precessional motion.

have kept the above discussion rather
oriented
We
stands
cause as
it
of Fig.
14-30(b) to
masses,
ai
it is
calculate
qualitative, be-
we used
not quite correct. If
the diagrams
the radial accelerations of the
we should have
Slv,
2(o
- M) =
a 3 = -88 = -&(
In both of these
fit
- G 2/
+ 00 = -Of -
we recognize a
centripetal acceleration (due to
the precession) in a circle of radius
but the terms fiu
do
O2/
not represent
/,
all
which
is
as
it
should be,
the rest of the story.
The
reason is somewhat subtle. What we have calculated is the change

of a velocity vector that remains always at the top or bottom
end of a
vertical
diameter of the rotor. However, the masses, by
virtue of their rotation,

dt,
and
of
=fcfio
it
move away from
these positions during
turns out that this corresponds to a further contribution
to the radial accelerations.
discussion below
if
you are
(You will find a more rigorous

Thus we end up with
interested.)
the following corrected expressions:
= 2mQu - niSfil
Fz = -2mQv - rrl 2 l
Fi
689
Gyroscopic nioiion
in
tcrms of F
///a
You may recognize

the
these as precisely the forces needed to balance
combined Coriolis and centrifugal forces
for particles travel-
ing horizontally at speed v in a frame rotating with angular
Q about a vertical axis.

The net clockwise torque about the
combined is given by
velocity
We
4mSlur
CM
due to Fi and
Fa
= 4mr 2wtt
know, however, that 4mr 2
is
precisely the
moment of
inertia
Thus
we know,
of the whole system of four masses about the spin axis.
we have
torque
this
=
is
/wfi, exactly as
needed.
Ultimately, as
supplied via the framework of the rotor by the
gravitational forces acting
on
all
four masses.
Formal analysis
Consider a particle of mass
14-31.
i', j',
Ok.
Set
and
The
v'
Within
k') that rotate
velocity v' of
v cos 6V
this
at the position
up a system of axes
x', y',
and
P shown
in Fig.
z' (with unit vectors
with the precessional angular velocity
m in the precessing frame
is
given by
v sin dk'
frame the motion of the
particle
is
just
around the
of radius r and must be describable by the following

ment of Newton's law:
circle
F'
= -mco 2 r
However, the true force F acting on m, as measured
Fig. 14-31
Diagram
for analysis of the

forces acting on a
particle
in
a pre-
cessing gyroscope.
690
state-
F:xlended systems and rotational dynamics
in
a sta-
tionary frame,
by the following equation
related to F'
is
[cf.
Eq. (12-13b)]:
F'
Ftrue
F cor iolig
+ Fcenttifugal
This gives us
Ftrae
'"^t +
2nglk
V'
",i]k
(fik
R)
where
r=
+r
/j'
/j'
r sin di'
r cos 0k'
Now we have
=
XR =
v'
v cos 0(k
i')
rsin0(k
/(k
j')
Substituting these above,

Ftrue
= -mu 2 r
Ftrue
we
v cos
0j'
i')
= -H'
rsinflj'
find
+ lit&o cos
0j'
wifik
0j'
mUHli'
(-Mi'
+ Grsinflj')
or
-muh +
2nlo cos
this expression for the total force
r sin i')
we then
(14-53)
recognize three
distinct cx>ntributions:
1.
force needed to maintain the circular path of
The
around C.
force corresponding to the Coriolis acceleration.
the centripetal acceleration
force needed to give
The
The
2.
3.
toward the precession axis
ON (=
/j'
r sin 0i')
when
from that
it
is
at
any
radial distance
axis.
can then substitute specific values of 6 in Eq. (14-53) to

correspond to the instantaneous positions of any set of particles
One can verify at once that
comprising the spinning rotor.
We
and w gives us two forces whose horizontal components are equal to Fi and F 3 , as quoted earlier.
putting
NUTATION
However convincing
seem, one
This
691
may
still
the analysis of gyroscopic precession
wonder how
section can be omitted without loss of continuity.
Nutation
may
a gyroscope can possibly defy
Fig.
14-32
Nuiation of a precessing gyro-
0"0
scope.
gravity in the
immunity
is
way
that
appcars to do. The answer
it
indeed only apparent.
about a horizontal
axis, with
[Fig. 14-32], the first thing that
(A)
is
removed
is
If a flywheel
both ends of
happens
if
is
is
that this
set
spinning
axle supported
its
thesupportat one end
that this end does begin to fail vertically.
Immediately thereafter, however, the precessional motion in a

horizontal plane begins, and as this happens the falling motion
moving in a purely horizontal

direction. It does not stay like this; what happens next is that
the precession slows down and the end of the axle rises again,
slows down, until the point
is
ideally to its initial level.
This whole sequence
and over,
The process is called nutation

"nodding") and always occurs unless
is
repeated over
as indicated in the figurc.
word for
(after the Latin
a gyroscope
started
is
steady precession.
The
out with the exact motion needed for

net effect
is
that the center of gravity
of the flywheel remains at an average level below
its
starting
point, and one can guess that the gravitational potential energy
so released provides what
is
needed for the kinetic energy of the
precessional motion.
Formal analysis
We shall
give a simple analysis of nutation for the type of situa-
tion discussed above, in which the support at one
of a flywheel
is
suddenly removed at
0.
end of the axis
Figure 14-33(a)
indicates the essential features as seen in a vertical plane con-
The angle of precession of this plane about

a vertical axis will be denoted by <p. The flywheel has a spin
angular momentum I w, it has moments of inertia / 2 and /
taining the spin axis.
;i
I3 ) about the other two principal axes.

Since no torques act about a vertical axis, we have con-
(with
I-i
servation of angular
momentum about
downward of I\u would introduce
the axis Oz.
a vertical
692
tilting
/ito 86;
must therefore be compensated by an angular momentum

50 due to a change of the precessional velocity fi. Thus
this
/.j
The
component
Hxtended systems and rotational dvnamics
Fig.
14-33
(a) Intermediate slage in the nutaiion
a gyroscope whose spin axis is
initially horizontal.
of
(6)
Re-
of nutational angle (9) w precessional aiigle (<fi).

Examples ofnutation with different inilial conditions.
lation
(c)
h 89. =
hai 86
This can be integrated at once to give

(14-54)
dt
(We put dp/dt

Next,
let
h
-
at $
0.)
us consider energy conservation.
change of 6
with time implies a kinetic energy of rotation about a horizontal

axis perpendicular to the spin axis,
kinetic energy of rotation
about a
gravitational potential energy
is
and the precession means
vertical axis.
equal to
Mgl
hd.
The release of
Thus we put
dtp
*>($ H-Wli
MglSB = i
Dividing throughout by Si and going to the limit St -* 0,
693
Nutation
we have
.<to
_,
M8l
T,
dd d e
Substituting for dy/dt
,dd
.,
Mgl
dv>
2
/Iz
e )
and
harmonic vibration about
O (1
= MglIs /(Iico) 2
6 = 0o
<?o
The
solution
is
cos kt)
Substituting this equation for B into Eq. (14-54) and integrating,
we
find that
<p
do(kl
sin kt)
The combination of these simultaneous variations of 8 and

a cycloidal motion in angle, as shown in Fig. 14-33(b).
<p is
If the initial conditions are varied, different types of nuta-
motion may occur, as shown
tional
are
all
above
understandablc
in
in Fig. 14-33(c), but they
terms of the principles underlying the
analysis.
THE PRECESSION OF THE EQUINOXES

It is fitting
that
we should end
this
book with another of the
great astronomical problems for which
the explanation.
This
is
Newton
first
supplicd
the slow precession of the earth, which
behaves as a gyroscope under the torques due to the gravitational

pulls of the sun
The
their
who through
amazingly careful observations had discovered that the
celestial
694
and the moon.
story begins with the ancient astronomers,
sphere of "fixed" stars seems to be very gradually turn-
Extcndcd systcms and rotational clynamics
Fig.
14-34
Preces-
sion ofllie equinoxes
as described (a) in
lerms ofa movement
of the
ecliptic
around
the celestial sphere,
and
(6) in lerms
oflhe
conical paih traced
out by the earth's spin

axis with respect to a
fixed axis perpendicular to the ecliptic.
ing from west to east with respect to a reference line defined by

the intersection of the celestial equator with the ecliptic [Fig.
14-34(a)].
equinoxes,
This reference line also defines the positions of the
when
the sun
lies in
the equatorial plane of the celestial
sphere (and of the earth) so that day and night are of equal
695
The
precession of the equinoxes
length over the whole earth.

involved, thc
Since only relative motions are
phenomenon could be described
as a slow westward
It was
Greek astronomer Hipparchus, about 130 B.c, who discovered the phenomenon and reported its magnitude as about
of the equinoctial points themselves.
drift or precession
the
36" of arc per year (the true value
is
He
close to 50").
also
recognized that the existence of this precession of the equinoxes
either
allowed two different definitions of the year
the time
between spring equinoxes, bringing the sun back into the same
positional relationship to the earth, or the slightly longer time
(longer by about 20 min) for the sun to return to exactly the
same place with
respect to the fixed stars. These times are
as the tropical year
and the
known
sidereal year, respectively.
For Hipparchus the precession of the equinoxes was just an

empirical fact, and so
in his
De
it
remained
until 1543,
when Copernicus,
Revolutionibus, put forward the explanation
earth's axis, although
it
that
the
always keeps the same inclination (66)
to the plane of the earth's orbit, nevertheless traces out a cone
of semiangle 23 J with respect to the normal to this plane [Fig.

Copernicus also concluded that the average pre14-34(b)].
cessional rate
is
50.2" per year, corresponding to a complete
precessional period of just about 26,000 years.
number
excellent,
is
(The quoted
but Copernicus was misled by some bad
data into the false belief that the precessional rate
is
not constant.)
the descriptive account of the pre-
Thus by Newton's day

was
cession of the equinoxes
well established, but
its
cause
Then, in the Principia (Book III: The

remained a mystery.
System of the World, Proposition 39), Newton gave a quantitative
dynamical explanation.
It
has something in
explanation of the tides (p. 531); the
but the sun also plays an important

as for tidal action
common
is
with the
the chief cause,
role, in just the
same
ratio
Eq. (12-25)].
14-35 presents the basis for describing the phe-
Figure
nomenon
[cf.
moon
modern terms, using the dynamics of gyroscopic

The earth's spin axis makes an angle 6 to the normal
in
precession.
to the plane of the ecliptic, so that the earth's equatorial bulge
(&R/Re '
3ijo) is
oriented unsymmetrically, as shown.
the period of the precession

thus,
696
as
we have
seen,
Now
immensely long;
from the standpoint of the earth, both the sun and the
moon go
in
is,
through very
many
orbits within a time (e.g., 100 years)
which the direction of the spin axis hardly changes.
This
Fig.
Origin of precessional tonpie due I o gracibetween the earth's equatorial bulge
14-35
lalional attraction
and a ring represenling the effectice distribmion of the

moon's mass around its orbit.
means,
is
in effect, that the
mass represented by the sun or the moon

its orbit as seen from the earth.
smeared out uniformly around
In other words, the earth's gravitational environment
two
rings
of material; the one representing the
moon
is
is
just like
indicated
in Fig. 14-35.
The
origin of the precession
in the vicinity of
diagram, and the bulge near

right.
is
now
clear.
The
earth's bulge
cxperiences a net force toward the
left
of the
experiences an equal force to the
Together these give a torque whose axis points upward
from the plane of the diagram. Since the earth's steady rotation
from west to east means a spin angular momentum /w directed

as shown, the result is a precession in which the tip of the spin
angular momentum vector traces out a circular path from east
to west.
the actual rate of precession? We shall indicate

approach,
just for the sake of coming up with an
a very cavalier
order of magnitude. (You will perhaps devise a much better
What about
calculation for yourself.)
It is
clear that the biggest effects are
caused by interactions involving material close to the plane of

Fig.
14-35
normal to
i.c.,
the plane that contains the spin axis and the
the celiptie.
If
we
consider an element of mass
near A, acted on by cqual elements of mass (AA/m ) of the

ring near P and Q, the force on LMg is given by
F- -
GAMm AMK
(rm
697
- RH
cos 9)2
The precession of
CAM.AWb
+ R K cos OY
(r,
the equinoxes
AM
f.
moon
or
4G AMm AMgRg cos
(14-55a)
Let us arbitrarily say that an approximation to the net precessional force can be obtained
amounts of the
earth's bulge
by using
an angular range 45 of the center
We
14-36).
then have
AA/m =
AMe, we must calculate the

bulge.
Its thickness is
in this equation the
and the moon's ring included within
Mm
line (see
/4.
To
get
plan view, Fig.
an estimate of
volume of material contained
about Re/300, we have chosen
in the
length
its
equatorially to be a quarter of the circumference,
i.e., tRe/2,
and now we must pick a value for its length from north to south.
Let us try the range from 22 south to 22 J north latitude;
this takes us almost exactly from the plane of the ecliptic to the
Tropic of Cancer and represents an eighth of the earth's circumference, or itRe/4.
Thus the volume,
AVE
of our patch would
be given by
R e tRm *Rk
K KK
2400
The volume of the whole earth
AVR
Vb
2400
lm
is
4kRe 3 /3; hence we have
10- 3
4tt
Since the density of material near the earth's surface
Fig.
14-36
Plan
oiew t o Musi rute
erude model of the

precessioii-producing
torgue due to the
moon
aeting on the
earth's eguatorial
bulge.
698
is
only
about half of the mean density, we have thus defined a patch

of material whose mass is given approximately by
AMB
10~ 4 A&
That completes the most awkward (and most shaky) part of the
g in
m and
If we substitute our values of
calculation.
AM
AM
Eq. (14-55a),
we have
10
_4
GMm MB RB cos B
(i4-55b)
Clearly a similar calculation will apply (or not!) to the earth-sun

interaction, and so for the net torque-producing force we shall
have
(MM
M,\
X \0-*GME RB cos 8 \-2 + -^j
(14-56)
Although the magnitudc of the numerical coefficient in F\s quite

doubtful, the form of the equation is correct. In particular, we
see explicitly how the relative contributions of sun and moon
are defined
by the same combination of mass and distance as
in
the calculation of tide-producing forces.
now
Let us turn
For the torque,
precessional velocity.
r.
= 2RE Fsin
The moment of
sphere,
is
to the calculation of the torque
inertia, if
2Me Re
/5,
take the earth to be a uniform
we
and so the precessional equation
= f MK R B2 uQ sin
2Rt;Fsin
and the
we have simply
is
or
MgRgta
with
10
-5
sec
-1
Substituting for
we thus have
2.5
1<T G<<
M,
rm !
-
2.5
699
The
10
M\
r?)
-Ol
precession of the equiooxes
Ffrom
Eq. (14-56),
Now
M=7X
10
22
kg,
30
M, 2 X
10
rJ'
kg,
r,
6X
25
m3
X 10 33 m 3
10
Hence
P.
(2.5
10-)(1.7
10" 3 )
10- 12 sec-'
and so
T=
We
1.5
10
12
sec
50,000 years
could try to trim this result a
little
for example,
we have
somewhat underestimated the mean density of the earth's crust

and (by treating the earth as a uniform sphere) we have somewhat overestimated the inoment of inertia. Both of these would
cause us to underestimate the precessional rate and obtain too
large a valuc for the precessional period. But in view of the
we have made elsewhere in the calculation,

we should not set any great store on making small refinements
of this type. The important thing is that, by quite simple means,
we have verified that the precession of the equinoxes can indeed
gross assumptions
be understood
Newton
in
terms of Newtonian dynamical principles.
got there
But
first!
PROBLEMS
14-1
(a)
Devise a criterion for whether there
on a system of two
particles.
dimensional system.
Use
is
this criterion
particle of
mass
is
external force acling
on
the following one-
observed to follow the
path
= A
x{i)
The
+L+
M,
Vt
= B sin
(w/)
vt
follows
different constants are arbitrary except that
(b)
x(t)
where
700
(o>r)
other particle, of mass
X(t)
The
sin
Try
it
= A
on
the system with
sin (o;)
A and B are
mA = MB.
and
related as before,
A"(0
and
= B sin (o>/
<p
t 0.
Ex(ended systems and rotational dynamics
<p)
Consider a system of three
14-2
remain always in the same plane.
each of mass m, which
particles,
The
particles interact
among them-
If the
always in a manner
in
the
given
times
as
various
positions
at
particles A, B, and C have
consistent with
selves,
table,
Newton's third law.
determine whether any external forces are acting on the system.
Time
(1,1)
(2,2)
(3,3)
(1,0)
(0,1)
(3,3)
(0, 1)
(1,2)
(2,0)
each of mass 70 kg, skate at speeds of 4 m/sec in

apart. As they are about
opposite directions along parallel lines 1.5
circular paths about
to pass one another they join hands and go into
Two
14-3
skaters,
their
common
center of mass.
(a)
What
(b)
is
their total angular
third skater
skating at 2 m/sec along a line parallel to
is
the initial directions of the other

track of the nearer one.
momentum?
From
two and 6
off to the side
what is
his standpoint,
of the
the total angular
of the other two skaters as they rotate?
momentum
molecule of carbon monoxide (CO) is moving along in a

of k T at room
straight line with a kinetic energy equal to the value
10~
J/K). The
=
1.38
=
constant
X
Boltzmann's
temperature (k
14-4
molecule
also rotating about
is
momentum
equal to
distance in the
its
h (=
CO
molecule
rotational motion with
14-5
in a gas of
center of mass with a total angular
is 1.1
CO
initial
The
J-sec).
A. Compare the
difficulty
molecules at
uniform disk of mass
a vertical axis with
10- 34
internuclear
kinetic energy of
kinetic energy of translation.
suggest about the case or
this result
motion
its
its
1.05
What does
of exciting such rotational
room temperature?
M and radius R
angular velocity
o>
is
.
rotating freely about
Then sand is poured

up on the disk at the
onto the disk in a thin stream so that it piles

(mass per
radius r (< R). The sand is added at the constant rate m
unit time).
(a)
At what
rate are the angular velocity
and
the rotational
kinetic energy varying with time at a given instant?

(b) After
what length of time
reduced to half of its
initial
value?
is
What
the rotational kinetic energy
has happened to this energy?
each of mass 100 kg, stand at opposite ends of the

diameter of a rotating turntable of mass 200 kg and radius 3 m. ln-
701
14-6
Two men,
itially
the turntable
make
their way to the middle of the turntable at equal rates.

faetor by which
(a) Calculate the final rate of revolution and the
l'roblems
makes one revolution every
2 sec.
The two men
the kinetic energy of rotation has been increased.

(b) Analyze, at least qualitatively, the
means by which
the in-
axis of rotation
do
crease of rotational kinetic energy occurs.

(c)
men
At what
from the
radial distance
experience the greatest centrifugal force as they
make
their
the
way
to the center?
14-7
Estimate the kinetic energy in a hurricane. Take the density of
air as 1
kg/m 3
A useful way of calculating the approximate value of the moment
14-8
of inertia of a continuous object
is
to consider the object as
up of concentrated masses, and
built
As an example,
if it
to calculate the value of
take the case of a long uniform bar of mass
were
J^mr 2
M and
(with its transverse dimensions much less than L). We know

moment of inertia about one end is ML 2 /3.
(a) The most primitive approximation is to consider the total
mass
to be concentrated at the midpoint, distant L/2 from the end.
length
that
its
You
not be surprised to find that
will
(b) Next, treat the bar as being
this is
a poor approximation.
made up of two
masses, each
equal to M/2, at distances L/4 and 3L/4 from one end.
Examine the improvements obtained from
(c)
e.g.,
14-9
(a)
shell,
^N
Consider the
\
/
moment of
Calculate the
of mass
JX
'
finer subdivisions
3 parts, 5 parts, 10 parts.

inertia
of a thin-walled spherical
M and radius R, about an axis passing through

shell as a set of rings defined
lying within angular ranges
d&
its
center.
by the amounts of material
at the various angles d to the axis
(see the figure).
(b) Verify the
formula
= 2MR 2 /5
for the
moment of inertia
of a solid sphere of uniform density about an axis through
You
can proceed just as
its
n part (a), except that the system
center.
is
to be
regarded as a stack of circular disks instead of rings.
14-10
an
(a)
Calculate the
axis through
its
moment
of inertia of a thin square plate about
center perpendicular to
its
plane.
(Use the per-
pendicular-axis theorem.)
(b)
Making appropriate
use of the theorems of parallel
perpendicular axes, calculate the
and
moment of inertia of a hollow cubical
box about an axis passing through the centers of two opposite faces.
(c) Using the result of (a), deduce the moment of inertia of a
uniform, solid cube about an axis passing through the midpoints of
two opposite faces.

(d) For a cube of mass
the result
Ma 2 /6.
It is
M and cdge
a,
you should have obtained
noteworthy that the moment of inertia has
this
same value about any axis passing through the center of the cube.
See how far you can go toward verifying this result, perhaps by considering other special axes
e.g.,
an
axis through diagonally opposite
corners of the cube or an axis through the midpoints of opposite edges.
702
14-11 Refer to Fig. ll-19(a), which shows the variation of density

graph, compare the
with radial distance inside the earth.
Using
moment
axis with the
of inertia of the earth about
of a sphere of the
its
this
moment
of inertia
You
radius but of uniform density.
same mass and
can do quite well by considering the earth to be made up of a central

core and two thick concentric shells, each of approximately uniform
The boundaries between these

abrupt changes of density shown in the
density.
three regions correspond to the
graph. [Alternatively, consider
a basic one,
the earth as built up of three superposed solid spheres
occupying the whole volume of the earth, with the density of the outermost region (r > 0.54Re) and two other spheres with densities corresponding to the mean density differences between the successive regions.]
M and radius R
14-12 (a)
makes an
angle d with the horizontal.
hoop of mass
linear velocity of
its
center
is
the kinetic energy of the rolling

(b) There
its
down
rolls
angular velocity
hoop
is
a slope that
This means that
Mv 2
v/R.
is
when the
Show that
a traditional story about the camper-physicist
is
who
has a can of bouillon and a can of beans, but the labels have come off,
so he lets them roli down a board to discover which is which. What
would you expect to happen? Does the method work ? (Try
14-13
snow
skier
him.
By
is
enjoying the mountain air while standing on a 30
when he suddenly
slope
huge snowball
notices a
the time he notices the ball,
traveling at 25 m/sec.
The
skier gives himself
(=
g/2).
Does he
get
away? (Assume
down
at
away and
is
rolling
only 100
it is
a speed of 10 m/sec
down
almost instantaneously and proceeds to accelerate

sin 6
it!)
the slope at
that the snowball has a
constant acceleration corresponding to that of a sphere of given radius
without slipping,
rolling,
inertia
down
the slope.
Assume
of the snowball about an axis through
its
14-14 The preceding problem suggests another one.

rolling
down a
slope, gathering material as
it
ation compare, in fact, with a similar object that

in this
way ? To
how
goes,
is
moment of
that the
center
is
If
2MR 2 /5.)
an
does
object
its
is
acceler-
not adding material
give yourself a relatively straightforward situation to
consider, take the case of a cylinder, rather than a sphere, that grows
in size
the
as
way
radius. R,
14-15
whatever assumptions seem reasonable about
and on the instantaneous speed,
Two
that passes
as
Make
it rolls.
in which the rate of increase in radius depcnds
shown
masses, of 9 kg and
kg,
the existing
hang from the ends of a
around a pulley of mass 40 kg and radius 0.5
in the diagram.
on
o.
The system
is
released
string
m (/ = \MR 2
from
rest
and the
9-kg mass drops, starting the pulley rotating.

(a) What is the acceleration of the 9-kg mass?
(b)
What
the angular velocity of the pulley after the 9-kg
is
mass has dropped 2
Ulkg
(c)
703
What is
Probicms
m?
the tension in the part of the string which
is
between
the pulley and the 9-kg mass? Between the pulley and the 1-kg mass?
between the string and the pulley
(d) If the coefficient of friction
what
is 0.2,
around the pulley
competitors ride
turns that the string must
to prevent slipping?
An amusement
14-16
number of
the least
is
down
(Cf.
Problem
make
5-14.)
which the
park has a downhill racetrack
in
a 30 slope
cart has four
on
kg and diameter
wheels, each of mass 20
Each
small carts.
1
m. The frame of each
cart
has a mass of 20 kg.
What
(a)
is
(Assume
50 kg?
O.SMR 2 where R
,
the acceleration of a cart if
moment
that the
is its
rider has a
its
of inertia of a wheel
mass of
given by
is
radius.)
two riders, of masses 50 and 60 kg, respectively, start off

simultaneously, what is the distance between them when the winner
(b) If
passes the finishing line 60
14-17
m down the slope?
uniform rod of length 36 swings as a pendulum about a
a distance x from one end. For what value(s) of x docs this

pendulum have the same period as a simple pendulum of length 26?
pivot
14-18
(a)
piece of putty of mass
uniform disk of mass
on which
table
is
it
can
2m and
is
stuck very near the rim of a
The
radius R.
without slipping.
roli
disk is set on edge on a

The equilibrium position
obviously that in which the piece of putty
is
closest to the table.
Find the period of small-amplitude oscillations about this position
and the length of
(b)
period of
its
the equivalent simple
pendulum.
circular hoop hangs over a
small-amplitude oscillations
nail
and
on a
Find the
wali.
the length of the equiva-
pendulum.
and similar problems, use the equation of conservation of
lent simple
(In these
energy as a starting point.

greater
is
The more complicated the system, the

method has over a direct application
the advantage that this
of Newton's law.)
14-19
uniform cylinder of mass
a shaft but
is
your watch).
restrained
When
by a
M and radius R can rotate about
spiral spring (like the balance
the cylinder
is
equilibrium position, the spring exerts a restoring torque
c8.
its
to
T.
14-20 Assuming that you
let
your
swing more or
legs
pendulums, estimate the approximate time of one
less like rigid
stridc.
estimate your comfortable walking speed in miles per hour.
Hence
How does
compare with your actual pace?
14-21
sists
torsion balance to measure the
of a rectangular vane of thin
attached to a very thin vertical

oscillation
is
20
sec,
and
momentum
aluminum
fiber, as
foil,
of electrons con-
10 by 2 by 0.005 cm,
shown. The period of torsional
the density of
aluminum
is
2.7 limes that of
water.
704
from
Set up an equation for the angular oscillations of this system
and find the period,
it
wheel of
M equal
turned through an angle
w/.*//.:,.
Electron-
beam spot
cm
cm
10 cm-
(a)
(b)
the torsion constant of the suspension, in m-N/rad?

horizontal force, applied perpendicular to the surface
What
What
is
cm from
of the vane at a point 3
the axis, will produce an angular
deflectionof 10?
(c)
strikes the
beam of
mA
steady angular deflection
is
of electrons accelerated through 500
vane perpendicularly
4 cm from the
at a point
axis.
What
produced, assuming that the electrons are
stopped in the vane ?
14-22 The torsion constant of a wire or fiber of length

cross* section of radius a,
elastic
given by c
is
constant of the material

2
in
N/m
is
given by
known
The maximum load
of E,
is
about 2.5
about 10
is
and of circular
is an
as the shear modulus, measured
that can be supported by such a fiber
N/m 2
10
10
by
the ultimate
N/m 2
measured in
tensile strength of the material, also

fibers the value
/,
E,-wa /21, where E,
2
cross-sectional area, ira , multiplied
its
tensile strength
N/m 2
For
glass
and the ultimate
Calculate the diameter of the thinnest glass fiber that can
(a)
two lead spheres, each of mass 20 g, in a gravity torsion

Allow a safety factor of about 3.
(b) If the spheres are at the ends of a light bar of length 20 cm,
and the length of the suspending fiber is also 20 cm, what is the period
of torsional oscillation of this system? (The measurement of this
safely support
balance.
period
is
the practical
way
of inferring the torsion constant of the
suspension.)
(c)
What
angular deflection of
this
system
produced by
is
placing lead spheres of mass 2 kg with their centers 5
What
centers of the small suspended spheres?
would
arm
a spot of
light reflected
away? Compare
the
from a mirror on the torsion
this result
with the figures used
Problem 5-3 on a Cavendish experiment.
in
14-23
is
this give in
to a scale 5
cm from
linear displacement
A wheel
driven by a
on
the
motor
of uniform thickness, of mass 10 kg and radius 10 cm,
motor through a
is
cm
in radius,
m-N.
Assuming that the
belt (see the figure).
and the motor
is
The
drive wheel
capable of delivering
a torque of 5
(a)
does
it
(b) If the coefficient
705
belt
does not
slip
on
the wheel,
take to accelerate the large wheel from rest
Problems
up
how long
rpm?
to 100
of frietion between belt and wheel
is
'Drive wheel
Driven wheel
what are the tensions in the belt on the two sides of the wheel ?
(Assume that the belt touches the wheel over half its circumference.)
0.3,
14-24
possible
radius
is
of length
scheme for stopping the rotation of a spacecraft of

two small masses, m, swing out at the ends of strings
which are attached to the spacecraft at the points P and P'
to
/,
let
(see the figure).
Initially, the
masses are held at the positions shown
spacecraft. When the masses

maximum distance, with the strings extending
the ends P and P' of the strings are released from
and are rotating with the body of the

have swung out to
their
radially straight out,
the spacecraft.
For givcn valucs of m, R, and
of the spacecraft), what value of
moment
/ (the
of inertia
will leave the spacecraft in a non-
rotating state as a result of this operation?
Apply the
result to
spacecraft that can be regarded as a uniform disk of mass
radius R.
(Put in
some numbers,
M and
too, maybe.)
14-25 The technique of "pumping" a playground swing

increase the amplitude of
its
in
order to
motion can be learned by example or
by trial and error. The mechanics of the procedure are

According to one model of the process, the pumping is
taken to consist of a sudden elevation of the rider's center of mass at
each passing of the vertical, or low point (the rider lifts and holds
(less easily)
not
trivial.
himself above the seat), and a subsequent return to resting on the
swing seat at each turning point (see the
>-*,
are assumed
-Path of
CM
The support ropes
to be always straight, and the insiantaneous changes of
effective length
momentum
figure).
of the "pendulum" allow conservation of angular
to be applied not only to the low-point
pumping motions
but also to those at the turning points.

(a)
Carry out the analysis as indicated above and show that
increase of amplitude
can be achieved.
Note
with the qualitative experience that any given
more
706
that the result agrees
amount of
easily achieved as the amplitude increases.
increase
is
(b) Consider in
imperfect.
actual
how
AIso,
what ways the analysis indicated above may be

well does this idealized technique match the
pumping method
that children utilize every
may be found
suggested above
in
an
article
H. Falk, "Pumping on a Swing," Am.

14-26
Two
gear wheels,
day? [The analysis

and
P. L. Tea, Jr.,
by
J. Phys., 36,
1165 (1968).]
A and B, of radii R a and Rb, and of moments
of inertia Ia and /b, respectively, are mounted on parallel shafts so

that they are not quite in contact (see the figure). Both wheels can
on
rotate completely freely
angular velocity
is
moved
coo,
and
their shafts.
B is stationary.
slightly so that the gear
Initially,
At a certain
is
rotating with
instant,
one shaft
Find the resulting
wheels engage.
angular velocity of each in terms of the given quantities. (Warning: Do

not be tempted into a glib use of angular momentum conservation.
Consider the forces and torques resulting from the contact.)
14-27
is
section of steel pipe of large diameter
mounted
as
shown on a
flat-bed truck.
The
and
relatively thin wali
driver of the truck, not
realizing that the pipe has not been lashed in place, starts
with a constant acceleration of 0.5 g.
ward
(relative to the truck bed)
With what horizontal
is
up
the truck
a result, the pipe rolls back-
without slipping, and
ground. The length of the truck bed

(a)
As
falls
to the
m.
velocity
does the pipe strike the
ground ?
ping,
(b)
What
is its
(c)
How
far
if
angular velocity at
does
it
this instant?
skid before beginning to roli without slip-
the coefticicnt of friction between pipe
(d)
What is its
linear velocity
when its
and ground
is
0.3?
motion changes
to rolling
billiard ball or
pool ball
without slipping?
14-28 (a)
How
far
above the center of a
should the ball be struck (horizontally) by the cue so that
it
will
be
sure to begin rolling without slipping?
Analyze the consequences of striking the ball at the level

center if the coeffirient of friction between the ball and the table
(b)
of
its
is/z.
14-29
A man
post which
707
is
Problem s
kicks sharply at the bottom end of a vertical uniform
stuck in the ground so that 6
ft
of
it
are above ground.
Unfortunately for him the post has rotted where
and breaks
To
off at this point.
it
ground
enters the
why "unfortunately"
appreciate
is
the
appropriate word, consider the subsequent motion of the top end of

the post.
14-30 Refer to page 673 for the discussion of a rectangular board

rotating about an axis in
its
plane. Using the notation
of attack of that discussion, show that the angular
and
the
method
momentum com-
ponent L' about an axis n the plane of the board and perpendicular to
i
given by combining the resolved parts of Ix oi x and Ivw u in this
<o is
direction;
14-31
i.e.,
L'
flywheel in the
Ixco x sin d
mounted on an
is
Iic u
The
cos 5
form of a uniform disk of radius 5
axle that just
of diameter 12 cm.
gimbal ring
cm
is
along the diameter of a gimbal ring
fits
flywheel
is
set rotating at
1000
rpm and
the
supported at the point where one end of the axle meets
it.
Calculate the rate of precession in rpm.
14-32 In most cars the engine has
and
aft
axis of rotation pointing fore
its
The gyroscopic
along the car.
properties of the engine
this
gyroscopic property to
make
the front
the car follows a curve in the road.

effects for
a car with
its
when
Consider the tendency of
rotating at high speed a re not negligible.
end of the car
What about
rise
or
fail
as
the corresponding
engine mounted transversely?
Try to make
some
quantitative estimates of the importance of such effects.
sider
whether a left-hand curve or a right-hand curve might involve
Con-
the greater risk of losing control over the steering of the car.
14-33 See if you can pick up the challenge, given

a
708
more respectable calculation of
E.Ktcnded systcms
and
in the text,
of making
the precession of the equinoxes.
rolational
dynamics
Appendix
THE METRIC SYSTEM OF UNITS

establishing a system of units and setting up standards for the
quantitative measurement of length, mass, and time involves a
great
many practical
(as discussed in
problems, and also some philosophical ones
Chapter
2).
Primary standards are continually
being revised and improved, with a trend toward incorporating

atomic or nuclear phenomena that have the advantages of reproducibility
and
accessibility.
Mass
The Standard kilogram,
Sevres, France,
is
platinum-iridium cylinder kept at
defined to have a mass of exactly
Secondary mass standards are compared to
this
kilogram.
primary Standard
by using a beam balance.

Length
The former Standard, defined as the distance between two

scratches on a platinum-iridium bar, has been replaced by an
atomic Standard that defines the meter as the distance equal to
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of orange-red light from the isotope
K.rypton-86.
Time
The second has been
(since 1967) defined as equal in duration to
9,192,631,770 cycles of vibration
709
The metric system of
units
n an atomic clock, controlled
by one of the characteristic frequencies associated with atoms of

the isotope cesium-133.
Units of measurement which are definite multiples of the

kilogram, meter, and second are denoted by prefixing the basic
unit.
list
of prefixes (and the multiple of the basic unit that
each prefix represents)
given below.
Multiple
Abbreviation
Prefix
tera-
10 12
giga-
10 9
mega-
10 6
kilo-
10 3
centi-
milli-
10- 2
10- 3
nano-
M
n
io- 6
10- 9
pico-
io- 12
femto-
10 -15
atto-
io- 18
micro-
names have been given
In addition, special
to particularly useful
multiples of the meter:
-15
10 _10
IO
IO
-6
=
=
=
1
1
1
fermi (F)
angstrom (A)
micron (jx)
CONVERSION FACTORS
The
values quoted have mostly been "rounded off" to three
For precise values, see a technical handbook
significant figures.
or an advanced physics text.
Plane Angle
radian
=
1
steradian
Length
in
Appendix
57.3 (5720')
(1/2tt) revolution
0.159 revolution
Solid Angle
710
(l/4x) sphere
= 2.54 cm
=
ft
30.5 cm
m = 39.37 in.
km = 0.621 mile =
3281
f%
0.0796 sphere
5280
mile
(continued)
astronomical unit
light year
parsec
Mass, Weight,
ft
9.46
10
3.08
1609
Length
1.49
12
10
n km
10
km
km
(where g has the Standard value of

2
9.80665 m/sec )
and Force
dynes
newton
kg mass weighs 2.2 lbs (or 9.8 newtons)
Ib object
10
0.225 Ib
has a mass of 0.4536 kilogram and
weighs 4.448 newtons
Volume
1 liter is
volume of
the
maximum density
= 1000.028 cm 3
Time
(1 in )
cubic foot
gallon (U.S.)
gallon
mean
solar)
ft/sec
76
X 10
of Hg =
km/hr
mm
133
joule
Torr (or Tor)
(1
newton-meter)
10
18
0.239 calorie
electron volt
=
1
eauivalent
<
t0( = WC)
.,.
kilowatt-hour
0.738 ft-lb
electron volts
10
1.60
ergs
10
-19 joule
Mev
proton mass = 938.2 Mev
_ ,
neutron mass = 939.5 Mev
=931.1 Mev
lamu
= 3.6 X 10joules
f 1
Conversion factors
Hg
of
newtons/m 2
6.24
,_
cm
newtons/m 2
1.013
nCr8y
sec
=1.61 km/hr
0.447 m/sec
atmosphere
=
=
1
1.10
1.47 ft/sec
Work
0.305 m/sec
mile/hr
=
1
10
0.682 mile/hr
711
0.0283
Energy and
cm 3
16.4
year = 365.2 days = 3.16 X

4
day = 8.64 X 10 sec
Pressure
at its
atmosphere)
= 231 in 3
(U.K.) = 277 in 3
values are
(all
1
Speed
cubic inch
kg of water
(3.98C and
electron
mass = 0.511
GENERAL CONSTANTS
speed of light
gravitational constant
6.67
in
10
_u
=
Planck's constant
Planck's constant/2jr
electron charge
e
electron rest
mass
=
=
10
10
1.05
9.11
10
23
-34
6.63
1.60
6.02
10
_19
/mole
joule-sec
-34
joule-sec
coulomb
10~ 31 kg
nucleon rest mass (proton or neutron; their exact
masses
Mp/m,
10 8 m/sec
3.00
newton-meter 2 /kg 2
Avogadro's number
vacuum
differ slightly)
(proton/electron) mass
1
amu
1.66
1.67
ratio
atomic mass unit)
(1
10
-27
kg
1836
= t^
of mass of
10" 27 kg
Note: For astronomical data, see pp. 34, 252, 290, 582.
712
Appendix
C 12
Bibliography
it
has seemed useful to categorize
this bibliography to
some
extent,
although the divisions are not always clcarcut. In particular, the pro-
found involvement of the development of mechanics with observational

astronomy, on the one hand, and with the whole rise of the scientific
point of view,
on the other, has suggested special attention to these areas

more conventional listing of textbooks of various types
as well as to a
and
levels.
Since the teaching of mechanics
more comprehensive introductory

purpose
for this
is
is
also so often a part of a
course, a short
list
of books written
included. In a subject so vast there can be
no claim
to completeness; the author offers his apologies in advance for having
omitted, through ignorance or inadvertence,

rightfully
many
titles
that should
have been included.
SOME CLASSIC WORKS

Ptolemy,
C,
The Almagest (trans. R. C. Taliaferro), Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Inc., Great Books, Vol. 16, pp. 1-478, Chicago, 1952.
This book, incorporating Ptolemy's geocentric view of the

universe, displays the marvelously detailed
and exact knowledge
of the heavens that had already been accumulated nearly 2000

years ago.
Copernicus, N.,
(trans.
On
the Revolulions of the Heavenly Spheres (1543)
C. G. Wallis), Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., Great Books,
Vol. 16, pp. 505-838, Chicago, 1952.
The complete, documented account of the evidence and
the
reasoning by which Copernicus was led to the heliocentric

picture of the universe.
Kepler,
J.,
Astronomia Nova (Commentaries on the Motion of Mars)
(1609), Johannes Kepler,
Munich,
Gesammelte Werke, Vol.
3,
C. H. Beck,
1937.
This book
is
the detailed account of Kepler's analysis of the
713
orbit of Mars.
It contains the
statement of the
two of
first
(Unfortunately not avail-
Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

able in English translation.)
-.,
The Harmonies of the World (1619) (trans. C. G. Wallis),

Britannica, Inc., Great Books, Vol. 16, pp.
Encyclopaedia
1009-1085, Chicago, 1952.
The
scientific
importancc of
this
statement of Kepler's third law.
book is that
For the most
it
contains the
part,
however,
a testimonial to Kepler's lifelong obsession with his quest

geometrical and numerical symmetries in the universe.
it is
for
Galilei, G.,
The Starry Messenger (1610)
(trans. Stillman
Discoveries and Opinions of Calileo,
Drake), in
New
Doubleday Anchor,
York, 1957.
own account of
Galileo's
his first discoveries with his
newly
invented telescope. Includes samples of his observations on the
moons of Jupiter.
.,
Dialogue Concerning the
(trans. Stillman
Two Chief World Systems
(1632)
Drake), Univ. of California, Berkeley, California,
1953.
Galileo's lively dramatization of his advocacy of the Copernican
system.
.,
Two New
Dover,
New
Sciences (1638) (trans. H.
Crew and A. DiSalvio)
York, 1952.
Chiefly of intercst for Galileo's discussions of motion.
presents
some of
his ideas
on
the constitution
It also
and strength of
materials.
Newton, L, Principia (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy)

(1687).
F. Cajori's revision of A. Motte's translation (1729).
Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, California, 1960.

The extraordinary" book that can still claim to be the greatest
scientific
work ever
echo the description

Trinity College,
Anyone who studies

of Newton (on his statue in
written.
it
must surely
the chapel of
Cambridge) as the man "who surpassed the
whole human race by
his genius".
BIOGRAPHIES
Andrade, E. N. da
C,
Sir Isaac Newton,
Doubleday Anchor,
New
York, 1958.
Armitage, A., Copernicus, Yoseloff,
.,
714
John Kepler, Roy,
Bibliography
New
New York
York, 1966.
and London,
1957.
Caspar, M., Kepler (trans. C. D. Hellman), Abelard-Schuman,
and
De
New York,
London
1959.
The Crime of Galilea, Univ. of Chicago Press,
Santillana, G.,
Chicago, 1955.
Fermi, L. and Bernardini, G., Galileo and the Scientific Revolution,
Basic Books,
New
York, 1961.
Koestler, A., The Watershed,
Doubleday Anchor,
New
York, 1960
(based on the major part of The Sleepwalkers, Macmillan,
New
York, 1959, by the same author).
Moore,
More,
North,
Isaac Newton, Putnam,
P.,
L. T., Isaac
Newton
(1934),
New
York, 1958.
Dover,
New York,
1962.
D., Isaac Newton, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1967.
J.
HISTORICAL OR PHILOSOPHICAL IN EMPHASIS

Arons, A., The Development of the Concepts of Physics, AddisonWesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1965.
Bali,
W. W.
An
R.,
Essay on Newton's Principia, Macmillan, London,
1893.
A most interesting study

Colodny, R.
(ed.),
Englewood
Beyond
Cliffs,
New
of the Principia and
the
Edge of
its
Certainty,
origins.
Prentice-Hall,
Jersey, 1965.
collection of essays,
many
of them concerned with the bases
of classical mechanics.
Cooper, L. N., An Introduction to the Meaning and Structure ofPhysics,

Harper and Row, New York, 1968.
J., The Mechanisation of the World Picture (trans. CDikshoorn), Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1961.
Dijksterhuis, E.
Dugas, R.,
History of Mechanics (trans.
J.
R. Maddox), Routledge
and Kegan Paul, London, 1957.

Einstein, A.
Press,
and
Infeld, L.,
Cambridge, 1938.
survey, in simple, nonmathematical terms, that places the
mechanical view
Gillispie,
in
the context of physical theory generally.
C. G., The Edge of Objecticity, Princcton Univ. Press,
Princeton,
New Jersey,
Subtitled
715
The Ecolution of Physics, Cambridge Univ.
"An
Essay
1960.
in the
Historical or philosophical
History of Scientific Ideas", this
and scholarly book devotes
graceful
several chapters to the
development of mechanics.
Gold, T.
The Nature ofTime, Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca,
(ed.),
New
York, 1967.
report of a conference at which a
scientists
number of
distinguished
presented and discussed their ideas.
Hanson, N. R., Palterns of Discovery, Cambridge Univ.

Cambridge, 1958.
The author,
how
Press,
well versed in physics as well as philosophy, dis-
come into being. The book ends up with

quantum theory but explores classical mechanics on the way.
A provocative and unusual study.
cusses
Herivel, J. W.,
theories
The Background to Newton's Principia, Clarendon
Press,
Oxford, 1965.
Similar to
more
Rouse
Ball's
book
(v. sup.)
but with the benefit of
recent scholarship.
Hesse, M., Forces and Fields, Nelson, London, 1961.
and scholarly study of the concept of "action at a
careful
distance."
Holton, G. and Roller, D. H. D., Foundations of Modern Physical

Science, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1958.
New York,
New York, 1964.
New York, 1960.
Jammer, M., Concept s of Force, Harper Torchbooks,

Concept s of Mass, Harper Torchbooks,
cepts ofSpace,
Harper Torchbooks,
1962.
Con-
In these three monographs, the author discusses from a mainly

philosophical standpoint the primary concepts of mechanics.
Kemble, H., Physical Science, Jts Structure and Development,

Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1966.
MIT
A very good general survey.

Lindsay, R. B. and Margenau, H., Foundations of Physics, Dover,
New York,
1957.
technical account, enriched
by
full
discussion, of the basic
theoretical concepts of physics.
Mach, E., The Science of Mechanics (9th ed., 1933)

McCormack), Open Court Publishing Co., La Salle,
The first thorough critique (lst ed., 1883) of
classical mechanics, and still well worth reading.
W.
Magie,
F.,
Source Book
in Physics,
(trans. T. J.
Illinois, 1960.
the bases of
McGraw-Hill,
New
York,
1935.
Conveniently
pioneers.
716
Bibliography
accessible
extracts
from the writings of the
and Hypothesis
Poincare, H., Science
(1903), Dover,
New York,
1952.
A famous examination of fundamentals by one of the great men

of nineteenth-century mathematical physics.
Reichenbach, H., The Philosophy ofSpace and Time, Dover,
New York,
1957.
Strongly oriented toward relativity theory (both special and

general).
Time and the Physical World, Dover,
Schlegel, R.,
An Account o/ the
Small, R.,
Univ. of Wisconsin
New
Madison, Wisconsin, 1963.
detailed exposition of Kepler's researches.
has no modern counterpart.
it
Essays in the History of Mechanics, Springer-Verlag,
C,
Truesdell,
old,
1968.
Astronomical Discoveries ofKepler (1804),
Press,
reprint of a
Though
New York,
York, 1968.
collection of articles,
illustrated
with portraits and with
on mechanics. Its erudite

author (an applied mathematician) offers many pungent
reproductions from classic works
comments.
Whitrow, G.
J.,
The Natural Philosophy ofTime, Nelson, London, 1961.
lengthy essay by an expert in cosmology.
ASTRONOMICAL
Abell, G., Exploration of the Universe, Holt, Rinehart
New York,
1964.
of Astronomy
Abetti, G., History
Schuman,
New
(trans. B.
Berry, A.,
B.
Abetti),
Abelard-
York, 1952.
Baker, R. H. and Fredrick, L. W.,

(7th ed.),
and Winston,
Van Nostrand,
An
Princeton,
Introduction to Astronomy
New Jersey,
1968.
Short History of Astronomy (1898), Dover,
New
York,
1961.
An
Cohen,
I.
excellent factual account.

B.,
The Birth of a
New
Physics,
Doubleday Anchor,
New
York, 1960.
An
excellent short, semi-popular account of the
from
classical
observational
astronomy
to
the
development
Newtonian
synthesis.
Dreyer,
J.
L. E. (rev.
W.
to Kepler, Dover,
717
Astronomical
H. Stahl),
New York,
History of Astronomy from Thales
1953.
and Row, New York,
1955.
Hoyle, F., Astronomy, Macdonald, London, and Doubleday,
New
Duncan,
C, Astronomy
J.
(5th ed.), Harper
York, 1962.
An elegant
E.,
The
King, H.
its
historical
The Realm ofthe Nebulae (1936), Dover,
development.
New York,
1958.
story of the discovery of the extra-Galactic universe,
man who
the
lavishly illustrated account of astronomy, with
fascinating documentation of
much
Hubble,
and
C,
did
most
by
to elucidate the problem.
Exploralion of the Universe, Signet Books,
New
York,
1964.
A most excellent short survey.

Krause, A., Astronomy (trans.
Edinburgh and London,
Kuhn,
Oliver and Boyd,
M. and H. Seddon),
1961.
T. S., The Copernican Revolution, Vintage Books,
New
York,
1959.
Lodge, O.
J.,
Pioneers of Science, Macmillan, London, 1893.
Based on a set of lectures on the historical development of

astronomy as related to Newtonian mechanics. Full of interesting details.
Motz, L. and Duveen, A., Essentials of Astronomy, Wadsworth,

Belmont, California, 1966.
Pannekoek, A.,
Hislory of Astronomy, Allen and Unwin, London,
1961.
Turner, H. H., Astronomical Discovery,
Edward Arnold, London,
1904.
SOME GENERAL TEXTB00KS

Adair, R. K., Concepts in Physics,
Atkins, K. R., Physics, Wiley,
New
Academic
Press,
Feynman, R.
P.,
York, 1969.
York, 1965.
A Contemporary
New York, 1968.
Borowitz, S. and Bornstein, L. A.,

Physics, McGraw-Hill,
New
View ofElementary
Leighton, R. B., and Sands, M., The Feynman Lectures
in Physics, Vol.
I,
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1963.
Ford, K. W., Basic Physics, Blaisdell, Waltham, Massachusetts, 1968.

Halliday, D. and Resnick, R., Physics for Students of Science
Engineering, Vol.
I,
Wiley,
New
Miller, F., Jr., College Physics, Harcourt,
1959.
718
Bibliography
and
York, 1966.
Brace
& World, New York,
P.S.S.C., College Physics, Heath, Lexing(on, Massachusetts, 1968.
Rogers, E. M., Physics for the Inguiring Mind, Princeton Univ. Press,
Princeton,
New Jersey,
1960.
and Zemansky, M. W.,
Sears, F. W.,
University Physics, Part
I,

Selis, R. L., Elementary Classical Physics, Allyn
and Bacon, Boston, Massachusetts, 1965.
Weidner, R. T. and
MECHANICS TEXTS
Alonso,
M. and Finn,
Physics, Vol.
I),
E.
J.,
Mechanics (Fundamental University
Arthur, W., and Fenster, S. K., Mechanics, Holt, Rinehart and
New York,
Winston,
1969.
Becker, R. A., Introduction to Theoretical Mechanics, McGraw-Hill.
New
York, 1954.
C,
Bradbury, T.
Theoretical Mechanics, Wiley,
New
York, 1968.
Bullen, K. E., Introduction to the Theory of Mechanics (7th ed.).
Cambridge Univ.
Press,
Cambridge, 1965.
Cabannes, H., General Mechanics (2nd

Blaisdell,
Waltham, Massachusetts,
ed.),
(trans.
S. P. Sutera),
1968.
Easthope, C. E., Three-dimensional Dynamics (2nd
ed.),
Butterworths
London, 1964.
Feather, N.,
An
Introduction to the Physics
ofMass, Length and Time,
Edinburgh Univ. Press, Edinburgh, 1959.

Frank, N. H., Introduction to Mechanics and Heat, McGraw-Hill,
New
York, 1939.
Goldstein, H., Classical Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1951.

Hill, R., Principles
of Dynamics, Macmillan,
Ingard, U., and Kraushaar,
W.
New York,
L., Introduction to
1964.
Mechanics, Matter
and Waoes, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts,

Kibble, T.
W.
B., Classical
Kittel, C., Knight,
W.
D.,
Physics Course, Vol.
Mechanics, McGraw-Hill,
Mechanics texts
New York,
1966.
and Ruderman, M. A., Mechanics (Berkeley

I),
McGraw-Hill,
New York,
Landau, L. D. and Lifshitz, E. M., Mechanics,

J. S. Bell), Pergamon, Oxford, 1960.
719
1960.
1965.
(trans. J. B.
Sykes and
Lindsay, R. B., Physical Mechanics,
Van Nostrand,
New
Princeton,
Jersey, 1961.
Marion,
J. B., Classical
Maxwell,
Dynamics, Academic Press,
C, Matter and Molion
J.
McCuskey,
(1877), Dover,
New
York, 1965.
New York,
1954.
W., Introduction to Advanced Dynamics, Addison-
S.
Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1959.
Osgood, W.
Mechanics, Macmillan,
F.,
New York,
1937.
Pohl, R. W., The Physical Principles of Mechanics

Blackie,
London and Glasgow,
and
Acousiics,
1932.
Rutherford, D. E., Classical Mechanics (2nd
ed.),
and Boyd,
Oliver
Edinburgh and London, 1957.

Skinner, R., Mechanics, Blaisdell, Waltham, Massachusetts, 1969.
C, and
Slater, J.
Frank, N. H., Mechanics, McGraw-Hill,
New
York,
1947.
Sommerfeld, A., Mechanics (Lectures on Theoretical Physics, Vol. I)

(trans. M. O. Stern), Academic Press, New York and London,
1964.
Symon, K.
Mechanics (2nd
R.,
ed.),
Addison-Wesley,
Reading,
Massachusetts, 1960.
Taylor, E. F., Introductory Mechanics, Wiley,
New York,
1963.
Young, H. D., Fundamentals of Mechanics and Heat, McGraw-Hill,
New York,
1964.
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Beer, F. P.,
(2 vols.),
Chorlton,
New
Christie,
and Johnston, E.
McGraw-Hill,
F.,
Texlbook
R., Jr., Vector
New York,
Mechanics for Engineers
1962.
of Dynamics,
Van Nostrand,
Princeton,
Jersey, 1963.
D.
E., Vector
Mechanics (2nd
ed.),
McGraw-Hill,
New
York,
1964.
Halfman, R. L., Dynamics: Particles, RigidBodies and Systems, Vol.

I,
Huang, T. C, Engineering Mechanics, Addison-Wesley, Reading,

Massachusetts, 1967.
Meriam,
720
J.
L.,
Dynamics, Wiley,
Bibliography
New York,
1966.
INDIVIDUAL TOPICS
Arnold, R. N., and Maunder, L., Gyrodynamics, Academic Press,
York and London,
1961.
and Osborne, G.
Bali, K.. J.
New
F.,
Space Vehicle Dynamics, Clarendon
Press, Oxford, 1967.

Blitzer, L. (ed.),
Kinematics and Dynamics of
reprint volume),
American
Chalmers, B., Energy, Academic Press,
Danby,
M.
J.
New
Satellite Orbils
of Physics,
Institute
New
New York and
(AAPT
York, 1963.
London, 1963.
A., Fundamentals of Celeslial Mechanics, Macmillan,
York, 1962.
Darwin, G. H., The Tides (1898), Freeman, San Francisco and London,
1962.
Garland, G. D., The Earlh's Shape and Gravity, Pergamon, Oxford,

1965.
A Treatise on Gyrostatics and

New York, 1959.
Gray, A.,
Rotalional Moiion (1918),
Dover,
Greenhood, D., Mapping, Univ. of Chicago
Press, Chicago, 1965.
Kisch, B., Scales and Weights, Yale Univ. Press,
New
Haven, Connec-
ticut, 1965.
Macmillan, D. H., Tides, C. R. Books, London, 1966.

Mott-Smith, M., The Concept of Energy Simply Explained, Dover,
New
Powles,
York, 1964.
B.,
J.
Parlicles
and Their
Interactions,
Addison-Wesley,
Reading, Massachusetts, 1968.
Roy, A.
E.,
Foundations of Astrodynamics, Macmillan,
New York, 1965.
Ryabov, Y., An Elementary Survey of Celestial Mechanics,

Yankovsky), Dover, New York, 1961.
Scarborough,
J.
(trans.
G.
The Gyroscope: Theory and Applications, Wiley

New York, 1958.
B.,
(Intersciencc),
Theobald, D. W., The Concept of Energy, E. and F. N. Spon, London,

1966.
Van
der
Kamp,
P.,
Elements of Astromechanics,
Freeman, San
Francisco and London, 1964.

Vertregt, M., Principles
and
721
New
of Astronautics,
York, 1965.
Individual topies
Elsevier,
Amsterdam, London
Answers to problems
CHAPTER
1-2
1-3
(a) 10
9
1-4
1-5
(a)
n -10 13 atoms;
50 atoms.
(b) 10
10 tons.
Probability of at least one 0.1.
1-6
1-7
10 10 molecules/cm 3 ; (b) 5
(a) 3
X
X
10" 4 cm.
H atoms/(m 3 -year);
10~ 9
atoms/day or about 10"' cm 3 at 1 Torr.

10 15
(b) 3
1-8 About 10 9 microorganisms ; the number is comparable with the
total human world population.
1-9
1-10
at
CHAPTER
(a)
(a) 10
T=
kg/m 3 (b) p belt 2 X 10" 9 kg/m 3

,5 atm 4
X 10-' 2 mmHg
approx; (b) p 5 X 105
10-'
300K.
2
2-1
2-3
x =
5.9, > = -15.8, r = 16.9 (in miles).

New York: (x,y,z) - (1330, -4620,4180) km;
Sydney: (x, y, z) = (-4620, 2560, -3560) km;
(b) 12,100 km; (c) * min = 16,000 km.
2-4
2-6
2-7
(b) (x,y,z)
(a)
/?e m
Ru =
a cos /3,
/?(cos
sin/3, sinarcos/3).
4000 miles.
(25,000/27r)
10 41 fundamental length units;
Tv
10 41 fundamental
time units.
2-10
2-11
(a)
t
r =
AD (x) =
Bti
[0>a
+ AB
+ *2
2 2
y, (b)
1/2
M1 +
B[l
2
(b-s
(2ABI) 2 ] 1 ' 2 .
2
2
(/ - x) Y' /v 2 }.
723
= 20\T3 km/hr, directed 120 west of north

Minimum separation of 2.6 km occurs at about 13:17 hours.
2
2
2-13 Putting T = 21/ V. the results are: (a) Fo/(l - v /V );
2
2
'2
v /V )
(b) r /(l
2
2
2
/(l - v IV ).
(c) r [l - (osmd/V) }
2-12
(a)
|v|
(b)
2
(b) The cutter reaches the ship a distance Do/(V
2
2
the coast from the port and a time DV/v(V - v )
leaving port.
2-14
down
-v 2
1
'2
1'2
after
About 4 minutes.
X 10 5 km.
= 87 implies / (=
2-15
(a)
2-17
(b) 3.8
sun's distance/moon's distance) = 19.

2-J8 6
o
Correctvalueof0is89 51',correspondingto/ = 385. ForAS = 0.1,
150
CHAPTER
</<
1300.
3-1 (b) f o
(.21/ g)
until separation is /).
(a)
J-4
10 m.
J-5
(a) i>(25)
/+
(b)
x =
3-7
= 4 m/sec;
5
35 mph, u(45)
80 sec.
58 sec, /_
not dropped
(c) I
(2
u(65)
40 mph
V2).sec.
2.4 sec.
Distance to
2 m.
Overtaking car travels 775
mph,
is
attain steady velocity
1523 f t
second object
ar(/
t/2);
2
10 m/sec, a = 4.17 m/sec , t
(c) u
(i.e.
/o
(c)
= -2 m/sec 2
3-3
i-6
'2
ft
minimum
approx;
distance
0.3 mile.
(assuming
10 6 km, vmia 620 km/sec
(a) y hMven w 1.9
hr of daylight, which is the length of the longest day of the year m
England, where Milton wrote).
(b) y
9 X 10" km, v ~ 10 km/sec.
3-8
7.5
3-9
(a)
(b)
3-10
In first interval, u, = 4.3 m/sec, c

In second interval, v x = 4.9 m/sec,
fll
(b) u
mo 2 /2 (~T)
2(1
3-14
5-75
(a) r(r
a (/
r(/
4)
4)
(all
2.1 m/sec;
This corresponds to the same value for

2
3-10(b); d,I.3X 10" m/sec.
K in Fig.
13.8
m behind thrower.
84 mph.
r(/ = 6) = -0.911 + 2.80J,

= 0) = 2.5j; r(/ = 2.5) - 2.5i.
= (7r/2)[-icos (jt/5) - j sin (ir/5)];
= (jr 2 /10)[-i sin (tt/5) + j cos (tt/5)].
10- 3 g;
-2.7 m/sec;
8)
=
=
(b) v(/
and
V33)
120 ft/sec
(a) 3
(d) 40
m/sec 2
380 m/sec.
where
3-16
= +30
as for Cs
3-/2
=
i>
(b) 6
10~* g;
(c) 8
10 21 g;
approx.).
+
+
(2r0
r&) sin 6,
r0 2 ) cos 9
r6) cos B;
rd 2 ) sin
(2r0
2
rd.
r - rS , a = 2r0
(b) a r
Each dot above a variable denotes a differentiation with respect to
2
2
time; e.g. r = dr/di, d = d 6/dt
3-17
(a)
ax
=
=
(r
(r
3-18
724
(a) v
(c) t
=
=
2
(\/3/8) m/sec, a = (5/8) m/sec ;
sec
1
sec.
cos '(4/5)]
f[7r
Ansvvers to problcms
CHAPTER 4
4-3
4-4
4-6
i
(a) (*, J)
(1/W0[<j(m> 2
w B ), *0v 3
w*)].
80(2.
In clockwise order beginning with the vertical rope, the tensions
n each case are:
(a)
H7(tan
(b) H',
4-7
cot
J*'
ip
e,
cos B
W esc
sin d), J*7(tan d cos
sin v);
e.
About 150 N. (b) The force on the car is about 2100 N;

it is moved by an additional 2 ft displacement of the mid-
(a)
the distance
point
4-9
4-10
4-1
4-12
4-13
4-14
4-15
CHAPTER
about 7 in.
100 lb.
is
(a)
(a) 3.5 ft;

235 lb in a direction 12
(b)
F=
-
l)/3
2(8V3
d
8.6
left
hand edge of the frame.
cos-'(r/J?).
W/20; (b) (W - >v)/20.

25m-N; cos (M A i) = ~M> cos (M A j) = +Jf,
cos (M A k) = f.
(a)
M=
5
5-1
2.6
10 5
5-2
3.5
10
5-3
5-4
5-5
(a)
km
-4
radius of moon's orbit around the earth.
seconds of arc. No.
G 6.24 X 10" 11 N-m 2 /kg 2 (b) 1.4% higher.

(A0X, = (A0).
47
(a) Fc = 9.2 X 10-8 N; Fa = 4.1 X 10"
N;
;
X 10 6 km, slightly
earth to moon.
(b) 2.4
5-6
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-11
5-12
5-14
5-15
CHAPTER
above the horizontal.
ft.
anywhere along the
(a) 5 lb;
(a)
more than 6 times the
distance
650 kg.
about 5%.
10 -18 approx.
/J 10- ,3 m.
Fvw
(a)
Fvw~ 4X 10- 2 Fc
4 X H)" 11 N; (b) 20
tons/in 2
(d)
350
lb,
(a)
0.4
lb,
1,230
lb,
4,330
(b)
15,200
10- 6 FC .
X 10" 11 N.
lb.
mm/sec.
6
6-2
6-3
6-4
Yesjust
(a) F,v g
x
vx
y
o,
6-5
6-6
725
(a)
(c)
(a)
(c)
barely.
1.96
10 4
N;
(b) h
= 0.5m.
= (5V2 - 7) m 0.07 m,
= (5V2 - 3) m/sec 4.07 m/sec,
= [11 - 5(2 V3 - V2)] m 0.75 m,
= [4 - 5(2V3" - V2)] m/sec -6.25 m/sec.
F*
0,F = -A;
Fx = -A, F, = 0.
F > 5 X 10~ 5 N;
W=
Answers
to
7.5
(b)
(b)
F, = -kx, Fy = -ky;
Ap =
10- 7 joules.
problems
10~ 5 N-sec;
from
= 0) = 5 N; (b) Fmax = 10 N.
=
F -5.6 X 10 8 N, F/ mg = f;
6-7
(a) F(t
6-8
(a)
(b) v
6-9
V 42 m/sec
= mAa 2
(b) F(t)
(i
mph.
15
sina/
cos a/); a mass attached to the
rim of a rolling whecl.

6-10
(a)
(b)
CHAPTER
iw
iw
=
=
(7-///7i)
[(r
1/2
tl
(mg/T) 2 ] 1 ' 2 ;
mgV/m] 1 ".
7
7-1
TA = To + 2ma\ TB = Wo + ma.
a = 0.6 m/sec 2 (b) Fc = 3.2 N.
7-2
(a)
7-3
(c)
7-4
(b)
7-5
(a)
[P(cos0
lisin 6)/ m]
ng; (d) tan
-1
m-
= a m (i) + an(t);
= (F/2m) - g; ay, = (F/2M) - g;
aP = -g + [(M + m)F/4Mm\.
TA = 2250 N; T = Tc = 1125 N; (c) Fc =
2ap(t)
is:
am
7-6
(a)
7-8
7-9
9 m/sec.
(a)
(b)
7-10
T = m\m2g sin 0/(mi + W2); 2 = "2 sin 0/(m\ + m-z).

Ti = T = F/2; (b) The dynamically important form of
the relation
(c)
(a)
375 N.
7X0 = f(1 - W)> where / is the distance from the pulled

end. Doing it vertically does not change the value of T<J).
+ /n(l - l/L))a;
7X0 =
7X0 =[M + m(l - l/L)](a + g).
2.466
10 7 m/sec; (b) (e/m)
1.75
10 11 coul/kg;
obtained
(c) Relativistic correction requires increasing the value
by 0.5%.
7-11
7-12
7-13
7-14
7-15
above
7-16
7-17
m =
7-19
ft.
0.09.
2800volts.
v max
Gr/0
1/2
/27r.
F = (0.98V2
1.4
in plane of
motion and directed 45
from rim.
line to center
Begin to puli out at
300
ft
altitude.
44 m/sec ss 97 mph.
(mlT/F 2 ) 1 ' 2 ; (b) ai/2)
(a) 12; (b)

(a) /i
(c) s
=
= 3IT/2F.
(F 2
1SF*) 1 ' 2 /*;
7-20 i> = 9 X 10 7 m/sec; Ko = 90 million volts in Newtonian

mechanics; relativistic correction increases Vo by about 10%.
7-27 (a) u min = (gr/v) ' 2 ; (b) 2 mm; (c) 9.5 m/sec; 4.6 m.
1
7-25
7-24
7-25
vo'
7-2(5
50 cm/sec,
7-27
(a) 200 N/m;

(b) x(i) = 5 cos 10/ (x in cm, positive for extension,
5 cos 10/ (x in cm, / in sec).
(c) x(f)
10 sin 10/
(a) 0.97/j; (b) 3 (negative); (c) 530.
eo/4;
About
m' =
2i>i
jfo
726
w =
w =
Answers
(6g/5h) U2
(p g/pl)
to
(7/4)t>
sec.
7-28
7-29
millisec.
m
.
problems
in sec);
7-30
2(T/mL) 1/2 ;
(a)
/^
7-31
(a)
gT
7-32
(a)
About
2
;
pgl*/** 2
cm;
1.6
[TL/mD(L
(b)
(b)
No
(b)
D)] 1 ' 2
<
(a mBX
g).
CHAPTER 8
5-/
-2
8-3
5-4
8-5
5-6
8-7
2jhr.
< TjJTb < 3V3
4.0
R - Rb "
(a)
10- 4 7"b
2.88
5V10/4
1,700
km;
(b)
fi-^9XlO'ra
1.7
Ar/r
10 3 m/sec,
5.1
10
A* 10 -4
(b)f~ 1.35 X
Afj9X
S-/2
8-15
5-/6
(a)
Af
(a)
T=
No, Ag
T=
p 3U
-6
;
T'
or
10
5.2.
A hr
27 min
6.5
Ar
0.49 rev/hr.
A0 13a.
10" 2 mgal.
(3t/ p G) u2 TH20 1.2

3
1.3 X 1 O 3 kg/m .
10 4 sec.
10 5 kg, 7? = 1.9 m; (b) No

10 5 )(D 3 /M)" 2 (b) *?.
(a) 0.73-R, from center of earth
3
4 hours.
(6.6 X 10- )rmo th
(b) AT
(7.4
Mtotal 10 n
A7
Af,un.
10" 3
2.5
sec.
9
9-4
9-5
V3
28uo/45; V2
o/15.
= (o /4)(5 - 2V2) 1 2 0.37UO,

d = tan-'[l/(2\/2 - 1)] 29.
9-6 Two tosses in both cases.
9-7 Fav = 36 N.
9-8 Ax =* 2.35 cm.
9-9 v = 73 ft/sec = 22 m/sec, F = 350 N = 80 lb.
= [Mg/irR 2p} uz (b) oo = 15.5 m/sec.
9-10 (a)
3
9-11 (a) a = Ooo/Afo) - g; (b) m = 7 X 10 kg/sec.
'
t>
9-12
(b) c 2
d6i
(d) pm
727
[ ,
"i
!n
[ rNl/2
9-/4
(a)
/i
9-/J
(a) ntj/nti
3; (b) vcm
(d) A(iii 8)-
9-/7
9-/5
9-/9
(c) /m
o/
[ riV
2; (b)
(1
F=
(a)
(a)
0.12mo, PB
= V/V;
(C)
'2
(1
r) j
.J-
2^p; 2
(e)
r) ]
2o
(c)
F=
wi/4;
2.8uo, /C/f
(c)
B; (b) 2 = 4o/5, Es = Eo/5.

impliesui = 150 mph; (b) f.
Answers
to
problems
20
sec.
hr 50 min.
210 m.
ss
rev/sec
10 3 sec
10 24 kg,
3.5
9/0/16.
0.1 mm;
m
_4
(a)
5-5
5-9
8-10
5-//
8-17
5-79
CHAPTER
7".
irr
pt;
2
.
K^/Mim 2);
0.95/CEo-
9-20
9-21
(a) i
%u, v 2
i; (b)
/8
/j
is lost.
A/ = 2m, v = k/V3, & = t/6;

(b) m * = 2r/3, 0* = 5^/3.
= -34; CM, o = (V3/6),
Lab: y = 0.48,
(a)
n - (1.2 0.4) amu;
(a)
9-2J
9-24
111.
7
finitiai - (3.1 =fc 0.4) X 10 m/sec.
Proton; (b) Yes, within experimental error.
(a) wN * = 12.7 X 10 6 m/sec, uC -i2* = 1.06 X
= 132; (c) n = 50.
(b) uw'-b = 10 7 m/sec,
(b)
9-25
9-26
(a)
9-27
9-28
(b)
=
=
9-29
(a)
- m) /(M + m)] 2
KEP < 8.98 Mev; (b)
Mev <
max
68.5,
KE(0 m )
Mev.
0.25
= mL/(M +
<7
O 6 m/sec;
1'
tan- 1 [(A/
(a) 2.01
m).
CHAPTER 10
10-1
F 2 T 2 /8m.
10-2
70-3
(a) 10
10-4
(b) lever, /2//1
m/sec; (b) 5V6 12.2 m/sec.

= F3 (i)/6C 2 m;
= [PoF(rVC][l + (F 2 (t)/6Cmv )l
(a) *(/)
(b) *(/)
crank,
10-5
(b)
10-6
10-7
10-8
10-9
(a) 5
about 15
mu 2/2;
(a)
FuR.
N;
/w (m
(a) 1.95
(b) 118
min
a).
(b) 5
2
10 5 J; (c) 2.5
+ 2uv)/2, where 1
10 6 ftlbs(= 1.33
2 hr; (c) 7.80
X
X
(a) 2.4
10-13
(a)
10 5
J.
the mass of the ball.
10 6 J);
10 6 ft lbs.
man-years.
'
+ 2(H
Ho
(c)
hy>
which
is
higher than in (a) by
2(H
fi)
u2
.
10~ s eV.
10-14
10-15
10-17
(*i/*2)
1/2
[(l
10-18
GrL/2)" 2
(a) (mi +
10-19
(b) 4 J; (c)
10-20
10-22
About 39
2wi; 2A:2/A:i 2) ,/2
l] 1 ' 2 .
m 2 )g.
x < Om, x >
m.
sec.
- (MSp/*);
AT = Gr/ ) +
(b) r
(c)
where
7"o
that
co
7"o
10-23
(b)
10-24
(a)
(d)
(2/o)0 )sin- 1 {1/[1
(a.
/2)
2 1/2
]
o = v k/ M.
T 1 (that is, when 77 Mg/ k), AT = tt/coo;

AT = 2r/u
16/tt 2 J = 1.62 J.
U(x) = +(k x 2 /2) - (k 2 x 3 /3); (b) k 2 = (*i/26);
1/2
y = (*,6V3m)
when
o>
1,
70-2(5
10-27
(b)
70-J0
(a) (3mv /2)

(kL 2 /8); (b) v; (c)
(d) 2i:{2m/3k) v2 .
Answers
period of bouncing for perfectly rigid floor;
(3mv 2/2a) 1 ' 3 .

(2 + y/J)(mb/3Uo)
70-25
is
X 10 12 J; (b) 3.8 X 10 6 man-days 10 4

Um/M(M + m)g = H
(2ghy> 2 (2gh) i/S + [2Um/M(M + m)] 2
2
10-12
Note
when
in.
10*
(a)
(b)
728
inclined plane, cosec 0; pulley system, 6;
7?/(Z>
/4
(-t/8/0
2
).
to
problem s
(3*L 2 /8m) 1/a
10-31
10-32
10-33
CHAPTER
(a) 5.4
eV; (b)
1/(m - 6>
= (/Hfl/6/D
ro = (nB/Ae 2) '*-;
u = 180 kcal/mole.
(b) r
(b)
(d)
10 13 Hz.
1.9
(c)
D=
(n
AT (n
accelerates
down
(c)
6)A/nr
l)Ae /nr
11
11-2
11-4
=
T=
- \Z3V6
g(2
mg(\
I/2
(a) fe/)
(d) cos fl
(b)
11-6
(a) (//V)[m/(Af
11-7
(a)
(b) g(3
11-8
11-9
11-10
11-11
11-12
11-13
11-14
11-16
11-17
(a) (5g/)
(3
mg(5
(2w
2mg;
(n
(c) 2<g!)
l)
/2(n
v*/(n +
l)
1);
= 3m/2M
m)] 2 ; (b) M Hioi
2A/r) directed vertically upward;
Ih/r).
1/2
(b)
COS-H2/3).
V3)m.
cos" 1 (2/3); (b) oos-*[(2

oo 2 /gR)/3]; (c) 5.8 m.
= cos" 1 [(4 V3)/26];
(b) buckiing = cos _I [-2(rcos/3 - Lcosa)/3(L - r)];
(c) cos a = (r/L) cos /3 - (V3/2)[l - (r/L)].
(a) 9 mm; (b) 5.4 sec.
It would lose nearly 2 sec per week.
(a)
(a) 6
(a)
(a)
= 2L sin
(0/2)[/wgtan (9/2)/*] 1/2

2TrR hp./l(AT/T)
(h/R)]; (b) 10 sec/day.
<
For
(a)
<
R, F(r)
(b)
R < r < 2R,

= IGMm/r 2
For
0;
= GMm/r 2 For 2R < r,

-2GMm/R; (c) 2(GM/R) 1/2
F(r)
11-18
the 30 slope);
V3)/3.
F(r)
(b) Ttuual
= (3t/ p C) 1/2 =
= TYunnel-
1 hr.
49 min;
(c) Tjatellilo
11-19
According to
this criterion, the earth could retain all four of
moon, only N2 and CO2; Mars, all except H2. It

should be noted that an era of higher temperature could have resulted
these gases; the
in the loss of heavier gases.

1 '2
11-21 (a)
. (b) The launch point has a speed
ape - (5GM/2R)
0.12u escape relative to the center of mass of the system, so the needed
launch speed can be reduced.
iw
10 8 J; (b) 2.7
10 9 J; (c) 5.8 X 109 J;
"hilltop" is about 0.9D from the earth, the kinetic
energy needed at the earth 's surface to overcome it is about 6.1
10 9 J.
11-22
(a) 8.4
(d)
The
11-23
(d)
11-24
The
11-25
For
For z
(a)
(b)
r,
F(z)
F(z)
~ -2GMm/z 2
KE =
k ia 2 /2
z /2r )/r;
(straight line),
force of case (a)
k 2 b 2 /2; (b)
is
KE -
= lO~ 2 FN(ro)
about 10
there.
Answers to problems
(ftj
k 2)ab/2.
the conservative force.
FN (r) - [-\e-"">/(r r)]H + (r

FN (r = 1.4F) w -4.2 X 10 3 N,
Fc (r = 1.4F) 1.2 X 10 2 N;
is
-2GM/z;
U(z)
-2GMmz/r 3
U(z) = -2GM(\ TP = 7b/2V2.
(c) F/f(r)
729
r,
For the path given

(a)
1 '
(b) U(z)
(c)
= -2GMmz/(r 2 + z 2 ) 3 2
= -2GMm/(r 2 + z 2) 2
'
(a) F(z)
/r)];
for r just over 5F; the
coulomb
force
11-28
(a)
11-30
(a)
(b)
(c)
0-45; (b) B = Jtan" 1 (-\/n); (c) 6 50.8.

g = 2irC<r{l - [h/(R 2 + h 2 ) 1 ' 2 ]}
For R = 2h,g = 0.55(2,rG<r); For /? = 5h,
g = 0.80(2irGcr); For/? - 25/r, g = 0.96(2irGa);
;
0.08sec/yr.
CHAPTER 12
H+
/2-/ x = vt, y =
Rsin2nnt, z =
Rcos2imt, where the
observer's x axis has been taken along the direction of flight, where
is the (constant) altitude of the propeller hub, and where the sense of
the propeller rotation is clockwise (as viewed by the pilot).
The
coordinate and time origin have been chosen for maximum simplicity.
J2-2
(R 2 + D 2 - 2R D
= tan- 1 [/(/)/*'(/)],
(a) r'(t)
B' (t)
2
cos u/)" ;
= D cos ut - R, y'(l) = D sin w/,

= -uDsinwt; d//dt = -uDcosut;
2
2
2 =
d 2 x'/di 2
co Dcosco/; d / /di
u 2 D sin tor.
where ^(t)
(b) did/dt
/2-i
tan
12-4
(a)
(b)
12-5
(a)
(e)
-1
(a/g) (forward of the vertical).
1.5 m/sec 2 (relative to ground);

m/sec (relative to ground); (c) 33 m.
+5
840 N; (b) 700 N; (c) 560 N; (d) 560 N, 700 N, 840 N;

elevator has an acceleration of 20/7 m/sec 2 directed
upward. The direction of the elevator's motion is not
The
determined.
= ngcosB.
m; (b) 0.25 m.
12-6
a m mx
12-7
(a) 0.5
12-8
(b) a..*
12-9
Speed
79 m/sec
is
31g/8.
(~
175 mph), 1180
12-10
(S mi.).
a m = 6.7 X
12-12
(a)
12-13
(a) It is in
equilibrium at tan
downward;
T=
of runway
is
used
10 4 m/sec 2
-1
12-11 (a) tan
(a/g); the apple dropped in a straight line at an
-1
angletan
(a/g) forward of "straight down". Thus, if (h/d) < (a/g),
it hit the fioor; otherwise it hit the wali. (b) The balloon tilted forward
-1
at an angle tan
(a' /g) to the (upward) vertical.
a3m
g/'i
downward;
2*-[//(<j
FP =
(b)
-1
+ g2
1 '
2mg.
(a/g) back
2
1 '2
from
vertically
in equilibrium when string is normal to track (i.e., 6

1/2
vertical);
2*-[//(gcos0)]
(c) It is in equilibrium when string is vertically down, pro-
(b) It
is
T=
back from
< g;
2200 N.
vided that a
12-14
500 lbs
12-15
(a)
<o
(b)
aw
12-16
>
(c) ai m
12-17
(a)
(c)
+ g)/R]
15/irrpm.
12-19
F,
160,000
0.1
12-18
5.2
1 '
(b)
w >
a)]
1'
[(a
2.
y i2 /R] i/2
1 '2
;
-1
10 3 sec
or about 50,000 rpm.
,
X normal"g";(b)F -
9.5
10~ 9 dynes;
mm/sec.
= 3mgR (AR/R).
the radial displacement A/?.)
730
2r[l/(g
= (2kS m / P )
eft
[(a
T=
Answers to problems
(Note that F e t acts
in the direction
of
CHAPTER
13
l/r 3
13-1
13-2
(a) o
= (ke 2 /mr) 1 2 (b) / = (ke 2 mr) 112

2
2 2
2
r = n A /4ir itc m;
2 2
s
/(/) = -*r *Vm/i A ;
(c)
(d)
'
= -2irWm/n 2 h 2
X 10- 10 m 0.5 A; -i ~
thus (r)
(e)
0.5
14 eV.
X, inB ,/ii:ii ti.i = h 2/!2

2
2
/J-4 /wB = i>o (0 - cP)/2Gd.
=
16/?/7;
(b) rm = 9R/7.
13-6 (a) rn
1 '2
(b) 7" = 2V3(2ô/fo).
13-12 (a) i> = vo/3 = (GM/6R0)
/J-3
13-13
(b) yF
13-14
13-15
[1
{.8/2(1
v
a
(a)
a = cos- 1
(c)
(3/5).
(V3/2)]n.
13-16
13-18
3u
a)} {1
[1
a) cos 2 6] 1 ' 2 }, where
R/2GM.
= -3GMm/16r;
4a(l
l/r
= m(GMr) 1,2 /2.
5
.
=
13-19 (a) Using the notation of the text discussion, o\ = l.loo
3/2
1.47*, so that the time of flight is
TS
32.6km/sec; T = (1.26)
Note that 00 = 29.6
0.7 years, and v 2 = 0.72o ~ 21.3 km/sec.
s
km/sec and i; M ar. = 24.0 km/sec. (b) gE = gmn at about 2 X 10
3
10"
work
from
Mars;
=
at
about
AU from earth; g M . r . g.un
against sun 5 X work against earth -25 X work against Mars.
AU
13-20
(a)
rap
(Aoi/p )] 2 /{2 - [1
(r/r B) - [1
is the aphelion distance in AU, vo
+ (Aui/00)] 2 }, where
is
the earth s orbital
speed, and Ain is the increment.

(AuiA-o)](rs/r, p) =
(b) (o.p/uo) = [1
2
(Adi/io)1;
(Ai>,A>o)] }/[l
{2 - [1
0>pA>o)
Thus, [(Au) to ti n<*dd/i?o] = (Aui/uo)
(Afi/1^0)].
(Am/i>o)]/[l
[1
/5-2/
The
year has lengthened about 20 millisec in 5000 years.
13-22
13-23
L(f)
= Loc- x "-.
coso> / + 0W&>o) sin r;
yo cos w / + (iWo) sin oi t, where </ = */.
The orbit is an ellipse; total energy and angular momentum
= x
(a) x(t)
v)
are conserved.
(b) ojo^; rm x
13-25
(b) 1.7
/5-26
(b)
14-3
(a)
/o
2R.
10" I4 cm 2 (c) rA + rK = 7.4 A.

= 4.5 X 10~ 12 m; (d) about 50.
CHAPTER 14
(b)
420 J-sec; the sign depends on the sense of the rotation

2310 J-sec if the third skater travels in same direction as
nearer one was initially skating; 1470 J-sec if the third
the
skater travels in the opposite direction as the nearer one.
14-4
KErot
14-5
(a) doi/dt
0.01
KE
M
2
[Mr /o/(/o
dEIoi/di = -[pr 2 /o/(/o

/o
(b)
14-6
MR
/2.
/0/Mr 2
(a) ojjinai
(c)
731
nr
]u
t)
fir
')
][/<xoo72], where
(M//*)(* 2 /2r 2 ).
3wo; rotational
R/Vl.
Answers to problems
KE increased
by factor
3.
14-7 10 171 J.
14-8 In the answers below, / represents the value obtained by approximating the bar as n equal mass points.
(a) /, = MZ.2/4; (b) / 2 = 5A/L 2 /16;
(c) Ia
/4-9
(a) /
14-10
(a) /
(b) /
(c) /
14-13
Yes.
/4-/5
(a)
= CM/)Z2-i K2* - l)/(2*)] 2

= [A/Z. 2 /3][l - (l/4 2 )].
= 2MR 2 /3.
= Ma 2 /6, plate of edge a, mass M;
= 5Ma 2 /l8, box of edge a, mass M;
= Ma 2 /6, cube of edge a, mass M.
4^/15; (b) 8V5/3SCC-';

66 N; 12.7N(using* = 10m/sec 2 );
(d) One full turn beyond the minimum half-turn.
(c)
14-16
(a) 0.35
14-17
14-18
x =
(a)
g =
3.4
m/sec 2 ;
T =
2ir(3/?/s)
1/2
length 3R.
(b) T = 2ir(2R/g) 1/2
length 2R.
14-19
T = 2wR(M/2c)
14-21
14-22
(a) 2.2
(a) 2.9
(c) 7.5
X
X
X
(a)
/4-24
14-26
w Af = W0 /[l
14-27
(a) 5
(b)
(t/3 0) sec
/?rVl
for /
pendulum has
pendulum has
A//? 2 /2;
m/sec
0.10 5 sec; (b)
(I/2mR 2~)
14-31
732
in the direction
to
82 N;
r2
32 N.
of the truck's motion;

is the radius of the pipe:
m/sec)/r, where r
4.16 m; (d) 0.
(a)
Answers
1];
= *[V1 + (A//4^ - 1].

*/ - -(Ra/Rb)ua/.
5/4M =
h = 2r/5.
108/t 2 11 rev/min.
(c)
(c) 7.7.
(/b /?x 2 //^/?b 2 )];
u = (5
14-28
m.
10- 8 m-N/rad; (b) 1.3 X 10~ 7 N;

10~ 8 m-N/rad; (b) 12 min;
10- 3 rad = 0.43; 7.5 cm.
14-23
(b) 6.6
b.
problems
Index
orbital,
Abetti, G., 717
Abraham,
Z.,
Acceleration, 85
centripetal, 106,
200
total,
in circular motion, 106, 108
in polar coordinates, 108,
557
557
related to force, 165

transverse, 108, 200, 557
Accelerometers, 498, 501
Action and reaction

in collisions, 313, 316,320
in jets
and rockets, 324
in static equilibrium, 123
Adam, 13
Adams, J. C, 292
Air resistance, 153, 214, 218
and independence of motions, 225
Airy,
G.
B.,
294
Almagest, 76
Alpha particle scattering, 604, 612

Anderson, O. L., 432
Angels, motivc power of, 554
Angstrom, A. J., 27
Angular momentum
conservation of, 562, 639
and kinetic energy, 654
internal, 632, 641
potential energy, 564
633
vector additivity of, 672, 679
Angular
invariance of, 175
radial, 108,
560
and centrifugal
quantum of, 637
452
velocity, 107
vector properties of, 673
Animals
cruelty to, 104, 486
equality of, 21
Aphelion, 577
Apogee, 577
Apple, see Moon
Approximations,
10,
12
Archimedes, 117, 133

Archimedes' principle, 512
Aristarchus, 75, 77, 78, 83, 275
Asteroids, 35
Astin, A. V., 64
Astronomical
Atomic mass
Atoms, 26
unit, 247,
279
unit (amu), 27
free fail of, 98
gyroscopic behavior of, 686
masses
of,
(table),
radii of,
27
27
28
velocity distribution of, 100, 102
Austern, N., 181
733
Central-force motion
Baade, W., 35
energy conservation in, 563

and law of equal areas, 557, 584
Baez, A., 585
Bagnold, R. A., 32
Balance, 117
radial part of, 564
Banking of curves, 199
effective potential-energy curves, 565,
570
Barker, E. F., 688
as two-body problem, 598
Barnard, E. E., 297

Barrere, M., 327
Bathtub vortex, 529
Centrifugal force, 507
Beams,
Centrifuges, 511
Centrifugal potential energy, 564
W., 513
J.
Bell, E. T., 61
Centripetal acceleration, 106, 200
Berkeley, G., 542
Chadwick, J., 363

Circular motion
Berry, A., 77, 296
Binary
stars,
energy conservation in, 426

non-uniform, 108, 200
296
Bloch, F., 687
Bockelman, C. K., 404

Bode, J., 293
uniform, 105
acceleration
Bounded
568
orbits,
Boys, C. V., 155

Bragg, S. L., 327
Brahe, Tycho,
5, 14,
277, 578
Branson, H. R., 351

Broad, C. D., 114
Browne, C.
P.,
404
W. W., 404
Bullard, E.
C,
452
Bursting speed (of rotating object), 208, 513

Butler,
J.
106
relation to SHM, 233

Clemence, G. M., 66
Cloud chamber, electron paths
CM
A. V., 29
in,
and
345, 349
kinetic energy in, 338, 339
Coe,
L.,
66
Collisions
definition of, 351
and
inelastic,
309
elastic (perfectly elastic), 332,

J.,
203
collision processes, 337, 341, 342,
elastic
Caesar,
field,
frame, 335
Bucherer, A. H., 169
Buechner,
in,
of charged particle in magnetic

202
dynamics of, 198
Bode's law, 293
342
with energy storage, 400
39
Cartesian coordinates, 49
explosive, 347
Cassini, G. D., 277
with external forces, 352
Catapult, 391
first
Cathode-ray tube, 195

Cavendish, H., 141
Cavendish experiment, 142, 154, 155
and frames of reference, 331, 340, 342
Cells, 31
and kinetic energy, 333

and momentum conservation, 308, 311
Center of gravity, 132, 337

Center of mass, 296, 337
and
center of gravity, 132, 337
kinetic energy of, 338, 631
motion of, 353, 629

frame
See also
CM
Center of percussion, 671

Central force
conservative propcrty of, 442
definition of,
734
Index
442
experiments on, 308
inelastic,
346
invariance of
KE changes,
334
nuclear, 342
two-dimensional, 339
and zero-momentum frame, 335, 341

Colodny, R. G., 180
Conservation
of angular momentum, 562, 639
of energy, see Energy
of linear momentum, 308, 309, 312, 318
of mass, 309
Conservative forces, 381, 423, 442, 457

Constraints, 425
Dust, 31
Dyne
119
(def.),
Contact, 150, 151
Contact forces, 150, 152,157

Conversion factors, 710, 711
Coordinate systems, 48
Earth
as gyroscope, 694
mass of, 268, 302
mean
Coordinates
density of, 270
Cartesian, 49, 50, 52
radial variation of density, 452
oblique, 51
radius
orthogonal, 51, 56
as rotating frame, 524

deviation of falling objects, 525
polar, 49, 50, 52
rectangular, see Coordinates, Cartesian
Copernican system, 76, 247, 249

Copernicus, N., 77, 78, 249, 696
Coriolis, G.,
514
Coriolis forces, 514
and cyclones, 528

and deviation of falling objects, 525
and Foucault pendulum, 529
in gyroscope, 691
Coulomb, C. A., 145
Coulomb
forces, 145, 149, 151
Coulomb's law, 145

Crew, H., 162, 431
of,
on g, 524
and formation of cyclones, 528
and Foucault pendulum, 529
Earth satellites, 265
orbit decay of, 470
Earth-moon system
effect
gravitational potential of, 455
and precession of equinoxes, 696

and tide production, 532
Eddington, A. S., 163
Edgerton, H. E., 163, 630
Einstein, A., 8, 45, 161, 169, 178, 280, 299,
492, 506, 543
Cross product, 127
Eisenbud, L., 181
Cross section
Electric field, 462,
differential,
partial,
614
611
scattering, 609
Csikai,
J.,
357
Cyclotron, 204
and motion of charged particles, 195, 467

between neutral atoms, 149
Electrons, 24
in combined electric and magnetic fields,
sidereal, 64,
solar, 64,
De
467
magnetic
82
Recolutionibus, 77, 249

Salvio, A., 162, 431
206, 467
geometry
of,
583
Elliptic orbits, see Orbits

Ellis, B., 180,
82
field,
trajectory in oscilloscope, 196

Ellipse,
Day
467
Electric force, 145
in
DaVinci, L., 126
186
Energy, 367
Descartes, R., 3, 306
conservation of, 367, 377, 381, 425

in central force motion, 563
Diatomic molecule
kinetic, see Kinetic energy
De
rotation of,
637
vibration of, 405
Dicke, R. H., 283, 546

Dirac, P. A. M., 65, 94
Displacement, 52, 53
relative, 55
potential, see Potential energy

(table),
375
unitsof, 373, 711
Energy diagrams, 382, 389

Eotvos, R., 281
Eotvos experiment, 282
Dissipative forces, 210, 381, 470
Epicycle, 76, 77
DuBridge, L. A., 619

Du Mond, J. W. M., 221
Equal areas, law

Equant, 579
735
Index
259
of,
557
Equilibrant (ofset of forces), 123
gravitational, 139, 140
Equilibrium
conservative property of, 442
rotational, 120, 124, 131
inertial, see Inertial forces
395
stable,
static, 116,
463
lines of, 462,
119
magnetic, 146, 202, 205, 468
translational, 120
nuclear, 139, 147, 156
Equinoxes, precession
of, 6,
694
of particle stream, 321
momentum, 315
Equipotentials, 463
as rate of change of
Equivalence principle, 280, 506

Equivalent simple pendulum, 663
units of, 118, 171
vector nature of, 119
Eratosthenes, 79, 259
See also Forces
Eros, 278
Forces
See also Venus, transit of

Escape velocities, 453
Estermann, I., 100, 101
Euclidean geometry, 59
contact, see Contact forces
equilibrium
polygon
of,
116
of, 121
resolution of, 122
vector combination of, 120, 168
Eve, 13
ExpIosive collisions, 347
Exponentials, 222
Foucault,
Extrancous roots, 93
Frame of
J. B. L., 529
Foucault pendulum, 529
and
reference, 46, 162
342
collisions, 331, 340,
Falk, H., 707
of "fixed stars," 47, 295, 540
Faraday, M., 139
inertial, see Inertial
frame
Feather, N., 66
linearly accelerated,
495
Feenberg,
and Newton's Second Law, 174
E.,
622
Fermat's principle, 81
Fermi, E., 26
Fermi (unit), 26
Feynman, R. P.,
rotating, 507
thc carth as, see Earth

free fail in,
68,
554
Field(s), 461
467
gravitational, 462, 473,

flat sheet,
flux of,
Free
476
477
473
"Fixed stars" (reference frame), 47, 295, 540

Flux (of
J.,
277, 286, 291
field),
fail,
and
95, 102
air resistance,
214
of atoms, 98
of neutrons, 100
of sphere, 462, 476

Field lines, 462, 464
Flamsteed,
523
Fraser. J. T., 66
electric, 462,
of
525
inertial forces in, 510, 518,
473
Flywheels, 654
on rotating earth, 525

and weightlessness, 285
Friction
coefficient of, 153, 190
dry, 152, 210

fluid,
Force, 115
central (def.), 442
153,211
Newtonian theory
Frisch, D. H., 181
of,
360
centrifugal, see Centrifugal force
conservativc, 381
criteria for,
457
468
electromagnetic, 139, 147
electric, 145, 149, 151,
of fluid
frictional,
736
324
152, 210
jet,
Index
8, 96,
279
altitude
dependence
of,
270
as gravitational field, 462
dependence of, 284, 524

272
G, 141, 268
latitude
local variations of,
Gal
(unit),
Halley's comet, 597
272
Hanson, N. R., 546
Galaxies, 36
contracting, dynamics of, 657
Galaxy
mass
Harmonic motion,
see Simple harmonic
motion
of,
Harmonic
299
oscillators, 226, 233, 393, 432,
Galilean transformation, 175, 334
Havens, W. W., 100

Heaven, altitude of, 111
Galilei, G., 84, 95, 112, 161, 162, 225, 240,
Herivel,
rotation of, 298
286, 288, 429, 494
Galle,
Herschel,
G., 294
J.
J.,
295
Herschel, W., 291, 295
Gas
internal
KE of, 631
Hipparchus, 75, 83, 260, 696

Hodograph, 103
pressure of, 354, 631
Gauss, K. F., 61
Gaussian surface, 474
Gauss's Law (or Theorem), 473
applications of, 476
Geodesic, 299
Gillispie,
C. G., 366
677
cluster, 143,
Hoyle, F., 36
Hubble, E., 36
Hyperbolic
rings,
Globular
Hooke, R., 227, 255, 272

Hooke's law, 227, 387
Hubble's law, 16, 39

Hume, J. N. P., 519
Huygens, C, 255, 308, 331, 442, 479
Geiger, H., 605, 612, 616
Gimbal
J., 559
Herodotus, 414
orbits, 604,
607
Hysteresis, 389
144
Gold, T., 66
Gravimeter, 272
Gravitation
Einstein's theory
Iben,
I.,
452
Impact, laws of, 308

of,
299
law of, 5, 139, 140, 245, 256

Newton's theory of, 5, 6, 245, 256
Gravitational forces, 139, 140
conservative property of, 442
Gravity
acceleration due to, see
See also Collisions

Impact parameter, 570, 607
Impulse, 173, 313, 369
Impulsive force, 315, 371, 669
Impulsive torque, 669
Independence of motions, 95, 194
limitations to, 225
equivalence to accelerated frame, 504
Inelastic collisions,
forceof, 119, 129
Inertia
Gravity meter (gravimeter), 272

Great Pyramid of Gizeh, 414
Guye, C, 169
Gyrocompass, 685
F = ma, 688
analyzed via
navigational use of, 683
nutation of, 691

in steady precession, 678, 681
Hadron, 147
Hafner, E. M., 66
Haldane,J. B.
Hall, E., 552
S., 11
Halley, E., 255, 277, 597
737
Index
lawof, 161,494,542
moment
of, see
Moments of inertia
origin of, 542

Inertial forces, 494, 497, 507, 518
and Mach's
Gyroscope, 677
346
principle, 545
494
dynamical equivalence of, 174, 497
fundamental, 538
Inertial mass, 166, 280, 319, 543
velocity dependence of, 169
Infeld, L., 492
Integrals of motion, 368
Inertial frame(s), 163,
Invariance
of energy changes, 334

of Newton's law, 173
437
and torque, 642

and force, 642
rotational,
translational,
Inverse-square law
electric,
and
Lagrange,
L.,
J.
290
Laplace, P. S. de, 287
Lavanchy, C., 169
145
Lavoisier, A. L., 309
a-particle scattering, 604
gravitational, 5, 141, 245
deduced from elliptic orbit, 583

deduced from Kepler's Third Law, 254
types of orbits, 600
Ivey, D. G., 519
Lawrence, E. O., 204

Laws of motion, 162
Leibnitz, G. W. von, 368
Leighton, R. B., 68
Lemonick, A., 672

Length, units
of, 63, 709,
710
Lesage, G. L., 304

Jeans,
J.
Jeffery,
H., 39
G.
B.,
Lever, law
506
of, 117, 125,
LeVerrier, U.
J.,
Jet propulsion, 324, 359
Light, speed of, 67
Johnson, N.
Light-year, 35, 711
B., 102
Jones, H. S., 295
Lindsay, R. B., 366
Joule (unit), 173, 373
Linear oscillator, 387
Jupiter (planet)
133
292
as two-body problem, 397
mean density of, 286

moons of, 278, 286, 288
discovered by Galileo, 288
Lines of force, 462, 463

Lippershey, H., 288
Locke,
J.,
583
orbit of, 248
Mach,
542
E., 331,
Kant, L, 36
Mach number,
Kaufmann, W., 169

Kemble, E. C, 75
Mach's principle, 543

Magnetic field, 205
Magnetic force, 146, 202, 205
and motion of charged particles, 146, 202,
206, 467
Kepler,
J., 5,
253, 276, 577
Kepler's laws,
5, 7,
252
Kepler's Second Law,
5,
559
implies central force, 559
Kepler's Third Law, 252

explained by Newton's laws, 254
and Jupiter's moons, 290

Kilogram (def.), 171
Kinetic energy (KE), 173
in
CM
frame, 338
Many-particle system
angular
momentum
Mars
of many-particle system, 630

of rolling object, 652
orbit of, 252,
Knot
(unit),
67
643
(planet)
motion
Kirchner, F., 236

Kirkpatrick, P., 4
of,
dynamics of, 629, 641

kinetic energy of, 631
momentum of, 628
Margenau, H., 366
in collisions, 333
of rotating objects, 651, 654, 675

of two-body system, 338, 347, 398
King, J. G., 39, 149, 624
67
of,
74
581,582
analyzed by Kepler, 578

parallax of, 277
Marsden, E., 605, 612, 616
Maskelyne, N., 302
Mass. 23, 164, 166
additivity of, 166, 172
conservation of, 309
Koestler, A., 582
energy equivalence of, 376
Kramers, H. A., 62, 367
inertial, 166, 280, 319,
scales of, 170, 319
Laboratory frame, 337
738
Index
standards
of, 171,
709
543
units of, 27, 171
circular, see Circular
velocity dependence of, 169
in conservative fields,
motion
466
and weight, 279

Mass spectrograph, 206
near earth's surface, 591
Mechanical advantage, 412
oscillatory, 395
Mercury
relativity of,
laws of, 162, 164
(planet)
numerical solutions, 215
precession of, 300, 305, 623
Meter
rotalional, see Rotational
63
(def.),
46
against resistive forces, 210, 213
orbit of, 77, 246
motion
Metric system, 24, 709

Micron. 30
simple harmonic, see Simple harmonic
Milky Way,
two-dimensional, 95, 102, 194
motion
22, 36
uniformly accelerated, 90, 91, 188
Millikan, R. A., 26, 218, 221
Milton,
J.,
Muybridge,
111
MKS system,
diatomic
rotation of, 637
of, 291,
294
elastic collisions of, 344, 363
vibration of, 405, 409
free fail of, 100
Moliere, 4
see
638
Neptune, discovery
Neutrino, 356
Neutrons, 24
Molecules, 28
Moment,
E.,
24
Newman,
Torque
Moment of momentum, see Angular

momentum
Moments of inertia, 634, 644
Newton,
J.
R., 11, 61
I., 3,
21, 161, 166, 172, 256, 262,
281, 559
principal, 644
bucket experiment, 539

collision experiments, 308, 310, 314, 358
special theorems, 647
concepts of space and time, 43, 44
Momentum,
166, 173, 310
angular, see Angular
conservation
rate
momentum
of, 308, 309, 312,
of change
318
of, 315, 321
vector character of, 310
Monkey-shooting demonstration, 104

viewed from monkey-frame, 497
Montgomery, D. J. X., 146
2
deduces l/r law from
De Molu, 559
585
and law of equal areas, 559

on moon's motion, 256
Principia, 9, 18, 43, 46, 162, 172, 244, 254,
259, 269, 314, 538, 696
on
proportionality of weight to mass, 281
quotations,
Moon
and
ellipse, 583,
2, 7, 9,
20, 42, 43, 45, 46, 138,
160, 162, 244, 269

apple, 256
System ofthe World, 265, 295
distance to, 259
theory of fluid resistance, 360
as a falling object, 256
theory of precession of the equinoxes, 6,
and precession of equinoxes, 694

and tide production, 531
theory of tides, 6, 533
Morrison,
P., 546
M., 409
Morse potential, 408
Motion, 3, 43
Morse,
and universal
under central
force, see Central-force
motion
of charged particles, 146, 195, 202, 205,
467
Index
gravitation, 5, 6, 187, 245,
255, 265
P.
accelerated, 87, 165
739
694
Newton
(unit), 118, 171
Newton's First Law, 162

See also Inertia, law of
Newton's Second Law, 166, 315
discussion of, 167, 173, 180
invariance of, 173, 177
and
relativity, 174
simple applications of, 188
and time reversal, 178

Newton's Third Law, 314
Parasnis,
D.
273
S.,
Particle, 21
properties of, 23
Paul, W., 323
limitations to, 316, 320
Nier, A. O., 207
Pedersen, K. O., 514
Nuclear forces, 139, 147, 156

Nuclear reactions, dynamics of, 348
Pendulum
cycloidal,
442
energy conservation
Nuclei, 25
427, 429
in,
gyroscopic behavior of, 686
as harmonic oscillator, 437
and Rutherford
period versus amplitude, 440
scattering, 604, 609
rigid, 434, 661
Nucleons, 25
Numerical methods
Percussion, center of, 671

Perigee, 577
in kinematics, 91
for
harmonic
oscillator,
229
for resisted motion, 215, 222
Perihelion, 577
precession of, 300, 305, 623
Perpendicular-axis theorem, 649
Nutation, 691
Perrett,
G.
342
Oil-drop experiment, 218, 240
Occhialini,
P. S.,
Orbits
bounded, 568
calculated
circular,
initial
conditions, 595
Pisa,
Tower
of,
240
Planck, M., 627
572
Planetoids, 35
perturbed, 574
in,
of circular orbit, 574

of planetary orbits, 6, 287, 291, 295
Physical magnitudes (table), 11
from
elliptic, 576, 577,
energy
W., 506
Perturbation
583
589
Planets, 33
data on (table), 34
families of, 589, 596
motions
from
orbital radii, 247
force law, 600
of, 74, 82,
hyperbolic, 604, 607
orbits of, 246, 577
under inverse-square attraction, 577,

585,600
periods of, 249
shape versus energy, 604
246
tabulated data, 16, 252, 582

relative sizes of, 34
parabolic, 604
Pluto, discovery of, 6, 295
planetary, 246, 249, 252, 577, 582, 583
Polar coordinates, 49, 51
precession of, 300, 305, 569, 623
unbounded, 569, 597, 604

Orders of magnitude, 10
Orwell, G., 21
Osgood, W. F., 511

Parabolic orbit, 604
velocity
592
Parallax
of Mars, 277
of Venus, 278
Parallel-axis theorem, 647
Parallel forces, 125
740
lndex
in,
556
Polygon of forces, 121

Pope, A., 4
Potential, 463
Potential energy (PE), 377
effective, in central-force
motion, 564,
573, 576
Parabolic potential, 431

Parabolic trajectories, 95, 99, 103, 197, 496,
and acceleration
Polya, G., 9
gradient of, 465

gravitational, 376, 384, 424, 431
scalar character of, 425, 446, 455
of spring, 387, 398

(def.), 119
Powell, C. F., 342
Power, 373
Pound
Precession
of atoms and nuclei, 686

of equinoxes,
6,
fracture of, 208, 513
694
kinetic energy of, 651, 654, 675
of gyroscope, 678
of orbits, 569
of perihelion of Mercury, 300, 305, 623
Pressure of a gas, 354
Newton, Principia
Principia, see
Principle of equivalence, 280, 506
Product of
inertia,
Proton-proton
674
collisions,
342
Rotational equilibrium, see Equilibrium

Rotational motion, 632, 639, 651
combined with
Royds, T., 39
Runk, R. B., 432
linear, 641
magnetic deflection
of,
664
Rutherford, E., 39, 187, 605, 615

Rutherford scattering, 604
146
Ptolemaic system, 76, 247
246
Sand, 31
Pulleys, 130
Sandage, A., 36, 37

Sands, M., 68
Purcell, E. M., 687
Satellites
Ptolemy,
cross sections for, 611, 614
Protons, 24
C,
Rotating frame, see Frame of reference

Rotating objects
75, 78,
ofearth, 265
Radius of gyration, 647
of Jupiter, 286,288, 290
Rainwater, L. J., 100

Red Baron, 238
Saturn
Reduced mass, 339
Scalar product, 57, 372, 424
Reference frames, see Frame of reference

Reines, F., 358
Scattering of alpha-particles, 604, 612
Relative displacement, 55, 73
Schrader, E.
Relative motion, 46
Schumacher, D. L., 66
Schwerdt, C. E., 30
Sciama, D. W., 546
Sears, F. W., 134,688
Second (def.), 64, 65
Sellschop, J. P. F., 358
Shankland, R. S., 169
Shapiro, A. H., 529
Sidereal day, 64
Sidereal period, 250
Sidereal year, 696
Simplc harmonic motion (SHM), 226, 231
by energy method, 389, 393, 432
Relative velocity, 72
Relativity
Einstein's general theory, 280, 299, 506
Einstein's special theory, 8, 45, 161, 169,
178
Newtonian, 46, 173, 177, 497, 538

Resisted motion, 210, 213, 218
growth and decay of, 221
numerical analysis of, 215, 222
Resistive forces, 152, 153, 210, 360, 381, 470
Resultant (ofset of forces), 123

Richer,
J.,
277
Rigid pendulum, 434, 661
Rocket
synchronous, 268
rocket, 327
Schlegel, R., 66
F, 359
geometrical representation, 232

numerical solutions, 229
principle of, 324
in parabolic potential,
thrust of, 325, 327
related to circular motion, 233
Rocket propulsion, 327

Roemer, C, 278
Rogers, C. W. C, 528
Rogers, E. M., 13, 74, 75, 290
Rolling objects, 652, 667
Roscbury, T., 40
Rosenfeld,
741
J.,
428
Indcx
432
Simple pendulum, 434

as harmonic oscillator, 437
isochronism of, 439
See also Pendulum

Simpson, O. C, 100, 101
Sinden, F. W., 600
Slope of graph, 70
Small
oscillations, 395
M.
Smith,
Szalay, A., 357
K., 441
Solar day, 64
Tea, P. L., 707
Solar system, 34, 582
Terminal speed, 212, 214
acceleration of, 540
Thomas, G. B., 106

Thomson, J. J., 605
Solar year, 65
Space, 43
Threshold energy, 402
curvature of, 59
geometry
Tides, 531
59
of,
Space-time graphs, 66, 88

Special relativity, 8, 168, 169
Speed, 71
Sperduto, A., 404
moment of inertia
647
of,
446
constant, 224
rcversal
and Newton's
law, 178
Tombaugh, C. W., 295

Torque, 125
and change of angular momentum, 561,
641,664
vector character of, 126
Spring constant, 226, 387

of diatomic molecule, 407
I,
Time
Time
66
64
Titius, J. D., 293
Spherical shell, gravitational effect of, 263,
J.,
365
61,
units of,
gravitational attraction of, 261, 450
Squire,
height of, 535

Tilley, D.,
Time, 45,
Sphere
Sputnik
equilibrium theory of, 533
267
5
Standards
of length and time, 63, 709
of mass, 171,709
Stars
Torques, vector addition of, 128

Torsion balance, 142, 145
Torsion constant, 154, 660
Torsional oscillations, 659
Trajectories
apparent circular motions, 47

helical,
binary, 296
204
hyperbolic, 604, 607
"fixed," 47, 295, 540
globular clusters
of, 143,
144
orbits of, 296, 298, 540
as particles, 22, 35
Static equilibrium, 115, 119, 124
Stern, O., 100, 101
parabolic, 95, 103, 197, 496, 592

Transfer orbits (interplanetary), 592
Transit of Venus, 277

Trick
clever
and
effective,
579
neat (and valuable), 372
Straight-line motion, 66, 85, 88
Turner, H. H., 294, 295
Strong interaction (nuclear), 147

Stull, J. L., 432
Sun
Ultracentrifuge, 513
distance to, 247, 275

influence
mass
of,
on
tides,
537
274
radial density variation of, 452
Superposition of forces, 168

Surface tension, 157
Sutton, G. P., 327
Sutton, O. G., 422
Svedberg,T., 513
Symon, K.
R., 645, 675

Synchronous satellites, 268
Synodic period, 250
742
Index
Unbounded
orbits, 569, 597,
604
Unit vectors, 49, 57, 58, 106

Units, 24, 709
of force, 118
of length, 63, 709, 710
of mass, 27, 171
oftime, 64, 709, 711
Universal gravitation, 5,
constant of, 141, 268
Uranus
discovery of, 291
perturbations of, 292
6,
245, 256
Van
Van
Van
C,
Atta, L.
der Waals,
404
J.,
Vulcan, 111
149
der Waals forces, 149, 157
Wallis,
J.,
Vector product, see Vectors
Walton,
Vectors, 48
Watt
308
W.
U., 501
374
(unit),
addition of, 53
Weak
and properties of space, 59

components of, 56
Weight, 129, 192, 279

proportionality to mass, 279
cross product of, 127
interaction (nuclear), 148
Weightlessness, 130, 285
orthogonal, 57
resolution of, 56
Weinstock, R., 181

Wessel, G., 323
scalar product of, 57, 372, 424
Williams, R.
subtraction of, 54
Wilson,
vector product
of,
127
Wood,
Velocity, 67, 70
angular, see Angular velocity
C,
C,
30
582
E. A., 503
Work, 173, 369

Wren, C, 308
instantaneous, 68
in polar coordinates, 107,
556
Year
relative, 72
sidereal,
unit of, 67
Velocity-time graphs, 88, 89, 90, 93
Venus
motion
696
solar, 65
tropical, 65,
of,
74
orbit of, 77, 246
696
Yukawa,
H., 156,485
Yukawa
potential, 485
parallax of, 278
from
transfer orbit
transit of,
277
Vis viva, 334, 368
743
Index
Zacharias,
J.
R., 139
Zeno, 87
Zero-momentum frame, 335
Virus, 30
Von Laue, M.,
earth, 593
CM
frame
See also
Zorn, J. C, 102
level
Special Relativity
\.
PRLNi H
Newtonian Mechanics
french
Waves
irimu
Vibrations and
nem
preparat ion:
Classical Electromagnetism
Electromagnctic Waves and Optics

Introduction tO
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Newtonian mechanics

his tcxl prescnts the import

m bot h cUlMlol and modern

tnechanka couim and

contains manj iiiggesdona

eived bot h his B. A.

nivenlty, where he cootinued asa

half his timc during the past ala

but his eapertaaca

carch assignments with

and the U.K.

Vtomk Eoergj Reseercb

THE HARRIS COLLEGE

liooks must be Returned to he College Library or

-3. MAY 1976

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS, THE MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

TIIOMAS NELSON AND SONS LTD

THOMAS NELSON (AUSTRALIA) LTD

sbn 17 771074 8 (paper)

THE APPROACH TO NEWTONIAN DYNAMICS

The particulate view

Molecules; licing cells

Sand and dust

Space, time, and motion

Combination ofvector displacements

Vector addilion and the properties ofspace

Uni is and standards oflength and time

and relative motion

Planetary motions: Ptolemy versus Copernicus

Uniform circular motion

Forces and equilibrium

Forces in static equilibrium

Ekuilibrium conditions; forces as vectors

Action and reaction in the contact of objects

Forces without contact; weight

The hasic lypes offorces

and magnetic forces

Forces between neutral atoms

Con laci forces

Frictional contact forces

Force, inertia, and motion

ofmass and force

The effect of a continuing force

Incar iance with specific force laws

Newlon's law and time reuersal

Using Newton's law

Curoilinear motion with changing speed

Circular pai lis of charged particles in uniform magnelic fields

Deiailed analysis ofresisted motion

Motion gocerned by viscosily

Air resistance and "independence of molions"

More about simple harmonic motion

The discovery of universal gravitation

The ualue of G, and the mass of the earth

Finding the dislance to the sun

Learning about other planets

The discovery ofNeptune

Gravilation outside the solar system

Collisions and conservation laws

Extending the principie of momentum conservation

Kinetic energy in collisions

The zero-momentum frame

Elastic nuclear collisions

and explosive processes