This learner-centered perspective is a hallmark of the Eberly Centers approach to teaching.

We strive to empower instructors by

helping them develop a deep understanding of how students learn, so that they can effectively apply and adapt teaching strategies
to meet their own goals and their students needs. The purpose of the following materials is to present current research and theory
on student learning in a way that can inform and guide effective teaching practices.
Learning Principles-This section introduces some key concepts from the cognitive and educational research literatures and presents a
concise set of seven principles on how students learn.
Teaching Principles-This section identifies a set of seven principles for effective teaching.
Theory and Research-based Principles of Learning-The following list presents the basic principles that underlie effective learning. These
principles are distilled from research from a variety of disciplines.
Students prior knowledge can help or hinder learning.-Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes gained in
other courses and through daily life. As students bring this knowledge to bear in our classrooms, it influences how they filter and
interpret what they are learning. If students prior knowledge is robust and accurate and activated at the appropriate time, it
provides a strong foundation for building new knowledge. However, when knowledge is inert, insufficient for the task, activated
inappropriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or impede new learning.
How students organize knowledge influences how they learn and apply what they know.-Students naturally make connections between
pieces of knowledge. When those connections form knowledge structures that are accurately and meaningfully organized, students
are better able to retrieve and apply their knowledge effectively and efficiently. In contrast, when knowledge is connected in
inaccurate or random ways, students can fail to retrieve or apply it appropriately.
Students motivation determines, directs, and sustains what they do to learn.-As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over
what, when, and how they study and learn, motivation plays a critical role in guiding the direction, intensity, persistence, and quality
of the learning behaviors in which they engage. When students find positive value in a learning goal or activity, expect to successfully
achieve a desired learning outcome, and perceive support from their environment, they are likely to be strongly motivated to learn.
To develop mastery, students must acquire component skills, practice integrating them, and know when to apply what they have learned.Students must develop not only the component skills and knowledge necessary to perform complex tasks, they must also practice
combining and integrating them to develop greater fluency and automaticity. Finally, students must learn when and how to apply the
skills and knowledge they learn. As instructors, it is important that we develop conscious awareness of these elements of mastery so
as to help our students learn more effectively.
Goal-directed practice coupled with targeted feedback enhances the quality of students learning.-Learning and performance are best
fostered when students engage in practice that focuses on a specific goal or criterion, targets an appropriate level of challenge, and
is of sufficient quantity and frequency to meet the performance criteria. Practice must be coupled with feedback that explicitly
communicates about some aspect(s) of students performance relative to specific target criteria, provides information to help
students progress in meeting those criteria, and is given at a time and frequency that allows it to be useful.
Students current level of development interacts with the social, emotional, and intellectual climate of the course to impact learning.-Students
are not only intellectual but also social and emotional beings, and they are still developing the full range of intellectual, social, and
emotional skills. While we cannot control the developmental process, we can shape the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical
aspects of classroom climate in developmentally appropriate ways. In fact, many studies have shown that the climate we create has
implications for our students. A negative climate may impede learning and performance, but a positive climate can energize students
learning.
To become self-directed learners, students must learn to monitor and adjust their approaches to learning.-Learners may engage in a variety
of metacognitive processes to monitor and control their learningassessing the task at hand, evaluating their own strengths and
weaknesses, planning their approach, applying and monitoring various strategies, and reflecting on the degree to which their current
approach is working. Unfortunately, students tend not to engage in these processes naturally. When students develop the skills to
engage these processes, they gain intellectual habits that not only improve their performance but also their effectiveness as learners.
Teaching Principles-This section identifies a set of seven principles for effective teaching.

Teaching is a complex, multifaceted activity, often requiring us as instructors to juggle multiple tasks and goals simultaneously and
flexibly. The following small but powerful set of principles can make teaching both more effective and more efficient, by helping us
create the conditions that support student learning and minimize the need for revising materials, content, and policies. While
implementing these principles requires a commitment in time and effort, it often saves time and energy later on.
Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using that knowledge to inform our course design and
classroom teaching.-When we teach, we do not just teach the content, we teach students the content. A variety of student
characteristics can affect learning. For example, students cultural and generational backgrounds influence how they see the world;
disciplinary backgrounds lead students to approach problems in different ways; and students prior knowledge (both accurate and
inaccurate aspects) shapes new learning. Although we cannot adequately measure all of these characteristics, gathering the most
relevant information as early as possible in course planning and continuing to do so during the semester can (a) inform course
design (e.g., decisions about objectives, pacing, examples, format), (b) help explain student difficulties (e.g., identification of
common misconceptions), and (c) guide instructional adaptations (e.g., recognition of the
need for additional practice).
Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction: learning
objectives, assessments, and instructional activities.-Taking the time to do this upfront saves
time in the end and leads to a better course. Teaching is more effective and student
learning is enhanced when (a) we, as instructors, articulate a clear set of learning
objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect students to demonstrate by the
end of a course); (b) the instructional activities (e.g., case studies, labs, discussions,
readings) support these learning objectives by providing goal-oriented practice; and (c) the
assessments (e.g., tests, papers, problem sets, performances) provide opportunities for
students to demonstrate and practice the knowledge and skills articulated in the objectives,
and for instructors to offer targeted feedback that can guide further learning.
Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning objectives and policies.-There is amazing variation in what
is expected of students across American classrooms and even within a given discipline. For example, what constitutes evidence may
differ greatly across courses; what is permissible collaboration in one course could be considered cheating in another. As a result,
students expectations may not match ours. Thus, being clear about our expectations and communicating them explicitly helps
students learn more and perform better. Articulating our learning objectives (i.e., the knowledge and skills that we expect students to
demonstrate by the end of a course) gives students a clear target to aim for and enables them to monitor their progress along the
way. Similarly, being explicit about course policies (e.g., on class participation, laptop use, and late assignment) in the syllabus and
in class allows us to resolve differences early and tends to reduce conflicts and tensions that may arise. Altogether, being explicit
leads to a more productive learning environment for all students. More information on how clear learning objectives supports
students' learning. (pdf)
Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to focus on.-Coverage is the enemy: Dont try to do too much
in a single course. Too many topics work against student learning, so it is necessary for us to make decisions sometimes difficult
ones about what we will and will not include in a course. This involves (a) recognizing the parameters of the course (e.g., class
size, students backgrounds and experiences, course position in the curriculum sequence, number of course units), (b) setting our
priorities for student learning, and (c) determining a set of objectives that can be reasonably accomplished.
Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots.-We are not our students! As experts, we tend to access
and apply knowledge automatically and unconsciously (e.g., make connections, draw on relevant bodies of knowledge, and choose
appropriate strategies) and so we often skip or combine critical steps when we teach. Students, on the other hand, dont yet have
sufficient background and experience to make these leaps and can become confused, draw incorrect conclusions, or fail to develop
important skills. They need instructors to break tasks into component steps, explain connections explicitly, and model processes in
detail. Though it is difficult for experts to do this, we need to identify and explicitly communicate to students the knowledge and
skills we take for granted, so that students can see expert thinking in action and practice applying it themselves.
Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our learning goals.-Even though students are ultimately
responsible for their own learning, the roles we assume as instructors are critical in guiding students thinking and behavior. We can
take on a variety of roles in our teaching (e.g., synthesizer, moderator, challenger, commentator). These roles should be chosen in
service of the learning objectives and in support of the instructional activities. For example, if the objective is for students to be able
to analyze arguments from a case or written text, the most productive instructor role might be to frame, guide and moderate a
discussion. If the objective is to help students learn to defend their positions or creative choices as they present their work, our role
might be to challenge them to explain their decisions and consider alternative perspectives. Such roles may be constant or variable
across the semester depending on the learning objectives.
Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection and feedback.-Teaching requires adapting. We need to
continually reflect on our teaching and be ready to make changes when appropriate (e.g., something is not working, we want to try
something new, the student population has changed, or there are emerging issues in our fields). Knowing what and how to change

requires us to examine relevant information on our own teaching effectiveness. Much of this information already exists (e.g., student
work, previous semesters course evaluations, dynamics of class participation), or we may need to seek additional feedback with help
from the university teaching center (e.g., interpreting early course evaluations, conducting focus groups, designing pre- and
posttests). Based on such data, we might modify the learning objectives, content, structure, or format of a course, or otherwise
adjust our teaching. Small, purposeful changes driven by feedback and our priorities are most likely to be manageable and effective.
http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/learning.html
Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning
(Source: Tiberius & Tipping, 'Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning For Which There Is Substantial Empirical Support,
University of Toronto, 1990 )
(As with the "Faculty Inventory", you can use these twelve principles to help identify your areas of strength and areas for
improvement.)
These twelve principles are intended as guidelines to faculty and administrators interested in the improvement of teaching and
learning. The list is derived, in part, from a study co-sponsored by the American Association for Higher Education and the Education
Commission of the States (AAHE Bulletin, March 1987). That study reported seven principles of good practice and six powerful forces
in higher education which has been extracted from fifty years of research on teaching and learning in higher education. The study
was conducted by a team of prominent educators, including Alexander W. Astin, Howard Bowen, Carol H Boyer, K Patricia Cross,
Kenneth Eble, Russel Edgerton, Jerry Gaff, Joseph Katz, C. Robert Pace, Marvin W. Peterson, and Richard C. Richardson Jr.
We have added five principles, based on our review of the literature (including review articles such as T.M. Shermin et.al. "The quest
for excellence in university teaching" in the Journal of Higher Education, Vol 58, No 1, 1987, pp.66-84; and John Centra et. Al. "A guide
to evaluating teaching for promotion and tenure", 1987, a publication of Syracuse University).
1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation of important teaching tasks
Teachers who know their subject matter thoroughly can be more effective and efficient at organizing the subject matter, connecting
the subject with the students' previous knowledge, finding useful analogies and examples, presenting current thinking on the subject,
and establishing appropriate emphases.
2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learning
Learning is an active process which requires that the learner work with and apply new material to past knowledge and to everyday
life. Some of the methods that encourage active learning in the classroom are: discussion, practice sessions, structured exercises,
team projects, and research projects. In the words of William James:
Teaching without an accompanying experience is like filling a lamp with water. Something has been poured in, but the result is not
illuminating.
3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in student motivation and involvement
Interaction between students and faculty, particularly informal interaction, is one of the most important factors in student motivation
for learning. The opportunity to know a few faculty well often enhances students' intellectual commitment and provides valuable
rolemodeling.
4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for their learning
Students are more motivated when they take control of their own learning. This is the belief which has stimulated active interest in
self-directed learning.
5. There are many roads to learning
Students learn in different ways and vary in their abilities to perform certain tasks. Understanding that each student has unique
strengths and weaknesses related to the ways in which they approach learning is an important component of effective education.
Providing a variety of learning activities for a class enables individual students to choose the activity which is the most effective for
them at the moment.
6. Expect more and you will achieve more
Simply stated, if an educator conveys to students that he or she believes in their ability to succeed learning is enhanced.
7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperation

Learning is enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative and cooperative effort between students. The opportunity to share ideas
without threat of ridicule and the freedom to respond to the ideas of others increases complexity of thinking and deepens
understanding.
8. Material must be meaningful
If new material is presented in a pattern or framework that the learner can perceive, it is more readily learned and retained. New
material will be more easily learned if the learner is helped to see its relationship to what s/he already knows. Material which is seen
by the learner as relevant to his or her own problems and experiences will be more readily learned.
9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedback
Without feedback neither learner nor teacher can improve because they will not know what they need to know or to what extent they
are fulfilling their goals. The learners' behavior will more quickly reach the objectives if they are informed (or given feedback)
frequently about the correctness of their responses. Correct responses should be immediately reinforced to increase the
"permanence" of learning. A positive reinforcer is anything that will increase the probability that the desired behavior will be
repeated. A smile or comment to let the learner know he or she has successfully completed the task is especially good because
awareness of successful completion is, in itself, the most effective of all reinforces.
Feedback about progress is helpful because learning is facilitated when the learner is aware that he or she is progressing towards the
goals.
10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursue
There is no use giving teachers or students feedback about their performances unless they can do something about it, that is, unless
they have some alternative course of action or behaviour.
11. Time plus energy equals learning
Lectures or seminars that are canceled will not help the learner. Conversely, teachers who arrive at their lecture or small group
setting a little before the scheduled time and stay around for a few minutes afterward provide opportunities for valuable interaction
between students and teachers. Office hours also help students to arrange time to talk with teachers. Students must learn how to
organize their time so that they can find time to study. And the curriculum must be organized to allow students time to study.
12. Experience usually improves teaching
Experience is associated with increasing teacher effectiveness for some teachers, probably for those teachers who obtain feedback
about their teaching and who are flexible enough to modify their methods in response to the feedback.
Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning
(Source: Tiberius & Tipping, 'Twelve Principles of Effective Teaching and Learning For Which There Is Substantial Empirical Support,
University of Toronto, 1990 )
(As with the "Faculty Inventory", you can use these twelve principles to help identify your areas of strength and areas for
improvement.)
These twelve principles are intended as guidelines to faculty and administrators interested in the improvement of teaching and
learning. The list is derived, in part, from a study co-sponsored by the American Association for Higher Education and the Education
Commission of the States (AAHE Bulletin, March 1987). That study reported seven principles of good practice and six powerful forces
in higher education which has been extracted from fifty years of research on teaching and learning in higher education. The study
was conducted by a team of prominent educators, including Alexander W. Astin, Howard Bowen, Carol H Boyer, K Patricia Cross,
Kenneth Eble, Russel Edgerton, Jerry Gaff, Joseph Katz, C. Robert Pace, Marvin W. Peterson, and Richard C. Richardson Jr.
We have added five principles, based on our review of the literature (including review articles such as T.M. Shermin et.al. "The quest
for excellence in university teaching" in the Journal of Higher Education, Vol 58, No 1, 1987, pp.66-84; and John Centra et. Al. "A guide
to evaluating teaching for promotion and tenure", 1987, a publication of Syracuse University).
1. Teachers' knowledge of the subject matter is essential to the implementation of important teaching tasks
Teachers who know their subject matter thoroughly can be more effective and efficient at organizing the subject matter, connecting
the subject with the students' previous knowledge, finding useful analogies and examples, presenting current thinking on the subject,
and establishing appropriate emphases.
2. Active involvement of the learner enhances learning

Learning is an active process which requires that the learner work with and apply new material to past knowledge and to everyday
life. Some of the methods that encourage active learning in the classroom are: discussion, practice sessions, structured exercises,
team projects, and research projects. In the words of William James:
Teaching without an accompanying experience is like filling a lamp with water. Something has been poured in, but the result is not
illuminating.
3. Interaction between teachers and students is the most important factor in student motivation and involvement
Interaction between students and faculty, particularly informal interaction, is one of the most important factors in student motivation
for learning. The opportunity to know a few faculty well often enhances students' intellectual commitment and provides valuable
rolemodeling.
4. Students benefit from taking responsibility for their learning
Students are more motivated when they take control of their own learning. This is the belief which has stimulated active interest in
self-directed learning.
5. There are many roads to learning
Students learn in different ways and vary in their abilities to perform certain tasks. Understanding that each student has unique
strengths and weaknesses related to the ways in which they approach learning is an important component of effective education.
Providing a variety of learning activities for a class enables individual students to choose the activity which is the most effective for
them at the moment.
6. Expect more and you will achieve more
Simply stated, if an educator conveys to students that he or she believes in their ability to succeed learning is enhanced.
7. Learning is enhanced in an atmosphere of cooperation
Learning is enhanced when it is perceived as a collaborative and cooperative effort between students. The opportunity to share ideas
without threat of ridicule and the freedom to respond to the ideas of others increases complexity of thinking and deepens
understanding.
8. Material must be meaningful
If new material is presented in a pattern or framework that the learner can perceive, it is more readily learned and retained. New
material will be more easily learned if the learner is helped to see its relationship to what s/he already knows. Material which is seen
by the learner as relevant to his or her own problems and experiences will be more readily learned.
9. Both teaching and learning are enhanced by descriptive feedback
Without feedback neither learner nor teacher can improve because they will not know what they need to know or to what extent they
are fulfilling their goals. The learners' behavior will more quickly reach the objectives if they are informed (or given feedback)
frequently about the correctness of their responses. Correct responses should be immediately reinforced to increase the
"permanence" of learning. A positive reinforcer is anything that will increase the probability that the desired behavior will be
repeated. A smile or comment to let the learner know he or she has successfully completed the task is especially good because
awareness of successful completion is, in itself, the most effective of all reinforces.
Feedback about progress is helpful because learning is facilitated when the learner is aware that he or she is progressing towards the
goals.
10. Critical feedback is only useful if the learner has alternatives to pursue
There is no use giving teachers or students feedback about their performances unless they can do something about it, that is, unless
they have some alternative course of action or behaviour.
11. Time plus energy equals learning
Lectures or seminars that are canceled will not help the learner. Conversely, teachers who arrive at their lecture or small group
setting a little before the scheduled time and stay around for a few minutes afterward provide opportunities for valuable interaction
between students and teachers. Office hours also help students to arrange time to talk with teachers. Students must learn how to
organize their time so that they can find time to study. And the curriculum must be organized to allow students time to study.
12. Experience usually improves teaching

Experience is associated with increasing teacher effectiveness for some teachers, probably for those teachers who obtain feedback
about their teaching and who are flexible enough to modify their methods in response to the feedback.
https://www.uoguelph.ca/tss/id/ta/tahb/tah8g.html
TEACHING & LEARNING
Teaching principles and strategies
Teaching principles and strategies
Problem-based learning-Problem-based learning (PBL) and case-based learning are ways of making real or simulated problems, situations or issues
central to student learning. Using methods of inquiry, group problem-solving and knowledge construction, the class explores a scenario you present
them with. They identify the need to acquire relevant content and skills, and acting as a facilitator you guide them through the resources they need to
achieve curriculum objectives.
A number of faculties at UTAS practise PBL. The Faculty of Health Sciences has established a website to support case-based learning in the faculty, an
outcome of a project funded through the Pro Vice-Chancellor, Teaching & Learning. Although developed in the context of 'cases' in the health sciences,
much of the information and resources are applicable to problem-based learning in general.

Fostering group work-We expect our students to interact effectively and properly with others in a variety of settings. This includes, where appropriate,
working cooperatively and productively within a group or team towards a common outcome. It also includes showing respect to others and to their ideas
and perspectives, and learning to negotiate and resolve conflict or difficulties constructively.
Some of the positive aspects of group work include:

Increase in meta cognitive awareness

When students have to explain and negotiate their contributions to a group project it can assist them to develop and increase their meta
cognitive awareness. That is, in low risk contexts they begin to know what they know and know what they have yet to learn or find out.

Development of generic skills

Group projects can provide opportunities for developing generic skills such as: organisation, negotiation delegation, team work, co-operation,
leadership, following etc.
However, students don't automatically pick these up through being involved in a group project. These skills must be explicitly taught and
critically evaluated. Students need to be explicitly aware of such skills to intentionally develop them and to include them in their personal
attributes in job applications.

Development of social networks and relationships

A distinguishing feature of the history of successful university students is that they have strong social/learning networks with other students.
Group work is useful for encouraging social interaction for new students who might be isolated; especially for shy, rural and overseas students.

Development and contribution of individual capabilities

Group work can be a means for acknowledging and utilising the strengths and expertise of individual students. They can contribute their
unique capabilities in completing a group project or performance.

Greater depth and breadth in final products

When a small group of students explores a topic in a limited time frame there are opportunities for their collaborative efforts and the products
of their studies can go to greater depth and breadth than if they work individually.

Authentic approach to learning

Learning and production of projects in the real world rarely requires individual effort. While individuals may have specific responsibilities most
projects and enterprises require marshalling a mix of expertise and responsibilities.
Group work in university can be used for real world projects and to harness opportunities to work in multidisciplinary teams as learning
communities exploring specific themes or issues.

However for groups to work effectively students require guidance and support to ensure they develop the complex skills and abilities to work as an
effective member of a group. It is important that group work is planned, groups are given guidelines to aid in their establishment and that these are then
assessed and evaluated. When done well group work can aid in the creation of a supportive learning environment for all participants. However if it is not
done well or groups are left to chance they can become acrimonious, leading to conflict between participants and situations where participants feel that
assessment work is not equally or collegially developed. Unless carefully planned by staff group work can result in numerous unexpected stresses,
particularly for students who are time poor; live long distances from the campus and/or rely on public transport.

Well designed assessment is integral to groupwork and detailed informtion and examples are available at our Assessing Groupwork website.
The following resources were developed to support and guide staff as they support students working in groups:
Group work for Staff

From the University of Sydney's Office of Teaching and Learning in the Economics and Business
This site offers a step by step practical guide to designing, managing and assessing group work. It discusses how to prepare students as well
as how to form and manage groups. Templates on planning, delegating and running meetings are also provided.
Group-work video resource

from Learnhigher - Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning

This site provides access to a number of resources that may be used as teaching or learning aids. "Each episode highlights a different aspect
of working as part of a group and includes a number of video clips, audio clips as well as observation and discussion points.

Lecturing
Tutoring and sessional teaching
Translating teaching principles into practice
The following five principles and their associated practices have been primarily derived from the University's Code of Conduct for Teaching and Learning,
Code of Conduct in Supervision, Policy on Generic Attributes of Graduates and the selection criteria for the Teaching Excellence Awards.
The Code of Conduct for Teaching and Learning states:
The University undertakes to provide a secure, supportive, yet challenging environment for teaching & learning and research supervision - an
environment in which students will be stimulated to reach a high level of intellectual attainment.
The principles provide a framework for lecturers and tutors to work within in order to achieve teaching practices that are not only rewarding for students
but also those who contribute to their learning.
Context for teaching & learning at UTAS
Principle 1: Clear communication with students
Practices:
Intended outcomes, including generic graduate attributes, and expectations are communicated effectively and discussed with students
Effective and sympathetic guidance and advice is provided to students
Communication between students and teaching faculty is encouraged
Opportunities for one-to-one discussion (student/lecturer) is provided
Alternative communication arrangements for students studying either internally, externally by distance education or online is provided.
Principle 2: Stimulating learning environment
Practices:
Innovative methods of design and delivery of content and course material is undertaken
Curiosity in the subject area is encouraged
Independent learning by students is encouraged
Critical thinking skills in students are developed
Variety of teaching strategies and learning activities are provided.
Principle 3: In-depth knowledge of the subject area
Practices:
Recent developments in the field of study are incorporated
Scholarship/research within the subject area is undertaken

Opportunities for students to relate their learning experience to the workplace/community is provided where appropriate
Content and teaching strategies are reviewed regularly.
Principle 4: Provision of effective assessment and feedback
Practices:
Assessment is linked to unit outcomes
Expectations in relation to workload are realistic
Explicit criteria for assessment are discussed with students
Appropriate and varied assessment activities are provided
Consistent, constructive and helpful feedback on assessment is given
Continuous assessment, both summative and formative, is carried out over the teaching semester.
Principle 5: Evaluates, monitors and improves teaching practices
Practices:
Regular feedback from students is sought
Feedback from peers to enhance teaching is encouraged
Reflection on teaching practice occurs regularly
Professional development activities in relation to teaching and subject area(s) are undertaken.
http://www.teaching-learning.utas.edu.au/planning/principles
Basic principles of teaching
In his classic handbook, Teaching Tips, Wilbert McKeachie notes that the unpredictability of teaching both frustrates and fascinates college instructors.
You cannot anticipate every eventuality or problem that may pop up during a semester. Understanding and applying a few basic principles of teaching,
however, not only will enhance student learning but also make your life as a teacher more rewarding and fun.
Rhythms of the semester
Much like the rise and fall of the plot in a novel, semester courses unfold in an arc of development. After the flush of excitement during the first week of
class, students and instructors begin to settle into more of a routine. When you think of your own undergraduate courses, youll recall a definite rhythm to
the semestera brief honeymoon period at the beginning when everything seems fresh and exciting; a longer span when students and instructors get
to know each other and start establishing patterns of interaction; a stretch about three-quarters of the way into the semester when everyone seems
concerned about deadlines, stressed, and, perhaps, ready for a break; and a few weeks before the semester ends, the final push, accompanied, we
hope, by a sense of accomplishment.
If you recognize these rhythms, you can design lecture materials, readings, and assignments to fit well with student learning needs at particular points
along the continuum. Scheduling all the fun learning activities during the first few weeks of the course probably isnt a good idea. On the other hand,
waiting until the end of the semester to incorporate fun learning might send the message that youve given up on helping students work through the
final, challenging push of the semester.
Keeping students engaged
One of the tenets of American education is that students learn and retain information and skills better if they are actively involved in the learning process.
Explain to your students that you expect them to prepare for class, think carefully about course content, take intellectual risks, and participate in class
discussion. It is their responsibility to wrestle with the issues and concepts explored in the course; it is your responsibility to support their active
involvement with the subject matter. You do this not so much by providing answers as by posing excellent questions.
A substantial literature exists on how students learn and how best to engage them in the learning process. Here are a few tips; many more are available
in the Center for Teaching library and online resources.

Lecturing
If you lecture, remember that research has shown most people actively listen for about 20 minutes. Plan your session accordingly with a break for smallgroup work, Q&A, or other active learning before resuming the lecture.
Try to leave the lectern now and then. Walking into the crowd will help you make eye contact with students and keep them alert and curious about what
you might do next.
Vary the tone and rhythm of your voice. Use body language effectively.
Define new vocabulary several times. Avoid jargon.
Refer to and expand upon material presented in the textbookdont repeat it.
Use technologyPowerPoint, film clips, student response systems (clickers), tablet PCs, etc.effectively.
Speak clearly and at a moderate pace.
Summarize major points.
Active Learning
usually involves students in more than listening;
entails less emphasis on transmitting information and more on developing students learning and discipline-based skills;
engages students in higher-order thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation;
encourages students to explore their own attitudes and values; and
does not mean you must abandon the lecture format, which is one of several effective ways to convey information.
Active Learning Techniques
Small-group activities encourage many more students to speak in class. Its harder to be a passive learner in a group of three than in a group of thirty.
Small-group activities can be done even in classes of 500 students. All it takes is about five minutes and a well thought-out question or task for groups to
work on.
Effective use of teaching technology can present visual representations via PowerPoint, overhead projectors, videotapes, and tablet PCs. The Center for
Teaching and Campus Technology Services can help you incorporate technology in ways that enhance learning and recall of course content and skills.
Minute papers are easy, fun, and adaptable to many purposes. The goal of this exercise which can take no more than a minuteis to gather feedback.
Minute papers can help you discover what did or did not work well, as well as provide ideas about how to teach in new ways. It can be used in any size
class.
If you are trying to gather general information about what interests or confuses the students or what they think of your teaching, the feedback should be
anonymous. Occasionally, you may want to just use the minute paper as a quiz; in that case, of course, names are necessary. Students write for a brief
time in response to a focused question from the instructor.
Here are a few examples:
What is the most important point youve learned in todays class (or this weeks readings, this unit, etc.)?
Did anything confuse you during todays discussion? If so, write it as a question or two.
What has been the most effective teaching technique used during this unit?
You can do this exercise at any point during the class session, although most instructors do it at the end of a unit or the period. After youve looked
through the responses, let students know one or two things you learned and how that information will affect the course. Students are glad to have an
opportunity to express themselves in a way that has an impact on their learning in the course.

Surveys can be conducted several ways, including electronic student response systems (clickers) and minute papers, anonymous or not. Another
effective way to survey students about their opinions or responses to a question is to have them line up along a continuum, discuss their choices, and
then ask them to realign themselves along the continuum. If anyone has changed his or her place, ask them to explain why.
A combination of small-group activities and surveys works well when each group holds up a card to indicate its choice of several answer options. Groups
then defend their choices and try to convince others to join them.
Allowing students to jot down a few thoughts before discussing in class can improve the depth of discussion and help those who feel shy about speaking
off-the-cuff.
Board work, role-playing, panel discussions, case studies, posters, and projects also actively engage students by enlisting the fully panoply of learning
styles (visual, auditory, reading/writing, and kinesthetic).
Writing
Writing demands critical thinking, organizational skills, patience, and the ability to critique others and to listen to criticism. Its a truismbut also true
that the act of writing forces us to construct our understanding of a topicin other words, to create as well as to convey meaning.
Writing is one of the essential skills that defines an educated individual, yet teaching writing seems to be the juggernaut of many an otherwise gifted
teacher. The following ideas about teaching writing might smooth your way:
Make writing a regular part of the classroom experience. One-minute papers work well. They can be anonymous or signed. You also can invite students
to read aloud what theyve written.
Think carefully about the purpose of the writing assignment:
to demonstrate learned knowledge (a quiz or test);
to show research abilitiesanalysis, synthesis, evaluation (term paper);
to wrestle with an idea (short essay);
to help students speak aloud or focus class discussion (one-minute paper);
to help students understand that writing improves thinking (expository writing);
to hone communication skills (series of drafts); or
to express feelings and opinions, and to reflect on what has been learned, how, and why (personal essay, reflection).
Design the writing assignment with explicit questions and provide clear learning objectives.
Invite students to reflectin writing on their writing process for any particular assignment and also across the semester.
Even veteran faculty members wonder how to assess written work. Instructors sometimes find assessing personal writing, such as essays or reflections,
especially challenging. But simply because a written piece is personal or subjective does not mean it cannot be assessed.
A few suggestions to help make assessment of writing effective for your students and efficient for you:
Help students avoid the temptation to plagiarize by assigning a series of short exercises that build to the final paper or essay.
Provide written comments in the margins. Marginalia need not be extensive, however, and if you have many students or many short assignments, you
can rely on the check, check-minus, check-plus technique.
Writing many comments such as Good, Weak, or Confusing probably helps the student less than fewer comments that are more specific as to why
you find a sentence or paragraph good, weak, or confusing.
One technique works especially well to start a conversation about written work. Rather than giving students grades for their first draft, ask them to read
your comments and then respond. This assignment assures that they actually read and think about your comments. You also can have them rewrite
certain sentences, paragraphs, or sections. Resist rewriting your students workyou dont have time and they will not learn if you do the work for them.

Grammatical errors should not be ignored. On the other hand, you should not serve as a copy editor for your students. Undoubtedly, they have been told
about run-on sentences, their vs. there, and misspelled words many times before. What to do?
Put check marks in the margins and tell students to find and correct the errors on the marked lines.
Mark and correct one paragraph and tell them to find identical errors and fix them in the rest of the piece.
Tell students they will be exchanging papers for peer review of grammar and usage. n Devote some time throughout the semester to teaching a few of
the most frequentand egregiousexamples of bad grammar and usage. These exercises can be amusing, and students almost always appreciate
learning or brushing up on a few basic writing skills.
Develop and use a rubric for grading writing. Be sure to hand it out to students at the same time as you give them the assignment so they know what is
expected of them. Writing assessment rubrics generally cover nuts-andbolts such as grammar and usage, but also include content, organization, critical
thinking skills, and stylistic considerations.
Service Learning
Today, many students come to college having already performed impressive volunteer work in their communities. They are eager to participate in
volunteer and service-learning opportunities in college.
Service-learning courses provide active learning experiences by integrating community service with academic course work. Service learning requires
students to apply what they learn in class in their community service efforts and then bring their volunteer experiences to bear on their classroom
learning. As a teaching assistant in a service-learning course, you may be helping the faculty instructor and students establish community partnerships.
You also may be monitoring and helping to assess the service aspect of the course, and possibly even engaging in community service yourself.
Teaching in Laboratory or Studio Settings
Students who take lab or studio courses necessarily engage in active learning. In these types of courses, teaching assistants work with students on a
more individual basis. To enhance the lab or studio experience:
Introduce the conceptual background for their activities in each session of the lab or studio.
Inform them of what they are going to do and the learning objectives for the activities.
Make certain you have already conducted the experiment, or, in a studio, are familiar with the materials and media being used. Point out where you had
difficulties and how you resolved them.
Circulate around the room as students work. Ask them what theyre doing and why and to interpret their results.
Ask them to link what they are doing at the moment to what has been learned in the classroom or through the textbook.
Invite questions.
Remind students about safety issues and where to find devices and individuals to help in an emergency.
Effective use of technology
At one time, slate blackboards were considered cutting-edge technology. But an instructor who wrote on the blackboard with his back to students was
not using this technology in a way to optimize student learning.
Incorporating technology into a course should not be an end unto itself, but a way to broaden and enhance learning. Although there are excellent
pedagogical reasons to use technology to teach, many studentsincluding graduate student TAshave experienced death by PowerPoint or
comparable technology faux pas. Any technologyeven blackboards risk becoming the end rather than a means for better teaching and learning.
Nevertheless, many excellent reasons exist for incorporating technology such as PowerPoint, student response systems, tablet PCs, ICON (course
development and management systems), and videotapes in the teaching process. The Center for Teaching and Campus Technology Services help TAs
and faculty members effectively incorporate technology into their teaching. The center assists with pedagogy, while Campus Technology Services can
help with any technical issues.

Assessment of learning
The most obvious way to assess student learning is by graded assignments or exams. However, many other assessment techniques exist to help you
and your students understand their mastery of knowledge and skills. For instance, one-minute papers can reveal much about what students learned
during one class session and what might confuse them. Discussion, small-group work, class surveys, written reflections, periodic questionnaires, and
self-evaluation of learning also help both instructor and students determine where they stand in terms of learning content and developing a facility with
required skills.
Grading
Assigning grades can be an angst-filled time for TAs. Finding out the answers to these questions may help you feel more at ease in the grading process:
How much responsibility do I have for assigning particular or overall grades?
Am I following my supervising faculty members instructions on grading, including adhering to the grading schedule?
Does my department have a grading curve that I am supposed to use in the course?
Does my department or the course faculty instructor employ a rubric for grading particular assignments or exams? If so, when will I provide it to
students?
Will other TAs and the course faculty instructor discuss standards and expectations for grading? Will TAs calibrate their grades via a practice grading
exercise? How will I handle the grading of students for whom English is a second language?
What is the departmental, course supervisors, or my policy on makeup exams and late assignments?
Your course supervisor or department may dictate grading guidelines, although you may have discretion in assigning at least some percentage of grades
in a course.
While some departments require that all student work be graded, others encourage a variety of approaches to learning assessment, including
observations and comments by instructors throughout the semester with grades only assigned at the end of the term. Instructors are not required to
employ pluses or minuses on grades.
The clearer you are about how you will assign grades prior to the actual grading process, and the better records you keep, the more likely you can avoid
grade disputes later.
TAs who serve as graders for a professor should receive clear instructions about how to evaluate subjective responses. If more than one TA works with
one class, the assistants and professor should meet to hammer out consistent grading standards. TAs also can rehearse and calibrate their grading.
During this process, TAs review identical exam answers or papers, compare the responses and grades they would have assigned, and discuss differing
reactions member then develop a rubric that specifies the criteria everyone will use to evaluate student work.
Grades, of course, can be a source of friction between students and instructors. Students want to know that instructors have been consistent and fair in
their grading. The following points will help you achieve consistency and fairness and demonstrate your commitment to those qualities should a student
question his or her grade:
Keep accurate and duplicate copies of your grading records.
Maintain records that can be easily interpreted by your supervising faculty member.
Inform students fairly often throughout the semester about their progress in the course. This does not need to be a grade, but it should be evaluative in
some way.
Create a rubric (or a scoring guide that assigns specific points to each answer) when grading papers or exams.
After youve developed a rubric or scoring guide, test it by applying it to five or ten exams or papers. If your grading guidelines dont seem reasonable,
alter them.

After you have graded all the exams or papers, reexamine the first few that you graded. Are the standards you applied at the beginning of the grading
process the same as the standards you used at the end? When evaluating written work, try to find at least one thing to praise and encourage further
work. And even students who produce A writing need to be given new, higher goals to shoot for.
Make clear that you have considered what a student is trying to say in written work as well as how they have managed to communicate it.
Attendance
The Universitys Operations Manual defines excused and reported absences. You must allow work and exams to be made up if a student misses class
because of an excused absence. Excused absences include absences due to participation in a school-sanctioned athletic or other event for which the
student has provided prior notice of event dates.
Large-scale tragedies or unexpected events can affect many students and their instructors. Research has shown that students appreciate instructors
who acknowledge the event and provide an opportunity to discuss it and its impact during class time. Such consideration by instructors reinforces the
shared sense of community among students. Whether during the current class session or the next session, turning back to the course work at hand after
thoughtful discussion can provide a welcome return to normal routine.
Communicating with your students
You will communicate with your students through a variety of technological means and in a variety of venues. Planning ahead about how to communicate
effectively can help avoid potential pitfalls in communication later.
The syllabus should include the TA office or at least the departmental telephone number. It is up to you whether you provide your home telephone
number to students. ICON offers many opportunities for communication, such as chat rooms, threaded discussions, feedback surveys, and more.
Just as in their discussion sections or lectures, TAs can make creative use of their time during office hours. To become familiar with your students and
help ease them into the course, you might schedule individual conferences with them during the first month of the course. As the semester continues,
you might also use office hours to host small-group workshops or reviews.
Email is a popular way for students to communicate with instructors, and instructors sometimes incorporate online discussion via email as a course
requirement.
Most students are familiar with email before arriving on campus and all students may sign up for a free email account through the University. The
process is included in the ISIS sign-on. Nevertheless, many students prefer to use another account, so if you want a list of your students email accounts,
you should ask them to email you and save their addresses in your email address book.
The course planning and management system ICON also has email capabilities, including a method to send to the entire class.
Include your email address and hours in your syllabus, as well as your expectations for email communication. Inform students that you are not available
via email (or otherwise) except during certain hours, and that they cannot expect you to respond immediately.
The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) generally prohibits disclosing educational records (including grades) to anyone other
than the student or a university official with a legitimate educational need to view the record. Instructors communicating via email about grades need to
be certain they are, indeed, communicating with the students. In general, sending an email to a students University address (e.g., pat-doe@uiowa. edu)
or via ICON provides adequate assurance that the recipient is the student. Emailing to another address such as gmail or AOL does not provide adequate
assurance.
Some instructors accept assignments as attachments, and some do not due to potential viruses or system incompatibility. Indicate in your syllabus
whether you will accept assignments via email attachment.
Be alert to the possible risks of communicating via email, in particular, the challenges of interpreting intent and tone online. Irony and light sarcasm can
be devastating to a student. Maintain a friendly, but professional tone and focus, and insist your students do the same. Write your messages with the
assumption that your supervisor or department chair will read them.
If you encounter the rare electronic message that is inappropriate, hostile, or bullying, forward it immediately to your faculty supervisor. If your supervisor
feels you should respond, maintain professional integrity, copy your supervisor, and let the student see that you have done so.
Save all messages and make paper copies for your course file.

Assessment of teaching
TAs can tap into a number of sources of information to assess their teaching:
Evidence of student learning
The same techniques used to determine what students have learned also can speak to the instructors teaching skills.
Student perceptions
Most courses also apply direct approaches to assessing teaching, including midterm questionnaires and end-of-the-semester teaching evaluationsboth
anonymous. All colleges require instructors of undergraduate courses to distribute an evaluation form to students at the end of the term. The completed
forms are turned into the department, and you do not see the forms or the collated results until after you have turned in grades to the department.
Some departments use the Assessing the Classroom Environment (ACE) form, which is prepared by Evaluation and Examination Services (EES) with
input from instructors. EES also can provide forms for you to use during the semester. (http://www.uiowa.edu/~examserv).
Self-observation and critical reflection
Like faculty members, TAs can request to have a Center for Teaching staff member videotape a classroom session. The tape is given to the TA at the
end of the class.
Classroom Assessment by Student Interview (CLASSI)
At your (voluntary) request, the Center for Teaching will conduct a CLASSI for feedback about your teaching. The CLASSI is a structured method to
obtain information from students. A center staff member asks students to form small groups and discuss what is going well, what impedes their learning,
suggestions they might have for you, and what they can do to improve their own learning. You will not be present during this session, which takes 20-30
minutes. The center staff member summarizes the findings and meets with you later.
Observation by colleague or supervising faculty member
Your experienced peers or a supervising faculty member/ mentor can provide insights about how to better promote student learning. If you invite an
experienced TA, faculty member, or staff member from the Center for Teaching to sit in on one of your classes, let them know ahead of time what you
would like them to focus on. Assessment about course content should be conducted by someone in your discipline.
Teaching portfolio
The teaching portfolio is a systematic, long-term approach to assessing your growth as a teacher. It includes both evidence of teaching excellencefor
instance, course syllabi, assignments, and exams that you have designed, or student evaluation results and your reflections on teaching, your
development as a teacher, and higher education. The Center for Teaching provides a number of resources about how to construct and benefit from
portfolios
http://teach.its.uiowa.edu/resources/tas/teaching-handbook/basic-principles-teaching
http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/resources_teach/framework_teach/docs/9principles.pdf PDF