CHAPTER 10

SOLID PROPELLANT ROCKETS

10.1 INTRODUCTION
The sketch below shows a section view of a typical solid propellant rocket.

motor case
nozzle

propellant grain
port
igniter
propellant grain
1

Figure 10.1 Solid rocket cross section

There are basically two types of propellant grains.
1) Homogeneous or double base propellants - Here fuel and oxidizer are contained within the
same molecule which decomposes during combustion. Typical examples are Nitroglycerine
and Nitrocellulose
2) Composite propellants - heterogeneous mixtures of oxidizing crystals in an organic plasticlike fuel binder typically synthetic rubber.
Sometimes metal powders such as Aluminum are added to the propellant to increase the energy
of the combustion process as well as fuel density. Typically these may be 12 to 22% of propellant mass although in the space shuttle booster Aluminum is the primary fuel.

10.2 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PRESSURE

The combustion proceeds from the surface of the propellant grain. The rate at which combustion gases are generated is expressed in terms of the regression speed of the grain as indicated
in the figure below.

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10.1

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Combustion chamber pressure

combustion products
flame front

Figure 10.2 Surface regression and gas generation

The gas generation rate integrated over the port surface area is
m g = ! p A b r

(10.1)

where

! p = solid propellant density

A b = area of the burning surface

(10.2)

r = surface regression speed

m g = rate of gas generation at the propellant surface
The phase transition and combustion physics underlying the surface regression speed is
extremely complex. In general r depends on the propellant initial temperature, the chamber
pressure and weakly on the velocity of the combustion gases in the port. In general,
K
n
r = -------------------- ( P t2 )
T1 T p

(10.3)

where
P t2 = combustion chamber pressure
K = impirical constant for a given propellant
T 1 = impirical detonation temperature

(10.4)

T p = propellant temperature
n = impirical exponent, approximately independent of temperature
In general 0.4 < n < 0.7 and T 1 T p .

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10.2

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Combustion chamber pressure

Let M g be the mass of gas in the combustion chamber at a given instant, ! g is the gas density
and V is the chamber volume.
d !g
d Mg
dV
d
----------- = ----- ( ! g V ) = ! g ------- + V --------- .
dt
dt
dt
dt

(10.5)

The chamber volume changes as the propellant is converted from solid to gas.
dV
------- = rA b .
dt

(10.6)

To a good approximation the chamber stagnation temperature, T t2 , is determined by the propellant energy density and tends to be independent of P t2 . From the ideal gas law,
P t2 = ! g RT t2 ,
d !g
1 d P t2
--------- = ------------ ----------- .
RT t2 dt
dt

(10.7)

The mass flow out of the nozzle is

"+1
m n = % -------------&
# 2 $

(" + 1)
*
--------------------2 ( " 1 ) " P t2 A

------------------- .
" RT t2

(10.8)

The mass generated at the propellant surface is divided between the mass flow exiting the nozzle
and the time dependent mass accumulation in the combustion chamber volume.
d Mg
m g = ----------- + m n .
dt

(10.9)

Fill in the various terms in (10.9).

(" + 1)
---------------------

d !g
" + 1 2 ( " 1 ) " P t2 A
------------------! p A b r = ! g rA b + V --------- + % -------------&
# 2 $
dt
" RT

(10.10)

t2

or
(" + 1)
---------------------

K ( ! p !g ) Ab
V d P t2
" + 1 2 ( " 1 ) " P t2 A
n
------------------------------------ ( P t2 ) = ------------ ----------- + % -------------&
------------------- .
# 2 $
T1 T p
RT t2 dt
" RT t2

(10.11)

Rearrange (10.11) to read

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10.3

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Dynamic analysis

(" + 1)
---------------------

K ( ! p !g ) Ab
" + 1 2 ( " 1 ) " P t2 A
V d P t2
n
------------ ----------- + % -------------&
------------------- ------------------------------------ ( P t2 ) = 0 .
#
$
T1 T p
2
RT t2 dt
" RT t2

(10.12)

After a startup transient, during which P t2 changes rapidly with time, the pressure reaches a
quasi-steady state where the time derivative term in (10.12) can be regarded as small compared
to the other terms. To a good approximation,
+ 1&
% "------------# 2 $

(" + 1)
*
--------------------2 ( " 1 ) " P t2 A

K ( ! p !g ) Ab
n
------------------- = ------------------------------------ ( P t2 ) .
T1 T p
" RT t2

(10.13)

Solve for the chamber pressure,

%
"+1
P t2 = ' % -------------&
'# 2 $
#

1
-----------1
& n

(" + 1)
--------------------2(" 1) K ( ! p

! g ) % A b&
----------------------------- ' ------( " RT t2(
(
" ( T 1 T p ) # A *$
$

(10.14)

This formula can be used as long as A b is a slow function of time. All the quantities in (10.14)
are apriori data with the exception of T t2 which must be estimated or calculated from a propellant chemistry model. Note that there is a tendency for the chamber pressure to increase as
the burning area increases.

10.3 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS

Rearrange (10.12) to read,
%
&
'
(
12 * (
'
( " RT t2 )
A
d P t2
% K ( ! p ! g ) A b RT t2 &
n
----------- + ' ------------------------------------------( P t2 ' ------------------------------------ % ------------& ( ( P t2 ) = 0 .
'
(
#
$
(
"
+
1
)
T

T
V
dt
#
$
--------------------- (
1
p
'
2(" 1)
"
+
1
' % -------------&
V(
## 2 $
$

(10.15)

This is a nonlinear first order ordinary differential equation for the chamber pressure of the
form,
d P t2
1
n
----------- + % ---& P t2 * ( P t2 ) = 0
# )$
dt

(10.16)

where the characteristic time is

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10.4

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Dynamic analysis

(" + 1)
--------------------2(" 1)

+ 1&
% "------------# 2 $
V
) = -------------------------------------- % ------& .
#
12
*$
( " RT t2 )
A

(10.17)

This time is proportional to the time required for an acoustic wave to travel the length of the
combustion chamber multiplied by the internal area ratio of the nozzle. The system has the character of a Helmholtz resonator and the inverse of (10.17) is the natural Coke bottle frequency
of the rocket motor.
The constant in the nonlinear term is,
% K ( ! p ! g ) A b RT t2 &
* = ' ------------------------------------ % ------------& ( .
# T 1 T p # V $$

(10.18)

Lets look at the linear behavior of (10.16) near a steady state operating point. Let,
P t2 ( t ) = P t2 + p t2 ( t )

(10.19)

where p t2 is a small deviation in the pressure from the steady state. Substitute into (10.16) and
expand the nonlinear term in a binomial series. With higher order terms in the series neglected,
the result is,
d p t2
n
n1
1
1
----------- + % ---& P t2 + % ---& p t2 * ( P t2 ) * n ( P t2 )
p t2 = 0 .
# )$
# )$
dt

(10.20)

The steady state terms satisfy

% 1---& P * ( P ) n = 0
t2
# )$ t2

(10.21)

and the dynamical equation becomes,

d p t2
n 1&
1
----------- + % --- * n ( P t2 )
p = 0.
#)
$ t2
dt

(10.22)

Note that from (10.21)

* ( P t2 )

n1

1
= % ---&
# )$

(10.23)

and so
d p t2
1n
----------- + % ------------& p t2 = 0 .
# ) $
dt

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10.5

(10.24)

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Dynamic analysis

The solution of (10.24) is

% n 1&

------------ t
p t2
# ) $
------------- = e
.
p t2

(10.25)

If n < 1 a small deviation in pressure will be restored to the equilibrium value (the extra nozzle
flow exceeds the extra gas generation from the propellant surface). But if n > 1 the gas generation rate exceeds the nozzle exhaust mass flow and the chamber pressure will increase
exponentially - the vehicle will explode!
If the fluid velocity over the surface becomes very large, enhanced heat transfer can lead to a
situation called erosive burning. In this case the burning rate can vary considerably along the
port and excessive gas generation can lead to a failure.
In the case of very low chamber pressure, the combustion process can become unsteady or cease
altogether this defines the combustion limit of a particular propellant. There is also an upper
pressure limit above which combustion again becomes erratic or unpredictable. For most propellants this is above 5000psi.
10.3.1 EXACT SOLUTION
The!chamber!pressure!is!governed!by!the!equation
d P t2
1
n
----------- + % ---& P t2 * ( P t2 ) = 0 .
# )$
dt

(10.26)

Lets determine the exact integral of this equation and compare the behavior of the system with
the linearized solution for both n < 1 and n > 1 . It is virtually always best to work in terms of
dimensionless variables. The steady state solution of (10.26) for which the time derivative term
is zero is
P t2

steady state

= ( )* )

1
-----------1n

(10.27)

Let
P t2
H = ---------------------------------P t2

t t0
+ = ------------)

steady state

(10.28)

In terms of new variables (10.26) becomes

n
dH
-------- = H H
d+

(10.29)

Equation (10.29) is rearranged as follows

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10.6

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Dynamic analysis

dH
------------------- = d +
n
H H

(10.30)

which integrates to
1n

1H
( 1 n ) + = Log ------------------------1n
1 H0

(10.31)

where H 0 is the initial value of P t2 P t2

and the initial value of + is taken to be
steady state
zero. Now solve for H
1n

H = (1 (1 H0

)e

1
-----------------(
1
n)
( 1 n ) +

(10.32)

Several cases are shown below.

6

P t2
---------------------------------P t2

steady state

n = 1.2

n = 0.6

n = 1.2
2

10

t)
Figure 10.3 Chamber pressure response of a solid rocket.
The exact solution is consistent with the linear analysis and shows that if n > 1 there is in no
actual steady state, the chamber pressure either decays to zero or blows up.
Whereas if n < 1 then the chamber pressure will return to the steady state value even in the
face of a large deviation away from steady state. The motor is stable in the face of finite
disturbances.

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10.7

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Dynamic analysis

10.3.2 CHAMBER PRESSURE HISTORY

The analysis in the last section is useful for determining the transitory behavior of the motor
during transients such as start-up and shut down where the chamber pressure responds on a very
short time scale measured by ) . As the burning area of a circular port increases over the course
of the burn the chamber pressure changes on a much longer time scale and we can use the steady
state balance (10.14) together with the regression rate law (10.3) to determine the port radius
as a function of time. Rewrite (10.14) as
r
P t2 = % , % ----& &
# #r $$

1
-----------1n

(10.33)

where

"+1
, = % -------------&
# 2 $

(" + 1)
--------------------2(" 1) K ( ! p

! g ) % 2 - r i L&
----------------------------- ' ---------------( " RT t2
" ( T 1 T p ) # A* $

(10.34)

and L is the length of the port assumed to be constant. Now solve

K
r
dr
----- = ------------------------- % , % ----& &
( T 1 T p ) # # r i$ $
dt

n
-----------1n

(10.35)

for the radius of the port as a function of time.

n

-----------d (r ri)
%
K
1 n&
--------------------------- = ' ------------------------------ ( , )
( dt
n
(

T
)r
T
#
$
1
p i
-----------1n
(r ri)

(10.36)

Integrating (10.36) leads to

%
1 2n %
K
r
---- = ' 1 + % ----------------& ' ------------------------------ ( , )
#
$
(

n
T
ri
# 1 T p )r i
#
%
K
r
---- = Exp ' ------------------------------ ( , )
ri
# ( T 1 T p )r i

n
-----------1 n&

&
( t(
$ $

n
-----------1 n&

(t
$

1n
---------------1 2n

n . 0.5
(10.37)
n = 0.5

This defines a much longer time scale

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10.8

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Problems

%
&
' ( T 1 T p )r i(
) burn = ' ------------------------------(
n
'
------------ (
1
# K (,) n $

(10.38)

where the negative sign applies if n > 0.5 . This time scale characterizes the change in chamber
pressure during the burn. The burntime is determined by the outer radies of the motor.
1 2n

---------------%
&
'%r f& 1 n
( 1n
t burnout = ' ' -----(
1( % ----------------& ) burn
'# ri $
( # 1 2n$
#
$

rf
t burnout = Log ----- ) burn
ri

n . 0.5
(10.39)

n = 0.5

10.4 PROBLEMS
Problem 1 - It is a beautiful summer day at the cape and a space shuttle astronaut on her second
mission finds that the g forces during launch are noticeably larger than during her first mission
that previous December. Can you offer a plausible explanation for this?
Problem 2 - A solid propellant rocket operates in a vacuum with a 10 cm diameter nozzle
throat and a nozzle area ratio of 100. The motor has a cylindrical port 300 cm long. At the beginning of the burn the port is 20 cm in diameter and the propellant recession velocity is 1 cm/sec.
The port diameter at the end of the burn is 80 cm. The regression rate law is
0.5

r = aP t2

(10.40)

The solid propellant density is 2 grams/cm and the combustion gas has " = 1.2 and molecular weight equal to 20. The combustion chamber temperature is 2500K . Determine the thrust
versus time history of the motor.

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Problems

Problem 3 - One of the simplest types of solid rocket designs utilizes an end burning propellant
grain as shown below.

The motor diameter is 100 cm and the grain length at the beginning of the burn is 200 cm. The
3

solid propellant density is 2 grams/cm and the combustion gas has " = 1.2 and molecular
weight equal to 20. The combustion chamber temperature is 2500K and, at the beginning of
5

the burn, the pressure is P t2 = 5 x10 N M . The motor exhausts to vacuum through a
30 cm diameter nozzle throat and a nozzle area ratio of 10. Sketch the thrust-time history of
the motor and determine the total impulse
tb

I =

( Thrust ) dt

(10.41)

in units of Kg-M/Sec.
Problem!4!-!The!thrust!versus!time!history!of!a!solid!rocket!with!a!circular!port!is!shown
below.!

The!regression!rate!of!the!propellant!surface!follows!a!law!of!the!form
n

(42)

10.10

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r = ,P t2

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Problems

where!the!exponent! n !is!in!the!range!of!0.4!to!07.!Briefly!show!why!the!thrust!tends!to
increase!over!the!course!of!the!burn.

Problem 5 - A solid propellant upper stage rocket operates in space. The motor has a 0.2 m
diameter nozzle throat and a cylindrical port 4.2 m long. At the end of the burn the port is 0.8 m
in diameter. The regression rate law is
r = 3.8 10

6 0.5
P t2

(43)

m/sec

where the pressure is expressed in N/m . The solid propellant density is 2000 kg/m and the
combustion gas has " = 1.2 and molecular weight equal to 32. The combustion chamber temperature is 3000K . The quasi-equilibrium chamber pressure at the end of the startup transient is
2

P t2 = 3.0 10 6 N/m .
1)Determine the characteristic time ) for the start-up transient.
2)Determine the propellant mass expended during the startup transient. Take the start-up time
to be 8 ) .
3) Determine the mass flow and quasi-equilibrium chamber pressure P t2 at the end of the burn.
4) Once the propellant is all burned the remaining gas in the chamber is expelled through the
nozzle and the pressure in the chamber drops to zero. Calculate the time required for the pressure to drop to 10% of its value at the end of the burn.
5) Sketch the pressure-time history of the motor.

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10.11

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Problems

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10.12

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