TOPIC 4

SOIL
COMPACTION

SOIL COMPACTION History and Evolution

SOIL COMPACTION History and Evolution

SOIL COMPACTION
Why and when is needed

SOIL COMPACTION
Why and when is needed

Changes in soil as it moves from its natural location to a

compacted fill

Highway construction cut and fill work

Site proposal

Oroville Dam California (Earth dam)

Sanitary Landfill

Sanitary Landfill

Cut Slope using compacted soil

(Faculty of Economy UM new wing

Cut slope using key stone at the toe

(Fakulty of Economy UM New wing

Natural
soil

Backfill
material

Retaining Wall
(Lembah Bertam, Pahang)

What is COMPACTION
Definition
Process of increasing the density of soil by packing the
particles closer together causing reduction in the volume of
air via mechanical techniques such as rolling, kneading,
applying static weight and impact; without significant change
in the volume of water.
air
Dry density

water

Ms
d =
V

solid

BEFORE

AFTER

Objective
To improve engineering properties of soil through
Increasing the shear strength; shear strength is
at maximum when void ratio is minimum
Reducing the compressibility of soil settlement
Reducing permeability
Reducing the potential of swelling (expansion)
and shrinkage (contraction) due to frost action.

Degree of Compaction
How compact the soil is; in other words the
condition of soil after compaction is termed as
DEGREE OF COMPACTION
Measured in terms of DRY DENSITY

Ms
d =
V

d =

1+ w

The dry density depends on water content,

compactive effort, soil type and compaction
method.

Compaction Test
Standard Proctor
Test BS 1377

(a) Cylindrical Mould ; volume = 1000 cm3

(b) Hammer 2.5 / 4.5 kg

Test Procedure
(a) Take 3 kg of soil (passed 20 mm sieve) and break up any lumps
(b) Assemble and weigh the mould (base + mould body)
(c) Add 3% water (% by weight) and mix
(d) Fix the extension and put soil in three layers; each layers receiving
27 blows of rammer.
(e) Remove the extension and level off the excess
(f) Weigh the compacted soil and the mould
(g) Take out the soil from the mould, break them up and take small
amount for water content test.
(h) Repeat steps (c) (g) with each repetition, increasing the volume
of water at 3% each time.
(i) Stop the process when the weight of the compacted soil start to
decrease
(j) Draw compaction curve dry density vs water content

Types of compaction tests

Test

Refs.

Rammer
Mass

Height of
drop

Volume of
mould

Layer

No. of
blows

2.5 kg
rammer

BS 1377 :
1975 Test
12

2.5 kg

300 mm

1000 cm3

27

4.5 kg
rammer

BS 1377 :
1975 Test
13

4.5 kg

450 mm

1000 cm3

27

Std Proctor
AASHTO

ASTM D698-78
AASHTO T99

2.49 kg

305 mm

944 cm3

25

Modified
AASHTO

ASTM D1557-78
AASHTO T180

4.54 kg

457 mm

944 cm3

25

Compaction Test Results

Principles of compaction

Compaction Test Results

Relationship
between dry
density and water
content
-Typical
compaction curve
-Each compaction
curve is unique
(one curve for a
particular
compactive effort
or compactive
method)
For each curve there is an optimum water content (wopt) that
contribute to the maximum dry density (dmax)

Properties of Compaction Curve

Compactive effort is
taken up by water in
the pore which is
already full as
excess pore water
pressure. This
excess pressure
results in soil
particles expels and
pushes each other;
increasing spaces
(voids); hence
decreasing the dry
density.
Water is adequate to produce workable soil, facilitating compaction
hence resulting in higher dry density. For clayey soil, the water content
is adequate for adsorbed water to develop; therefore, forces between
particles are reduced allowing dispersed orientation to formed.

Soil rather
stiff and
lumpy.
Difficult to
compact.
Most
compactive
effort is
used to
break up
lumps

Saturation Line
If all air in soil could be
expelled by compaction
(A=0) (impossible in
reality), then the soil
will be in full
saturation. The max.
dry density at this
condition is called
Saturation dry density
/ zero air voids dry
density

Gs w
d =
1 + wGs

Gs (1 A) w
d =
1 + wG s

Example
Problem 1.5 Craig pg 33
Soil has been compacted in an embankment
at a bulk density of 2.15 Mg/m3 and water
content of 12%. The value of Gs is 2.65.
Calculate the dry density, void ratio, degree
of saturation and air content. Would it be
possible to compact the above soil at water
content of 13.5% to a dry density of 2.00
Mg/m3

Example
Problem 6.22 Coduto page 205
A well graded silty sand with a maximum dry unit
weight of 19.7 kN/m3 and optimum moisture content
of 11% is being used to build a compacted fill. Two
field density tests have been taken in the recently
completed field, but one of these tests has produced
results that are definitely incorrect. Test A indicated
a relative compaction of 85% and a moisture content
of 8.9%, while Test B indicated a relative compaction
of 98% and a moisture content of 14.9%. Which test
is definitely incorrect? Why? Assume Gs as 2.70.

Air Content Line

If A is replaced by 5%
and 10% curves for air
content of 5% and 10
% can be drawn hence
can be used to indicate
at what percentage of
air content max. dry
density occur for a
particular soils
Test curve must be at
the left of saturation
line

d =

Gs (1 A) w
1 + wG s

Factors affecting compaction

Compactive Effort
The higher the
compactive effort the
higher the degree of
compaction
Compaction curve shift
to the left and upward
when there is an
increase
Compaction energy per
unit volume (E) = (no of
blows per layer x no of
layers x weight of
rammer x drop height)
/ vol. of mould

Factors affecting compaction

Soil Type
For the same
compactive effort
Coarse-grained soil
can be compacted to
a higher degree of
compaction.
Well graded soil?

Factors affecting compaction

Soil Type
Granular material with some fines will exhibits higher degree of
compaction compared to granular material without fines or finegrained soil alone.

Factors affecting compaction

Compaction method
Rolling granular soil?
Impact granular / fine?
Kneading fine-grained?
Vibration granular?
Static load fine/ coarse-grained?

Compaction Curves
Single peak type
Common shape ; 30 wL 70

(a) Type A

1 peak type
For soil where wL < 70
100% or high % of sand and
remaining is either illite /
montmorillonite
Typical for non-cohesive soil

(b) Type B

Lengkung Pemadatan
2 peaks type
For soil wL < 30
Portion of soil is sand and
some kaolinite

(c) Type C

No peak
Fines where wL > 70
Main portion is montmorillonite
Some linear part of the curve
presence

(d) Type D

Dry and Wet side of Optimum

DRY

WET

w1

w2

AT OPTIMUM

At any particular d value, apart from dmax; there exits 2

corresponding values of w (one at the dry and another at
the wet side). Which value is to be used in engineering
work?

Effect of compaction on the dry and

wet side
Part of water
content
dry

wet

strength

high

low

Compressibility
(at low consolidation pressure)
(at high consolidation pressurei)

low
High

high
low

Swelling

High

low

low

high

Engineering properties

Shrinkage

Structure of Compacted Clay Soil

On the dry side, the

structure is flocculated
irrespective of compactive
effort (Seed and Chan,
1959). Due to less water for
diffused double layers of
ions to developed around
ptcls. hence reducing
repulsion.
Increase in water content (B-C)
increases repulsion bet. Clay
ptcl. results in dispersed
structure. Increase dispersion
as compactive effort increases

At B, when water content

increase, diffuse double
layer expand and this
increase repulsion bet. Clay
particle and hence reducing
degree of flocculation

Field Compaction

Fill material that has been excavated from a borrow site

need to be compacted.

Fill materials that has been excavated will be brought to

the construction area and levelled in several layers of
(150 mm 500 mm thickness) depending on the types of
soil and equipment used.

If the soil to be compacted is naturally dry, the soil need

to be wet prior to compaction according to the water
content required for certain degree of compaction. On
the other hand, if the soil is wet, they need to be dried
up to the required water content.

Field Compaction - Equipment

Excavators / Rippers Excavate soil
Wheel-mounted loader

Backhoe + loader
Excavator (large hoe)

Field Compaction - Equipment

End Dump Truck

Field Compaction - Equipment

Spreader

Field Compaction Equipment

Equipment Vibrating
plates, power rammers
and many different
types of rollers
Methods combination
of static pressure,
kneading action,
vibration or impact.
Compactive effort no. of
passes or coverages
Type of equipment type of soil
and site condition / fill

Field Compaction Equipment

Vibrating Plates / Power Rammers

Usage small areas with limited access e.g. bridge

abutment, narrow trenches, pavement, road subbase
Compaction method vibration and static weight
CAUTION ! normally hand operated and selfpropelled

Field Compaction Equipment

Smooth-wheeled Rollers
Usage subgrade or base
course compaction of wellgraded sand/gravel mixtures or
asphalt pavements. May be
used for fine material provided
not too wet and not to be used
for compaction of impermeable
core section of eater retaining
structure due to smooth
interface being introduced
Compaction method static
weight ~ 400 kN/m2
Can be self-propelled or towed

Field Compaction Equipment

Sheepsfoot rollers
Usage for fine-grained
soil ( >20% fines),
particularly applicable in
earth dam construction
where bonding between
lifts of impermeable
core are ensured.
Compaction method
static pressure and
kneading
May be self-propelled or
towed
Tapered protrusion feet exerting
contact pressure 1500 7500 kN/m2

Field Compaction Equipment

Rubber-tyred rollers
Usage for fine and
coarse-grained soil
except uniformly graded
Compaction method
static pressure up to
700kN/m2 and kneading

Field Compaction Equipment

Vibratory Rollers
Usage For granular soil
without fines
Vibrators are attached to
smooth rollers
Compaction methods
vibration ranges 20 80
Hz

Field Compaction Equipment

Application of Field Compaction Equipment

Specification and Control of Field Compaction

The extent to which field compaction is
effective depends on

Types of soil

Water content

Lift thickness

Type of compaction equipment

The size of fill area

No. of passes / coverages

Why specification is required? to ensure compaction is

carried out adequately on-site

Compaction Specification
SPECIFICATION
End Result To be Achieved

Method of Compaction

Prescribe a required
Relative Compaction and w

Engineer prescribe weight

and type of rollers, number
of coverages, lifts
thickness

RC =(dfield/dmax)x 100%
RC of normally between (90100%), compaction may be
achieved via two w (dry /
wet side). Hence, specify w
as well (range).
Alternatively, specify final
air voids content with
associated max. water
content

Combination of the three

factors can be determine
from several trial exercises
on actual sites using
different equipments, lifts
thickness, compactive
effort etc.

Compaction Specification
SPECIFICATION
End Result To be Achieved

Method of Compaction

Which one do you

choose?
CONSULTANT
CONTRACTOR
Why?

Control of Field Compaction

The need

Control of Field Compaction

Objective to ensure work meets specification for

compaction

Technique Need to find (from M and V) put them back in

d (need also w)
CONTROL TEST
Coarse-grained soil

Fine-grained Soil

cylindrical core-cutter

BS1377:1975, Test 15(D)

Determine mass and volume
Determine w

Test hole

BS 1377:1975, Test 15(A) (C)

Determine mass and volume
Determine w

Nuclear Method

Control of Field Compaction

Fine-grained Soil (Cylindrical core cutter)
Push the core cutter until full,
dug out and trimmed flush the
end.
Cylinder having known volume V
Weigh the cutter before and
after soil extraction to get M
Moisture content test to get
w - let some sample to dry for
24 hr in the oven

M
V

=
d

(1 + w )

Control of Field Compaction

Coarse-grained Soil Test Hole
Excavate a hole at the desired level in the soil
Place the excavated soil into a container and weight for M
Take some sample for moisture content test ; w
Determine the volume V from either
Volume of Hole (V)

Sand Replacement Method

Rubber Balloon Method

BS 1377 : 1975 Test 15(A)

ASTM D-2167-66

Control of Field Compaction

Sand Replacement Method
Determine V by filling the
excavated hole with sand of known
bulk density.
From the mass of sand being filled
up, V can be calculated
Problem vibration from
surrounding operation might
introduced errors.

Control of Field Compaction

Rubber Balloon Method
Determine V by filling the rubber balloon
with water so that it stretches across the
hole
Problem error is introduced when the
sides of the hole is too rough

Control of Field Compaction

Water Ring Test

Control of Field Compaction

Problems with traditional methods
M OK ? Errors?
V- OK? Errors?
w require 24 hours / use speedy moisture tester
The ease of repetitive of test over the whole
construction area
To overcome consider using the Nuclear Method

Control of Field Compaction

Nuclear Method
Objective to determine and w
Basic Principle
2 emission sources and 2 detectors
ray
Neutron

( ray scattered as they collided with soil particles)

w (energy when neutron collided with hydrogen atom

Results can be achieved in minutes; hence allowing corrective

action to be taken.
Many repetitive test can be carried out over the whole field
good control practice

Control of Field Compaction

Nuclear Test Equipment ASTM D-2922-78
Direct Transmission - Fine-grained
soil
Insert probe into the soil and place
the detector onto the soil surface.

Back-scatter Coarse-grained soil

A single unit is placed on the surface
of the soil and the same work as both
emission source and detector

Control of Field Compaction

Nuclear density and water content determination transmission
(after Troxler Electronic Laboratories,. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina)

(a) Direct transmission

(a) backscatter

(c) Air-gap

Example
Problem 6.19 Coduto page 204
A fill soil with a natural a moisture content of 10% and
an optimum moisture content of 14% is being used to
construct a compacted fill. The contractor is placing
this soil in 400mm lifts, spraying the top with a water
truck, and compacting it using a towed sheepfoot
roller. A soil technician has performed a series of field
density tests in this fill and has found relative
compaction values between 80% and 92%. The
measured moisture contents ranged from 10 to 23%.
The specifications require a relative compaction of at
least 90%, so the fill is not acceptable. What is wrong
with the contractors methods, and what needs to be
done to remedy the problem

Compaction in engineering industry

Review on Menard Geosystem Presentation
CEEC Technical talk on Sept. 05