Lecture 1 - Sequences

AMA140/150 Calculus

AMA140/150 Calculus

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Outline

Sequences
Limit of sequences
Bounded and monotonic sequences
Sandwich Theorem
Recursive relation

AMA140/150 Calculus

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Sequences

A sequence is a set of numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 . . . listed in an ordered way. We

denote the sequence by {a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 , . . . }, {an }
n=1 or simply {an }.
1

Closed form:

{1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . }

1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , , , . . .
2 3 4 5 6

2 3
4 5
6
, , , ,
,...
3 9
27 81
243

1 2 3 5
1, , , , , . . .
2 3 5 8

an =

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1
n

for

n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .

Recursive form: The sequence

defined by a1 = 1 and
an+1 =

1
1 + an

for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

The above formula is called a

recursive relation.

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Fibonacci sequence

Example 1.1 The sequence

{1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, . . . }
can be defined by the recursive relation
f1 = 1,

f2 = 1

and

fn+2 = fn+1 + fn

for n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

This is a famous sequence called the Fibonacci sequence (number).

The closed form of Fibonacci sequence is

n 
n 
1
1 5
1+ 5
fn =

2
2
5

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for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Diagram of Sequence

The diagram of the sequence an =

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1
n

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Diagram of Sequence

The diagram of the sequence an = 1 +

AMA140/150 Calculus

(1)n
n

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Limits of sequences

Limits of sequences
We say that the limit of a sequence {an } is L and write
lim an = L

if for every number  > 0 there is a positive integer N (depending on )

such that
|an L| < 
for all n N.
We may also write an L as n . In this case, the sequence {an } is
said to converge to L.
A sequence which does not converge to any number is called a divergent
sequence.

AMA140/150 Calculus

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Limits of sequences

The diagram of the sequence an = 1 +

AMA140/150 Calculus

(1)n
n

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Limits of sequences

The diagram of the sequence an = 1 +

AMA140/150 Calculus

(1)n
n

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Limits of sequences
Example 1.2 Given the sequence {an } with an =
lim an = lim

1
, show by definition that,
n

1
= 0.
n

Solution. Given any arbitrary but fixed  > 0, take N to be a positive

1
integer such that N > . Then for every n N,

nN>

1


1
< .
n

1
< .
n

It follows that for every n N,

|an L| = 
By definition, limn

0 =

1
= 0.
n

An important and useful result

lim
n
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1
= 0.
n
Lecture 1 - Sequences

Limits of sequences
Example 1.3 Show by definition that lim
n

n2 + 1
= 1.
n2

Solution. Given any arbitrary but fixed  > 0, take N to be a positive

1
integer such that N > . Then for every n N,



 2

n + 1
1
1
1



2 = .
 n 2 1 = n 2 N 2 <
1/ 
By definition, lim
n

n2 + 1
= 1.
n2

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Lecture 1 - Sequences

Divergent sequence
Example 1.4 Determine if the sequence {(1)n } has a limit.
Solution. Suppose the sequence has a limit, say L, that is
lim (1)n = L.
n

1
. Then by definition, there is a positive integer N such that
2
1
|(1)n L| <
for all n N.
2
On the other hand,
Take  =



(1)N+1 (1)N 



((1)N+1 L) ((1)N L)

 

(1)N+1 L + (1)N L
=

1
1
+ = 1.
2
2

However, this is impossible as



(1)N+1 (1)N  = 2.
Therefore, this sequence is a divergent sequence.
AMA140/150 Calculus

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Divergent sequence

The diagram of the sequence an = (1)n

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Lecture 1 - Sequences

More about divergent sequences

The diagram of the sequence an = sin n

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Lecture 1 - Sequences

Limit Laws

Limit Laws
Suppose {an } and {bn } are two sequences such that
lim an = L

and

lim bn = K

and c is a constant. Then

1

lim c an = c L;

n
2

lim (an bn ) = L K ;

n
3

lim an bn = L K ;

lim
n

an
L
provided that K 6= 0.
=
bn
K

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Lecture 1 - Sequences

Limit Laws
Example 1.5 Evaluate the following limits.

lim
n

n2 + 1
1
= lim 1 + 2
n
n2
n

= lim 1 +
n

lim
n

1
n

2

= 1 + 02 = 1.

1
1
lim 1 + lim 2
1+ 2
n2 + 1
1+0
n
n n
n
lim
= lim
=
=
= 1.
1
1
n n2 n
n
10
1
lim 1 lim
n
n n
n

n+1
lim
= lim
n n3 + 2n + 1
n

1
1
1
1
lim
+ lim 3
+ 3
n n2
n n
n2
n
=
2
2
1
1
1+ 2 + 3
lim 1 + lim 2 + lim 3
n
n n
n n
n
n
=

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0+0
= 0.
1+0+0

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Bounded and monotonic sequences

A sequence {an } is called bounded
if there exists a positive number
M such that
|an | M

for all n 1.

A sequence {an } is said to be

increasing if
an an+1

for all n 1.

A sequence {an } is said to be

decreasing if
an an+1

for all n 1.

A sequence is called monotonic if

it is either increasing or decreasing.

AMA140/150 Calculus

Lecture 1 - Sequences

Bounded and monotonic sequences

Bounded Monotonic Sequence

1

A convergent sequence is always bounded.

A bounded monotonic sequence is convergent.

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Lecture 1 - Sequences

Sandwich Theorem
Sandwich Theorem
Given three sequences {an }, {bn }, and {cn }. Suppose
bn an cn
and

n1

lim bn = lim cn = L.

Then

for all
n

lim an = L.

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Lecture 1 - Sequences

Sandwich Theorem
Example 1.6 Show that lim
n

sin n
= 0.
n

Solution. Notice that

1
sin n
1

n
n
n
and
lim
n

for all

n1

1
1
= lim
= 0.
n n
n

By Sandwich Theorem,
lim
n

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sin n
= 0.
n

Lecture 1 - Sequences

A corollary of Sandwich Theorem

Corollary
If {an } is bounded and {bn } converges to 0, then
lim an bn = 0.

Proof. Since {an } is bounded, there is M > 0 such that |an | M for all n.
Then
M|bn | an bn M|bn | for all n 1.
Notice that
lim bn = 0

lim |bn | = 0.

Then
lim M|bn | = lim M|bn | = 0.

By Sandwich Theorem,
lim an bn = 0.

AMA140/150 Calculus

Lecture 1 - Sequences

A corollary of Sandwich Theorem

Example 1.7 Evaluate the following limits.
1

lim
n

lim
n

sin n3
,
n2
cos n
.
2n

Solution.
1

The sequence {sin n3 } is bounded M = 1 and lim

n

1
= 0. By
n2

Corollary,
lim
n

sin n3
= 0.
n2

The sequence {cos n} is bounded M = 1 and lim

n

Corollary,
lim
n

AMA140/150 Calculus

cos n
= 0.
2n

Lecture 1 - Sequences

1
= 0 (Why?). By
2n

Recursive relation
Example 1.8 Let {an } be the sequence defined by

a1 = 1 and an+1 = 2an for all n 1.

1

Is {an } convergent?

If yes, what is the limit?

p
1, 2, 2 2,

Notice that the sequence is

r q
q p
p

2 2,

Solution.
1

By mathematical induction, one can prove that 0 an 2.

(Please prove it!)

Therefore, {an } is a bounded sequence.

Next
an+1
=
an

2an
=
an

2
1
an

an+1 an .

i.e, {an } is an increasing sequence.

4

Since {an } is both bounded and increasing,

it is a convergent sequence.
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Lecture 1 - Sequences

2 2, . . .

)
.

Recursive relation
5

Let L = lim an . Then we also have

n

L = lim an+1 .
n

Therefore,
L = lim an+1 = lim
n

2an = 2 lim an = 2L.

n

It follows that

L=

2L

L2 2L = 0

L = 2 or 0.

In conclusion, lim an = 2.
n

AMA140/150 Calculus

Lecture 1 - Sequences