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Chemistry
Unit 1 – Atomic Theory and Structure of atom
TOPICS
Atomic Theory and Structure of atom
Discovery of Electrons,Properties of Cathode Rays, Characteristics of an electron, Discovery of
Proton, Goldstein’s experiment’ Properties of Anode rays (Canal Rays), Discovery of Neutron, Atomic
structure- Postulates of Daltons atomic theory, Thomson’s Model of an Atom, .Rutherford’s Model of
an Atom & its drawbacks, Bohr’s Model of an Atom & limitations, Bohr’s model of atom revisited,
Atomic spectrum of hydrogen, Merits of Bohr’s atomic model,, Arrangement of electrons in the atoms,
Atomic orbitals - Quantum Numbers- Principal quantum number, Azimuthal quantum number
magnetic quantum number, spin quantum number, Electronic Configuration of Atoms of Elements -
Aufbau principle, Pauli’s Exclusion principle, Hund’s Rule Shape of orbitals - s,p. -Valence electrons,
Atomic Number, Mass Number, Isotopes, Isobars, Isotones, Representation of an element.
Learning Outcome
At the end of the unit the student must be able to
• Know the properties of electron, proton, and neutron.
• Understand Dalton’s Atomic theory and its draw backs
• Understand Thomson’s model of an atom
• Explain Rutherford’s model of an atom and its draw backs
• Describe Bohr’s model of an atom and its limitations
• Explain Atomic spectrum of hydrogen
• Give the arrangement of electrons in the atom
• Know the various atomic orbitals and their quantum numbers such as principal quantum number,
magnetic quantum number, spin quantum number
• Explain electronic configuration of atoms of first 20 elements.
• Know principals and rules which provide guidance to write electronic configuration - Aufbau
principle, Pauli’s Exclusion principle, Hund’s Rule.
• Understand various shapes of orbitals- s, p
• Understand the terms valence electron, atomic number, atomic mass , Isotopes, Isobars,
Isotones,
• Represent an element with nucleon and proton
1.0. Atomic Theory

1.1. Introduction: Any object which occupies space and has mass is known as matter. There are three
kinds of matter viz., solids, liquids and gases. On the basis of chemical constitution, matter can be
further classified as elements, compounds and mixtures. An element is a substance which cannot
be split up into two or more simple substances by any physical or chemical means. It is now clear
that element is made up of atoms.
John Dalton in 1808, proposed his famous atomic theory. He defined atom as the smallest
chemically indivisible particle of an element which cannot exist free. They exist in combination with
the same element or another element. Atoms are the building blocks of all the matter around us.
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Chemistry
Extensive research has been done to understand the composition of matter in the twentieth century
by J .J. Thomson, Rutherford, Neils Bohr, Chadwick and many other scientists. All these led to
the conclusion that Dalton’s concept “an atom is indivisible” is not correct. Atoms are found to be
made up of electrons, protons and neutrons. These are known as sub-atomic particles.
1.1.1. Discovery of Electrons

J.J. Thomson in 1897, through his ‘discharge tube’ experiments confirmed the presence of
electrons in an atom. A discharge tube is a long glass tube having two metal plates sealed at two
ends. These metal plates are known as electrodes. The electrode which is connected to the
positive terminal of the battery is known as anode (positive electrode) and the negative electrode
which is connected to the negative terminal of the battery is called cathode (negative electrode).
The discharge tube has a side tube through which air (other gases) can be pumped out by using a
vacuum pump.
Thomson carried out his experiments using this discharge tube.

1. When high voltage is passed through the discharge tube which contains air or any gas, at
normal atmospheric pressure, no electricity flows through the air in the discharge tube.
2. If the pressure of air inside the discharge tube is reduced to 1 mm of mercury and when high
voltage is applied, electricity flows through air and light is emitted by the air in the discharge
tube. The color of the light depends on the nature of the gas inside the tube.
3. When the pressure of the air inside the discharge tube is reduced to about 0.001 mm mercury
and a high voltage is applied between the electrodes, the emission of light by air stops. The
discharge tube appears dark. The walls of the discharge tube, opposite to the cathode glows
with greenish light.
Air at very low

pressure
Discharge tube
Green glow
−−−−−
+
Cathode
Anode
To vacuum pump
− + High voltage
generator
Figure 1. Production of Cathode Rays
This experiment reveals that the rays which are emitted by the cathode are called cathode rays.
These rays travel from cathode to anode in the form of streaks of light. The cathode rays bombard
the glass which results in the glowing of the tube.
Chemistry
1.1.2. Properties of Cathode Rays
The important properties of cathode rays are:
1.1.2.1. They travel in straight line: This is proved by the following experiment. When an opaque object
is placed in the path of cathode rays in a discharge tube, a shadow of the object appears at the
end of the cathode.
Cathode
Cathode rays
−
+
Anode
Shadow of the
(Metal cross)
metal cross
Figure 2. Cathode rays cast shadows of the object places in their path
This is possible only if the cathode rays travel in straight lines.
1.1.2.2. Cathode rays are a beam of particles having mass and kinetic energy:
A paddle wheel placed in the path of the cathode rays, rotates. This is possible only when the
cathode rays consist of particles moving with certain velocity. i.e., they have mass and kinetic energy.
Light paddle
Cathode wheel Anode
Cathode rays
Figure 3. Cathode rays can rotate a light paddle wheel placed in their path
1.1.2.3. Cathode rays are negatively charged: When an electric field is applied in the path of cathode
rays, they get deflected towards the positive plate of the electric field.
Cathode Anode
− − − −
− − −
−
−
Cathode rays −
Electric field +
Figure 4. Effect of electric field on cathode rays.

(They are deflected towards the positive plate of electric field)
Chemistry
This shows that the cathode ray particles are negatively charged. Cathode rays are also deflected
by magnetic field.
1.1.2.4. Cathode ray beam deviated from its path in the presence of a magnetic field:
When magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the path of cathode rays the beam gets deflected
towards a pole.
Discharge tube
Cathode
Zinc sulphide screen
High voltage Porous

source anode
(with only Semi circular
one hole), magnet
Switch
Figure 5. Effect of magnetic field on cathode rays
1.1.2.5. The nature of the cathode rays are independent of the nature of the
gas taken in the discharge tube: This means that the same type of rays
with similar mass and charge having similar properties are produced In which metal
irrespective of the nature of the gas (i.e., H2 (or) O2 or Cl2 or any gas) atom did
taken in the tube. Rutherford
discover the
nucleus?
1.1.3. Characteristics of an electron
1. An electron is a negatively charged particles.
1
2. The mass of an electron is of a hydrogen atom. The absolute mass of an electron is 9
1840
× 10–28 g.
3. The relative charge of an electron is –1. The absolute charge is 1.6 × 10–19 coulombs. (It has
been found that this is the smallest negative charge carried by the particle).
1.2. Discovery of Proton

If an atom consists of an electron, it should have some positively charged particles to maintain
electrical neutrality. These positively charged particles are known as protons. The existence of
protons in an atom is shown by Goldstein.
1.2.1. Goldstein’s Experiment

Goldstein used a perforated cathode (i.e., a cathode which has small holes) in the discharge tube
experiment.
The mass of the cathode rays (m) and the charge on them (e) have been determined
e
experimentally and the ratio is found to be the same for all gases. This shows that atoms of all
m
kinds contain the same negatively charged particles. These are known as electrons and are the
fundamental constituent of atoms.
Chemistry
Air at very low

pressure
Discharge tube
Red glow
+++++
− +
Positive rays
Perforated Anode
cathode
To vacuum pump
− + High voltage
generator
Figure 6. Production of anode rays or positive rays.
When very high voltage (about 10,000 volts) is applied to the discharge tube containing air at
about 0.001mm Hg a faint glow is obtained behind the cathode. (See figure 6 above)
These rays are believed to emanate from the anode, moving in the direction opposite to the
cathode rays. Hence, these rays are known as anode rays or positive rays.
1.2.2. The properties of Anode (or Positive) Rays (Canal rays)

1. The anode rays consist of positively charged particles. These rays are deflected by the
electric and magnetic fields.
2. They travel in straight lines.
3. They have mass and kinetic energy.
e
4. The ratio depends on the nature of the gas taken in the discharge tube.
m
5. The mass of an anode ray particle is almost equal to the mass of the
atom from which it is formed.
6. The particle produced from hydrogen is the lightest and is known as In what respects
proton. cathode rays
A proton has a mass +1 units. and anode rays
differ
1.3. Discovery of Neutron:
Because protons and electrons have equal but opposite charges, a neutral atom must contain
equal numbers of protons and electrons. But solving this mystery led to another: the mass of an
atom (except hydrogen atoms)is known to be greater than the combined masses of the atom’s
protons and electrons Hoping to find a reason for the rest of the mass scientists began to search
for a third subatomic particle
About 30 years after the discovery of the electron, Irene Juliet-Curie (the daughter of the famous
scientists Marie and Pierre Curie) discovered that when alpha particles hit a sample of beryllium,
a beam that could go through almost anything was produced. The British scientist James
Chadwick found that this beam was not deflected by electric or magnetic fields. He concluded
that the particles carried no electric charge. Further investigation showed that these neutral
particles, which were named neutrons are part of all atomic nuclei (except the nuclei of most
hydrogen atoms). In general, a neutron is represented as ‘n’. The mass of an atom is therefore
given by the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus.
Chemistry
Figure 7 Structure of an atom
Electron Proton Neutron
(i) Discoverer J.J. Thomson Goldstein Chadwick
(ii) Mass 1 mass is equal to that mass is same as

of the mass of a of a hydrogen atom that of a proton
1840
hydrogen atom
(iii) Charge has uni negative has uni positive no charge

charge charge
(iv) symbol denoted by ‘e’ ‘p’ ‘n’
Table 1 Facts about the three sub-atomic particles.
1.4. Atomic Structure

1.4.1. Postulates of Daltons atomic theory.
(1) All elements are composed of tiny indivisible particles called atoms
(2) Atoms of the same element are identical. Atoms of any other element are different from
those of any other element.
(3) Atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios and this combination
leads to form chemical compounds
(4) In chemical reaction atoms are combined and rearrangement can occur but never changed
into atoms of another element.
(5) Atoms of the same element are identical in their physical and chemical properties while atoms
of the different element differ in their physical and chemical properties.
1.4.2. Drawbacks of Dalton’s atomic theory

Dalton’s contention that all elements composed of tiny indivisible particles is not true. Atoms are
divisible. The second criteria that atoms of the same element are also not identical in all
respects. For example – atoms of the same element may possess different relative masses.
Another drawback is, by his theory one cannot explain the concept of a molecule which is a
simple combination of atoms. For example the O2 molecule formation from two individual atoms
of Oxygen
Chemistry
1.5. The structure of an Atom
To overcome the drawbacks of Dalton’s atomic theory many scientists proposed various atomic
models. J.J. Thomson was the first one to propose a model for the structure of an atom.
1.5.1. Thomson’s Model of an Atom

Thomson proposed the model of an atom to be similar to that of a Christmas pudding. The
electrons, in a sphere of positive charge, were like currants (dry fruits) in a spherical Christmas
pudding. We can also think of a watermelon, the positive charge in the atom is spread all over like
the red edible part of the watermelon, while the electrons are studded in the positively charged
sphere, like the seeds in the watermelon.
−
− − Positive sphere
−
− −
−
− − Electron
−
Figure 8. Thomson’s model of an atom
Figure 9 Atom is electrically neutral

Thomson proposed that
1. An atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons are embedded in it.
(Figure 8)
2. The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a whole is
electrically neutral (Figure 9).
Although Thomson’s model explained that atoms are electrically neutral, the results of
experiments carried out by other scientists could not be explained by this model,
Chemistry
1.5.2. Rutherford’s Model of an Atom
Figure 10. Scattering of α -particles by a gold foil
Ernest Rutherford was interested in knowing how the electrons are arranged within an atom.
Rutherford designed an experiment for this. In this experiment, fast moving alpha (α )-particles
were made to fall on a thin gold foil.
• He selected a gold foil because he wanted a layer as thin as possible. This gold foil was
about 1000 atoms thick.
• α -particles are doubly charged helium ions. Since they have a mass of 4 u, the fast
moving α -particles have a considerable amount of energy.
• It was expected that α -particles would be deflected by the sub-atomic particles in the
gold atoms. Since the α -particles were much heavier than the protons, he did not expect to
see large deflections.
But, the α -particle scattering experiment gave totally unexpected results. The following
observations were made:
(iii) Most of the fast moving α -particles passed straight through the gold foil.
(ii) Some of the α -particles were deflected by the foil by small angles.
(iii) Surprisingly one out of every 12000 particles appeared to rebound.
In the words of Rutherford, “This result was almost an incredible as if you fire a 15-inch shell at a
piece of tissue paper and it comes back and hits you”.
Activity Let us think of an activity in an open field to understand the implications of this experiment. Let a
child stand in front of a wall with his eyes closed. Let him throw stones at the wall from a
distance. He will hear a sound when each stone strikes the wall. If he repeats this ten times, he
will hear the sound ten times. But if a blind-folded child were to throw stones at a barbed-wire
fence, most of the stones would not hit the fencing and no sound would be heard. This is
because there are lot of gaps in the fence which allow the stone to pass through them.
Following a similar reasoning, Rutherford concluded from the α -particle scattering experiment that
(i) Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α -particles passed through
the gold foil without getting deflected.
(ii) Very few particles were deflected from their path indicating that the positive charge of the
atom occupies very little space.
(iii) A very small fraction of α -particles were deflected by 180°, indicating that all the positive
charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom.
Chemistry
From the data he also calculated that the radius of the nucleus is about 10 5 times less than the
radius of the atom.
On the basis of his experiment, Rutherford put forward the nuclear model of an atom which had
the following features.
(i) There is a positively charged centre in an atom called the nucleus. Nearly all the mass of an
atom resides in the nucleus.
(ii) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in well-defined orbits.
(iii) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
1.5.3. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom

The orbital revolution of the electron is not expected to be stable. Any particle in a circular orbit
would undergo acceleration. During acceleration, charged particles would radiate energy. Thus,
the revolving electron would lose energy and finally fall into the nucleus. If this were so, the atom
should be highly unstable and hence matter would not exist in the form that we know. But we
know that atoms are quite stable.
1.5.4. Bohr’s Model of an Atom

In order to overcome the objections raised against Rutherford’s model of the atom, Neils Bohr
put forward the following postulates about the model of an atom:
(i) Only certain special orbits known as discrete orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the
atom.
(ii) While revolving in discrete orbits the electrons do not radiate energy.
These orbits or shells are called energy levels.
N shell (n = 4)
M shell (n = 3)
L shell (n = 2)
K shell (n = 1)
Nucleus
Figure 11. A few energy levels in an atom
These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, … or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4,
1.5.5. Limitation of Bohr Model

(i) He could not explain the spectra of atoms containing more than one electron
(ii) Bohr assumed that the electron revolves around the nucleus in a definite and well-defined
path called orbit which was soon proved wrong.
Though Bohr model explains the stability of the atom, it could not explain certain experimental
observations viz., the atomic spectrum of atoms other than hydrogen. For the present, it is suffice
to know that Bohr model cannot explain the present day understanding of the atom. However, it
should be appreciated, that the Bohr model provided the basic structure to understand the
arrangement of electrons, protons and neutrons in an atom.
Chemistry
1.5.6. Bohr’s model of atom Revisited

Next in the development of atomic structure is the model of atom as given by Neils Bohr. His
postulates regarding the structure of atom are
(i) Electrons revolve in certain orbits called stationary states. These are called stationary states
because an electron moving along these orbits do not radiate energy. The energy remains
the same.
(ii) Each stationary state is associated with a definite amount of energy. So these are also called
energy levels. These are called K, L, M, N …….shells and are also denoted by numbers
1, 2, 3, 4……….etc.,
(iii) The energy level nearest to the nucleus is the lowest. With increasing distance from the
nucleus in order, the energy of the level increases. An electron in the lowest energy level is
said to be in the ground state.
(iv) If energy is given to an electron, it jumps to a higher energy level. Now the electron is said to
be in an excited state. It is not stable there. It gives up the energy and falls to the ground state.
Figure 12 Various energy level of electron in an atom
1.5.7. Atomic spectrum of hydrogen:

Bohr explained his idea of stationary orbits based on line spectrum of hydrogen. When an
electron absorbs energy, it goes to any one of the higher energy levels depending on the
quantum of energy absorbed. When it emits the excess energy absorbed, it falls back to the
ground state in one or more jumps. Corresponding to each jump, a line is observed in the
spectrum of hydrogen at a definite frequency. Hydrogen produced by different methods give
similar lines at the same frequencies in its spectrum. This supports the postulate of Neils Bohr
that only certain orbits are present in the hydrogen atom which have definite quantities of
energies associated with them. Also it has been found that the calculated frequency of any
spectral line of hydrogen spectrum from the Bohr’s formula is in excellent agreement with the
experimentally determined value. [Frequency (γ ) of spectral line is related to the energy emitted
by the equation, Energy = hν , where h is a constant].
1.5.8. Merits of Bohr’s model

(i) Bohr could calculate the energy of electron in different orbits.
(ii) He could also calculate the radius of the orbit of hydrogen’s electron
1.5.9. Arrangement of electrons in the atoms
The Bohr model of atom helps us to understand how the electrons are arranged in different
energy levels. The energy levels are represented by circles. The energy of the energy level
Chemistry
increases as it moves away from the nucleus. The number of electrons in an energy level is given
by the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the number of the orbit. Thus for
K shell = n = 1 and no. of electrons = 2
This means that the first energy level nearer to the nucleus can hold a maximum of two electrons.
The next energy level (L shell)for which n =2, can hold a maximum of 8 electrons. The next higher
energy level i.e., the M shell for which n =3, can hold a maximum of 18 electrons and so on.
Nucleus
5
4
3
2
1
+
Energy levels
K L M N O
Figure 13. Energy levels around the nucleus

While filling the electrons in various energy levels, it must be remembered that the outermost
energy level can have a maximum of eight electrons. For example, chlorine has 17 electrons. Of
these 17 electrons, 2 electrons are present in the K shell, 8 electrons in L shell and the remaining
7 electrons in M shell. Diagrammatic representation of the arrangement of electron for 20
elements is given below:
Chemistry
Chemistry
Figure 14. Electronic configuration of first twenty elements

The outermost electrons shell (energy level) is known as valence shell and the electrons present
in it are known as valence electrons. Refer to arrangement of electrons for carbon atom. For this
atom, the L shell is valence shell and the four electrons present in it are known as valence
electrons. Similarly you will find that in sodium atom, the ‘M’ shell is the valence shell and it has
one valence electron.
The arrangement of electrons in various energy levels is known as the electronic configuration
of atoms. The electronic configuration of twenty elements is given below:
Element Symbol Atomic Distribution of Electronic configuration

Number electrons
Hydrogen H 1 1 1s1
Helium He 2 2 1s2
Lithium Li 3 2,1 1s2,2s1
Beryllium Be 4 2,2 1s2., 2s2
Boron B 5 2,3 1s2, 2s2, 2p1
Carbon C 6 2,4 1s2, 2s22p2
Nitrogen N 7 2,5 1s2, 2s2, 2p3
Oxygen O 8 2,6 1s2, 2s2, 2p4
Fluorine F 9 2,7 1s2, 2s2, 2p5
Neon Ne 10 2,8 1s2, 2s2, 2p6
Sodium Na 11 2,8,1 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,3s1
Magnesium Mg 12 2,8,2 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2
Aluminium Al 13 2,8,3 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s23p1
Silicon Si 14 2,8,4 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s2 3p2
Chemistry
Phosphorus P 15 2,8,5 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p3
Sulphur S 16 2,8,6 1a2,2s22p6, 3s23p4
Chlorine Cl 17 2,8,7 1s2, 2s22p63s23p5
Argon Ar 18 2,8,8 1s2, 2s22p6,3s23p6
Potassium K 19 2,8,8,1 1s2, 2s2 2p6, 3s23p6,4s1
Calcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2 1s2,2s22p6, 3s23p6,4s2
Table 2 Electronic configuration of first twenty elements

.
1.6. Atomic orbitals
Bohr’s model of atom underwent great changes due to two reasons
(i) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
(ii) Dual nature (particle and wave nature) of electrons.
We will proceed to consider the changes brought about to Bohr’s model without going into the
details of the above stated reasons.
The path of an electron around the nucleus is no longer a definite path or orbit as conceived by
Bohr. It is called orbital.
An atomic orbital is defined as three dimensional space or region around the nucleus in which
the probability of finding the electron is maximum.
Bohr’s model of atom underwent a lot of changes and a Quantum mechanical model involving
atomic orbitals was evolved.
Bohr called his permitted orbits or stationary states as shells and named them K, L, M,
N………..etc., These are given numbers 1, 2, 3, 4…………etc., Each shell contains one or more
sub-shells or orbitals.
The number of sub shells is equal to the number of the shell.
For K shell n=1 and it contains s sub shell.

For L shell n=2 and it contains s, p sub shells
For M shell n=3 and it contains s, p, d sub shells
For N shell n=4 and it contains s, p, d, f sub shells.
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is given by 2n 2 where n
is the number of the shell (1, 2, 3 …….etc) So the maximum number of electrons that can be
accommodated in
K shell (n = 1) 2 × 12 = 2
L shell (n = 2) 2 × 22 = 8
M shell (n = 3) 2 × 32 = 18
N shell (n = 4) 2 × 42 = 32.
Orbit Orbital
1. It is a definite path around the It is a region or space around the nucleus
nucleus along which the electron where the probability of finding the electron is
moves. maximum
2. It represents movement of electron It represents three dimensional space around
in one plane. the nucleus
3. Its shape is circular. Its shape may be spherical (for s orbital) dumb-
bell (p-orbitals) or any other shape (d, f)
Chemistry
4. The position and velocity of the It is impossible to determine the position and
electron can be found precisely at velocity of electron at any instant with certainty.
any instant.
Table 3 Differences between orbit and orbital
1.6.1. Quantum Numbers

The numbers which designate and distinguish various atomic orbitals and electrons present in an
atom are called quantum numbers.
In an atom, the state of each electron is different with respect to the nucleus. In order to define
the state of the electron completely, four quantum numbers are used.
They are
(a) Principal quantum number (n)
(b) Azimuthal quantum numbers ()
(c) Magnetic quantum number (m)
(d) Spin quantum number (s)
1.6.2. Principal Quantum Number (n)

1. Principal quantum number determines the energy shell in which the electron is revolving
around the nucleus. It is also known as major energy level.
2. It is denoted by the symbol n and may have any integral value except zero. i.e., it can have
the value n = 1, 2, 3, …, etc.
3. The value n = 1 denotes that the electron is in the first shell (K shell)
The value n = 2 denotes that the electron is in the second shell (L shell)
The value n = 3 denotes that the electron is in the third shell (M shell)
The value n = 4 denotes that the electron is in the fourth shell (N shell)
4. As the distance of the electron from the nucleus increases, its energy becomes higher and
higher.
5. The maximum number of electrons in a major energy level is given by 2n2.
Principal quantum Shell Designation Maximum number of

number ‘n’ electrons (2n2)
1 K 2
2 L 8
3 M 18
4 N 32
5 O 50
Table 4. Maximum number of electrons in an shell
1.6.3. Azimuthal Quantum Number or Orbital Quantum Number ()

1. It represents the sub shell to which the electron belongs.
2. It is denoted by the symbol . Its value depends on the principal quantum number n. It may
have any value ranging from 0 to (n – 1)
Principal quantum  Value = (n – 1) Name of the sub

number ‘n’ shells or orbital
1 0 1s
0 2s
1 2p
2
Chemistry
0 3s
1 3p
3
2 3d
0 4s
1 4p
2 4d
4 3 4f
Table 5. Name of sub shells or orbitals
3. The value  = 0 denotes that the electron is in the sub shell or s orbital.
The value  = 1 denotes that the electron is in the p sub shell or p orbital.
The value  = 2 denotes that the electron is in the d sub shell or d orbital
The value  = 3 denotes that the electron is in the f sub shell or f orbital
1.6.4. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

1. It represents the orientation of an atomic orbital in space.
2. It is denoted by the symbol m. The possible value which m can have depends upon the value
of . It may have all the integral values between –  to +  through 0 that is the total number
of values of m would be (2  + 1).
3. Its value tells the orientations of orbital in space. The value of m = 0 denotes that the orbital
has no orientation. The value of m = 1 denotes that it has three orbital with three types of
orientations. The value of m = 2 denotes that it has five orbital with five types of orientations.
Principal  value m value Name of the sub shells or

Quantum  = (n – 1) (–  ..0.. + ) orbital with orientation
number ‘n’
1 0 0 1s
0 0 2s
2 1 –1, 0, +1 2px, 2py, 2px
0 0 3s
3 1 –1, 0, +1 3px, 3py, 3pz
2 –2, –1, 0, +1, +2 3dxy, 3dxz, 3dyz, 3dz2 , 3dx2 − y2
Table 6 Magnetic quantum number with their orientations
1.6.5. Spin Quantum Number(s)

1. It represents the direction of the spin of the electrons.
2. It is denoted by the symbol s. The electron may spin in the clockwise ↑ direction or
anticlockwise ↓ direction. And hence it can have only two values namely either + 1/2 or
– 1/2.
3. Two electrons with the same sign of spin are said to have parallel spins and are represented
by ↓↓ (or) ↑↑ while those having opposite spins are said to have anti parallel spins ↑↓ and are
known as paired up electrons.
The above four quantum numbers give the position of any electron in the major energy level,
the orientation of electron in the orbital and the direction of its spin. The various states that an
electron can occupy are summarized in the table given below.
Principal Azimuthal Quantum Magnetic Quantum number m Total Number of

Quantum Number  electrons 2n2
Number n
n=1  = 0; (1s) m=0 2 × 12 = 2
K shell
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n=2  = 0; (2s) m=0
L shell  = 1; (2p) m = –1, 0, +1 2 × 22 = 8
n=3  = 0; (3s) m=0
M shell  = 2; (3p) m = –1, 0, +1 2 × 32 = 18
 = 0; (4s) m=0
 = 1; (4s) m=0
n=4  = 1; (4p) m = –1, 0, +1
N shell  = 2; (4d) m = –2, –1, 0, +1, +2 2 × 42 = 32
 = 3; (4f) m = –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, +3
Table 7 The various states that an electron can occupy
1.7. Electronic Configuration of Atoms of Elements

Distribution of electrons in different orbitals of the atom of an element is called electronic
configuration.
1.7.1. Principles and rules which provide guidance to write the electronic configuration.
The electronic configuration of an atom is written using the guidelines of the following principles
and rules.
1. Aufbau principle
2. Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3. Hund’s rule
1.7.1.1 Aufbau Principle

“Electrons are filled in the increasing order of energy level”
According to this principle first the electrons occupy the orbitals with lowest energy. This is
decided by the sum of the principle quantum number and azimuthal quantum number. This is
called (n +  ) rule.
Rule 1: The electrons first occupy that orbital for which (n + ) value is lowest.
Rule 2: When (n + ) values for two orbitals are equal, then the electrons first occupy the orbital
with lower value of n.
Illustration of (n +) rule of Aufbau Principle

• For 1s orbital n +  = 1 + 0 = 1, and for 2s orbital n +  = 2 + 0 = 2. Therefore according
to rule 1, first the electrons occupy 1s orbital, then 2s orbital.
• For 2p orbital n +  = 2 + 1 = 3, and for 3s orbital n +  = 3 + 0 = 3, the values of n + are
equal. Now according to rule 2, first the electrons will occupy 2p orbitals then 3s orbital.
Following in the (n + ) of Aufbau principle, the orbitals in increasing order of energy are arranged
as:
1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d < 4p < 5s < 4d < 5p
1.7.1.2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
Chemistry
“In an atom no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers”.
Illustration of Pauli’s exclusion principle
1. In an atom if one electron is assigned a set of four quantum numbers n = 1,  = 0, m = 0,
1
s = + , then other electrons cannot be assigned the same set of quantum numbers.
2
2. If three quantum numbers for two electrons are the same, then these electrons must have
different fourth quantum number.
n l m s
1
First electron 1 0 0 +
2
1
Second electron 1 0 0 − Different
2
1.7.1.3. Hund’s Rule

“Among the orbitals of same energy, electrons do not start pairing, until all these orbitals
are singly occupied”.
Hund’s rule is also called as the principle of minimum pairing and the principle of maximum
multiplicity.
1.8. Electronic Configuration of some Individual Elements

The electronic configuration of an atom can easily be written with the help of the rules discussed
above. The only additional requirement is that, we should have the atomic number (Z) of the atom
under consideration. The atomic number (Z) of an element gives the number of electrons present
in a neutral atom of that element. After knowing the number of electrons, we can place them one
by one in different available orbitals in accordance to the rules discussed above.
1.8.1. Illustration
In Hydrogen atom, there is only one electron which occupies 1s orbital and the electronic state
is represented by
1s 1s
Hydrogen 1s1 ↑ Helum 1s2 ↑↓
The third electron in Lithium would occupy 2s orbital which has the minimum energy in this shell.
In the atom beryllium, the fourth electron completes the 2s orbital and thus with boron, the fifth
electron must enter 2ps orbital.
1s 2s 2px 2p y 2pz
Lithium 1s2 2s1 ↑↓ ↑
1.9. Shape of Orbitals

An orbital is a three-dimensional space around the nucleus in which the probability of finding an
electron is maximum. The spatial distribution of electronic cloud or electron density decides the
shape of an orbital. The electronic cloud may not be have uniform density every where in an
orbital.
• In an orbital, there may be regions of higher probability where electron cloud is dense
and there may also be regions of low probability where electron cloud is not dense.
• An orbital may also contain one or more points or planes where the probability of finding
electron is zero. At such points or planes, electron density is found to be equal to zero. Such
Chemistry
points are called nodal points and such planes are termed as nodal planes. The shapes of
some orbitals are discussed below.
1.9.1. s orbital
1. These orbitals are spherically symmetric around the nucleus, i.e., probability of finding the
electron at a particular distance from the nucleus is the same in all directions.
2. 1s orbital does not contain any node and is the smallest of all subsequent s orbitals. The size
of an s orbital increases with increase in the value of n.
3. 2s orbital is larger in size as compared to 1s orbital possesses a node. The 3s orbital is still
larger in size and contains two nodes. The shapes of 1s, 2s and 3s orbitals are shown in the
given figure.
1s Orbital 2s Orbital 3s Orbital

Figure15 Shapes of 1s, 2s and 3s orbitals
Nodes are the region in which probability of finding electrons (Ψ 2) is zero.
1.9.2. p orbitals
1. p-orbital has three orientations i.e., probability of finding p-electron is along mutually
perpendicular X, Y and Z axis. These orbitals are thus named as px, py and pz orbital.
2. In px orbital, the electron density is distributed along X-axis while in p y and pz orbitals, the
electron density distribution are along Y and Z axes respectively.
3. Each p orbital is dumb bell shaped and consists of two lobes of electron cloud which extend
outwards and away from the nucleus along the axial line.
4. A nodal plane exists between the two lobes. Along this plane, the probability of finding
electron (Ψ 2) is zero and consequently the electron density is also zero.
5. In each p orbital, the point at which the two lobes meet together is a nodal point. It is the point
from which the nodal plane passes. The shapes of 2px, 2py and 2pz orbitals are shown below.
Figure 16. Shapes of 2px, 2py and 2pz orbitals
Example: An atomic orbital has  = 3. What are the possible values of m?

Solution: When  = 3, the possible values of m are –3, –2, –1, 0, +1, +2, and +3
1.10. Atomic models of some atoms
Chemistry
Figure 17. atomic models of some atoms

1.10.1. Valence electron
The outermost shell of an atom is called valence shell. The number of electrons in the valence
shell are called valence electrons.
Electronic configuration not only gives the arrangement of electrons outside the nucleus but
also gives the number of valence electrons. This number decides the chemical reactivity. Atoms
combine with one another to attain eight electrons in the valence shell which is the noble gas
configuration. This is achieved by lending, borrowing or sharing the valence electrons among
the atoms.
The number of valence electrons of an atom is called the valency (or maximum valency) of the
element.
Examples
(i) Oxygen has the electronic configuration 1s2, 2s2, 2p4. It has 6 electrons in its valence shell.
It can borrow 2 electrons to make it 8 so that it gets the configuration of neon. Hence the
valency of oxygen is 2.
(ii) Sulfur which has the configuration similar to oxygen as 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p4 also has 6
electrons in its valence shell. Its valency is 2 and maximum valency is 6.
(iii) Potassium has the configuration 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p64s1. By losing one electron from its
fourth shell it gets an outermost shell of 8 electrons and gets the configuration of Argon.
Hence its valency is 1.
(iv) Helium has 1s2 which is the maximum number of electrons for the first shell. It is considered
stable electronic configuration. Hence it has no reactivity.
(v) Neon and argon have 8 electrons in their valence shells. Hence these are also chemically
inert.
1.11.1. Atomic Number

We know that protons are present in the nucleus of an atom. It is the number of protons of an
atom, which determines its atomic number. It is denoted by ‘Z’. All atoms of an element have the
same atomic number, Z. In fact, elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.
For hydrogen, Z = 1, because in hydrogen atom, only one proton is present in the nucleus.
Similarly, for carbon, Z = 6. Therefore, the atomic number is defined as the total number of
protons present in the nucleus of an atom.
1.11.2. Mass Number

Mass of an atom is practically due to protons and neutrons alone. These are present in the
nucleus of an atom. Hence protons and neutrons are also called nucleons. Therefore, the mass
of an atom resides in its nucleus. For example, mass of carbon is 12 u because it has 6 protons
and 6 neutrons, 6 u +6 u =12 u. Similarly, the mass of aluminium is 27 u (13 protons +14
neutrons). The mass number is defined as the sum of the total number of protons and neutrons
Chemistry
present in the nucleus of an atom. In the notation for an atom, the atomic number, mass number
and symbol of the element are to be written as
Mass Number
Symbol of Distinguish
element between atomic
Atomic Number number and
14
For example, nitrogen is written as 7 N mass number
1.11.3. Atomic number and mass number

In 1913, Mosley devised an experiment to determine the positive charge on the nucleus. He
stated, based on his experiments, that atoms of different element have different and characteristic
positive charges. He called this atomic number. Since protons are the positively charged particles
in the nucleus, atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. Since the
atoms are electrically neutral atoms have electrons equal to the number of protons.
1.11.4. Atomic number Z = Number of protons = Number of electrons.

Since the electrons have negligible mass, the mass of an atom is due to protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons together are called nucleons. The mass number of an atom is the sum of
the number of protons and number of neutrons.
1.11.5. Mass number A = Number of protons + Number of neutrons

Mass number is also called nucleon number.
So we can write, in an atom
Number of protons =Z
Number of electrons =Z
Number of neutrons =A–Z
Problem Find out the number of protons, neutrons and electrons of
a) Sodium
b) Argon
c) Fluorine
Solution a) Sodium has atomic number (Z) 11 and mass number 23.
Number of protons = Z = 11
Number of electrons = Z = 11
Number of neutrons = A-Z = 23 – 11 = 12
b) Argon has atomic number 18 and mass number 40

Number of electrons = Z = 18
Number of neutrons A-Z = 40-18 = 22.
c) Fluorine has atomic number 9 and mass number 19

Number of electrons Z= 9
Number of neutrons =A-Z =19-9 = 10
1.11.6. Representation of an atom

An atom is represented with its atomic number and mass number by writing its symbol showing
the atomic number below and mass number above.
Example 8O16, 11Na23, 20Ca40

1.12.1. Isotopes
Chemistry
In 1913, Soddy was the first to notice the presence two atoms of lead with same atomic number
but different mass number. He coined the word isotopes for them. Isotopes are atoms of the
same element having the same atomic number but different mass number
Isotopes are defined as the atoms of the same element, having the same atomic number
but different mass numbers..
1
For example, take the case of hydrogen atom, it has three atomic species namely protium 1H , ( )
deuterium ( 2
1 )
H or D and tritium ( 3
1 )
H or T .
x electron x electron x electron
Proton Proton Proton

Neutron Neutrons
Figure 18. Three atoms species of hydrogen
The atomic number of each one is 1, but the mass number is 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Other such
12 14 35 37
examples are (i) carbon, 6 C and 6 C , (ii) chlorine, 17 Cl and 17 Cl , etc.,
Many elements consist of a mixture of isotopes. Each isotope of an element is a pure substance.
The chemical properties of isotopes are similar but their physical properties are different.
Chlorine occurs in nature in two isotopic forms, with masses 35 u and 37 u in the ratio of 3 : 1.
Obviously, the question arises: What should we take as the mass of chlorine atom? Let us find
out.
The mass of an atom of any natural element is taken as the average mass of all the naturally
occurring atoms of that element. If an element has no isotopes, then the mass of its atom would
be the same as the sum of protons and neutrons in it. But if an element occurs in isotopic forms,
then we have to know the percentage of each isotopic form and then the average mass is
calculated.
The average atomic mass of chlorine atom, on the basis of above data, will be
 75 25  
 35 × 100 + 37 × 100  
 
 105 37  142
= + = = 35.5 u
 4 4  4
This does not mean that any one atom of chlorine has a fractional mass of 35.5 u. It means that if
you take a certain amount of chlorine, it will contain both isotopes of chlorine and the average
mass is 35.5 u.
1.12.2. Examples
(i) Hydrogen exists as three isotopes – hydrogen, deuterium and tritium. All the three have the
same atomic number (1) but mass numbers as 1,2,3 respectively. These can be represented
as 1H1, 1H2 or 1D2 , 1H3 or 1T3
(ii) Chlorine has two isotopes with atomic number 17 and mass numbers 35 and 37. 17Cl35, 17Cl37
(iii) Carbon isotopes are 6C12, 6C13 and 6C14
(iv) Oxygen isotopes are 8O16, 8O17, 8O18
(v) Uranium isotopes are 92U234, 92U235, 92U238, 92U239
Chemistry
1.12.3. Characteristics of isotopes
• Isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons, but different number of
neutrons.
• Since the isotopes have the same number of electrons they have the same electronic
configuration and possess same chemical properties.
• Isotopes differ in physical properties.
• Since isotopes have same electronic configuration their position in the periodic table is
also the same.
• All isotopes need not be radioactive . There are non- radioactive isotopes also. (eg)
Deuterium.
• Isotopes are identified by the instrument – mass spectrograph.
Mass number which is the sum of the number of protons and number of neutrons is a whole
number but atomic weight can be whole number or fractional. It is due to the presence of
isotopes. The relative atomic mass or relative atomic weight is the average of the mass number
of the isotopes based on their relative abundance.
1.12.4. Isobars
Atoms of same mass number but different atomic numbers are called isobars.
Since atomic numbers are different , isobars are atoms of different elements.
Isobars have different number of protons and electrons but same number of nucleons
Example: 18Ar40, 19K40, 20Ca40 52Te130, 54Xe130, 56Ba130

Let us consider two elements – calcium, atomic number 20 and argon, atomic number 18. The
number of electrons in these atoms is different, but the mass number of both these elements is
40. That is, the total number of nucleons is the same in the atoms of this part of elements. Atoms
of different elements with different atomic numbers, which have the same mass number,
are known as isobars.
1.12.5. Isotones
Atoms having same number of neutrons but different mass numbers are called isotones.
Examples: 14 Si30, 15P31, 16P32 19 K39, 20Ca40
Number of neutrons in 19K39 is 39 – 19 = 20

Number of neutrons in 20Ca40 is 40 – 20 = 20
Since the atomic number or number of protons are different the number of nucleons (protons +
neutrons) are different.
1.12.6. Applications
Since the chemical properties of all the isotopes of an element are the same, normally we are not
concerned about taking a mixture. But some isotopes have special properties which find them
useful in various fields. Some of them are:
1. An isotope of uranium is used as a fuel in nuclear reactors.

2. An isotope of cobalt is used in the treatment of cancer.
3. An isotope of iodine is used in the treatment of goitre

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Chemistry

Unit 1 – Atomic Theory and Structure of atom

1.0. Atomic Theory

1.1.1. Discovery of Electrons

Thomson carried out his experiments using this discharge tube.

Air at very low

Figure 1. Production of Cathode Rays

This is possible only if the cathode rays travel in straight lines.

Figure 4. Effect of electric field on cathode rays.

Zinc sulphide screen

High voltage Porous

Figure 5. Effect of magnetic field on cathode rays

1.2. Discovery of Proton

1.2.1. Goldstein’s Experiment

Air at very low

1.2.2. The properties of Anode (or Positive) Rays (Canal rays)

Figure 7 Structure of an atom

Electron Proton Neutron

(i) Discoverer J.J. Thomson Goldstein Chadwick

(ii) Mass 1 mass is equal to that mass is same as

(iii) Charge has uni negative has uni positive no charge

(iv) symbol denoted by ‘e’ ‘p’ ‘n’

Table 1 Facts about the three sub-atomic particles.

1.4. Atomic Structure

1.4.2. Drawbacks of Dalton’s atomic theory

1.5.1. Thomson’s Model of an Atom

Figure 8. Thomson’s model of an atom

Figure 9 Atom is electrically neutral

Figure 10. Scattering of α -particles by a gold foil

1.5.3. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom

1.5.4. Bohr’s Model of an Atom

Figure 11. A few energy levels in an atom

These orbits or shells are represented by the letters K, L, M, N, … or the numbers, n = 1, 2, 3, 4,

1.5.5. Limitation of Bohr Model

1.5.6. Bohr’s model of atom Revisited

Figure 12 Various energy level of electron in an atom

1.5.7. Atomic spectrum of hydrogen:

1.5.8. Merits of Bohr’s model

Figure 13. Energy levels around the nucleus

Figure 14. Electronic configuration of first twenty elements

Element Symbol Atomic Distribution of Electronic configuration

Table 2 Electronic configuration of first twenty elements

For K shell n=1 and it contains s sub shell.

1.6.1. Quantum Numbers

1.6.2. Principal Quantum Number (n)

Principal quantum Shell Designation Maximum number of

1.6.3. Azimuthal Quantum Number or Orbital Quantum Number ()

Principal quantum  Value = (n – 1) Name of the sub

Table 5. Name of sub shells or orbitals

1.6.4. Magnetic Quantum Number (m)

Principal  value m value Name of the sub shells or

Table 6 Magnetic quantum number with their orientations

1.6.5. Spin Quantum Number(s)

Principal Azimuthal Quantum Magnetic Quantum number m Total Number of

Table 7 The various states that an electron can occupy

1.7. Electronic Configuration of Atoms of Elements

1.7.1.1 Aufbau Principle

Illustration of (n +) rule of Aufbau Principle

1.7.1.2. Pauli’s Exclusion Principle

1.7.1.3. Hund’s Rule

1.8. Electronic Configuration of some Individual Elements

1.9. Shape of Orbitals