HEAT EXCHANGERS

Log mean temperature difference correction factors

Double pipe heat exchanger

In 1-1 counter flow exchanger, cold fluid flows inside

all the tubes in 1 parallel in 1 pass. While in a 1-2,
the tube side fluid flows in 2 pass
The hot fluid enters the other end and forced to cross
flow by baffles

LOG MEAN TEMP DIFFERENCE AND VARYING TEMP

DROP
Convection heat transfer

Where: Thi= inlet temp of hot fluid (K)

Tho= outlet of hot fluid
Tci= inlet of cold fluid
Tco= outlet of cold fluid
Correction factor (Ft) is determined graphically

1-2
HE

For counter current flow of two fluids

2-4 S
&T
HE

Where: Tm= mean temp difference

For dA area heat balance for hot and cold fluid
Cross-flow HE

Where: a= shell fluid mixed the other unmixed

b= if both are unmixed
Using new nomenclature

For a counter-flow HE, CH>CC

Finally rearranging for counter-flow

Heat balance

Let:

(mcp)H= CH
(mcp)C= CC

NTU= number of transfer units

For parallel form

If HT area is

THI= TCO if CH>CC

THo= TCi if CC>CH
For a counter-flow HE with CC>CH
Graph for given NTU

Actual HT

Where: a= counter-flow
b= parallel flow
FOULING FACTORS
Overall U

There is a net ration to a small objects

Emitted by the small object:

q= A 1 T 14

Absorbed by the small body:

q= A 12 T 2

12

=absorptivity

of small body from surr. At T2

Net heat of absorption:

q= A 1 T 14 A 12 T 2 4= A ( T 14T 24 )
COMBINED RADIATION AND CONVECTION

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

HT by convection

Absorptivity and black bodies

Thermal radiaton falling upon a body may be either
absorbed by the body as heat or reflected back into space,

+ =1.0

HT by radiation

q rad =hr A ( T 1T 2)

=absorptivity

Where:

q conv =hc A ( T 1T 2 )

Total HT

=reflectivity

q=

Blackbody- body that absorbs all radiant energy and reflect

none
Emissivity

)- ratio of emissive power of a body to that

q conv +q rad =( hc + hr ) A ( T 1T 2 )
To solve for hr

q rad =hr A ( T 1T 2) = A ( T 14 T 24 )

of a black body (1.0)

Kirchhoffs law- states that at the same temp T1,

and

hr =

( T 14T 24 )

( T 1T 2 )

1= 1
-holds for any black and nonblack surfaces
Stefan-Boltzmann law- states that the amount of heat transfer
is proportional to the fourth power of temperature,
-For black bodies:

Exchange of radiation is affected by size, shape and

relative orientation

q= A T 4

Gases in the intervening space also absorb TE

Radiation spectrum and thermal radiation

q= A T

-For non black bodies,

ADVANCED RADIATION HT PRINCIPLES

= Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 5.676 x 10-8

W/m2-K4, or

Energy transported by EM waves travel at c

Body emitted EM, characterized by a broad

spectrum

thermal energy has

Visible radiation (3.8x10-7 to 7.6x10-7 m)

0.1714 x 10-8 btu/hr-ft2-oR4

Gray body- a body whose

=10-7 to 10-4 m

is independent wavelength

RADIATION TO A SMALL OBJECT FROM SURROUNDINGS,

The body that absorbs and emits the

maximum amount of energy is called a
black body

Planks Law and emissive power

When a black body is heated to a temp T,

photons are emitted from surface (a dist of
energy)

CONCEPT OF A GRAY BODY

gray body- a surface for which the monochromatic

properties are constant for all wavelengths

EB

For

Thus

Planks equation relates the monochromatic emissive power (

) in W/m3:

max

( dEdT ) =0
B

Thus

plane 1 emits

plane 2 emits

T1

radiation to

T 14

radiation to

plane 1, which is all absorbed

E
E
=
EB T 4

The net radiation from plane 1 to 2:

A material is placed in an isothermal enclosure and allowed to

reach the same temperature at thermal equilibrium

q12= A 1 ( T 14 T 24 )

1 G=E 1 2 G=EB

The fraction of radiation leaving 1 (or 2) that

is intercepted by 2 (or 1) is F12 (F21)(which is
1.0), thus

If G is the total amount of irradiation, the energy absorbed by

the body and black body, resp:

q12=F 12 A1 ( T 14T 24 )

Dividing:

q 21=F 21 A 2 ( T 14 T 24 )

1 E
=
2 E B

E1
=
EB 1

plane 2, which is all absorbed

Emissivity and Kirchhoffs law

1=

are equal even if

Two parallel and infinite black planes at T1 and T2

=1.0 and

and

Do not exist in practice but can be idealized with

little error

View factors in radiotion: infinite black planes

Stefan-Boltzmann law

body is not in thermal equilibrium with its

surroundings

EB = E B d= T

Applying Kirchhoffs law:

(Wiens displacement law)

max T =2.898 x 10 m K

But

=constant=

=constant=

View factpr in radiation: infinite gray planes

E
1= 1
EB

plane is unobstructed in view so F12=F21=1.0

HGray bodies with area A1 and A2 and emissivities

and

Each eat emitted by 1:

1 A 1 T 1

Absorbed by 2:

2 ( 1 A1 T 1 4 )

Reflected by 2:

( 1 2 ) ( 1 A 1 T 14 )

Absorbed by 1:

Reflected by 1:

1 ( 1 2 ) ( 1 A 1 T 14 )

Not the case if there is a refrac- tory reradiatong

walls present

( 1 1 )( 1 2) ( 1 A 1 T 14 )

Absorbed by 2:

2 ( 1 1 )( 1 2) ( 1 A 1 T 14 )

Reflected by 2: :
4

( 1 2 ) ( 1 1) ( 1 2 ) ( 1 A1 T 1 )

Solid angle (

)- dimensionless quantity which is a

measure of an angle in solid geometry

And so on

Thus
The intensity of radiation for a black body (IB)-the rate of

2
q1 2= A1 T 14 [ 1 2 + 1 2 ( 1 1 )( 1 2 ) + 1 2 ( 1 1 )2 ( 1 2radiation
) + ] emitted per unit area projected ina a direction

normal to surface and per unit solid angle:

q1 2= A1 T 1

q 2 1= A1 T 24

1
1 1
+ 1
1 1
1
1 1
+ 1
1 1

q12= A 1 ( T 14 T 24 )

1
1 1
+ 1
1 1

If black body is a diffuse surface emitting equal

intensity in all directions, I=k

Integrating over all solid angles:

EB = I B
For any two black planes

View factors b/w black bodies

Rate of radiant energy that leaves dA1:

Rate that leaves dA1 and arrives at dA2:

Consider two black planes of finite size

Some of the radiation from surface 1 does not strike

surface 2 (lost to surr)

F12-fraction that us intercepted by 2

Plugging in def of d

and

Rate that leaves dA2 and arrives at dA1:

Plugging in SB Law

View factor for adjacent perpendicular rectangles

Taking iterated integral to get total net heat flow:

Or

View Factor when surfaces are connected by reradiating walls

For w/c

F12 geometric shape view factor (fraction of the total

radiation that leaves A1 w/c strikes A2)
Relation:

View factor for gray bodies

VIEW FACTORS FOR VARIOUS GEOMETRIES

MASS TRANSFER

Reciprocity relationship:

FICKS LAW OF MOLECULAR DIFFUSION

If surface A1 can only see surface A2, then F12=1.0

If A1 sees a number of surfaces A2, A3, and all surfaces
form an enclosure:

If A1 cannot see itself (flat or convex), F11=0

View factor for parallel planes

If pt 1 has greater conc of A than 2, the more A will diffuse to

2.

Equation (Note that dCA=d(cXA)=cdXA:

or
EQUIMOLAR COUNTER DIFFUSION GASES

Let N=total convective flux of the whole stream rel to the

stationary point

PA1>PA2, PB2>PB1 , P=k

A is diffusing to the right, B is diffusing to the left

For equimolar counter diffusion, convective term is zero:

A is diffusng through stagnant, non diffusing B

benzene diffuses thru air in a tube

GAS CONVECTION WITH DIFFUSION

Thus (with c=P/RT and PA=xAP, cA/c=PA/P)

The rate at which A passes a fixed point to the right is taken

as a positive:

vad is diffusion velocity in m/s

Let vM molar average velocity of the whole fluid relative to a
stationary point and vA is the observed velocity by an
observer at A.

DIFFUSION THROUGH A VARYING-CROSS SECTIONAL

AREA: SPHERE

Let

Mult by cA:

so for a sphere

PREDICTION OF DIFFUSIVTY OF GASES

Based on Lennard-Jones potential
DIFFUSION THROUGH A VARYING-CROSS SECTIONAL
AREA: CONDUIT OF NON-UNIFORM XL AREA

Where: P=absolute pressure in atm

2

AB

=average colision diameter

D, AB

=collision integral

Fuller equation

Where:

vA

=sum of incremental volumes

found in Table 6.2-2

can be used for non-polar gases/P-NP mixture
DIFFUSIVITY: GASES

Schmidt Number- ratio of molecular momentum diff to

molecular mass diff

Two bulb method

N Sc =

D AB

Values for Gases:0.5 to 2,

For liquids: 100-10000 for viscous liquids

DIFFUSIVITY: LIQUIDS

if rate of diff = rate of acc in V2

Material balance

Slower than gases

D AB D BA
Determination:

Diffusion in a long capillary tube and

determined by the conc profile

A dilute solution and a more conc soultion

are placed in chambers on opposite side of
a porous membrane

Values available in Table 6.3-1

Prediction:

Fluid velocity is increased until turbulent

Stokes-Einstein equation:

Solute has concentration gradients from layer to

layer but because eddies are present, it tends to
equalize

3 regions cam be visualized:

Where:

= viscosity of solution

VA

=solute molar volume at normal TB

Thin viscous sub-layer-most by molec

diffusion

Transition or buffer region some eddies are

present and MTC is um of tubulent and
molec diff

turbulent region mostly turbulent diffusion,

conc decreased

(>0.5m3/kgmol)
Wilke-Chang correlation

Where:

VA

= solute molar volume at normal TB (Table

Analysis similar to molec diff

6.3-2)

MethOH=1.9,
others, 1.0)

=association parameter (water: 2.6,

EthOH=1.5, benzenem ether, heptane and

DIFFUSION: SOLIDS
Usually obeys Ficks Law
Permeability is often considered
For equimolar counter diffusion

For liquids and gases

If liquid is diffusing thru a porous solid:

If yA1=CA1/c, yA2=CA2/c

Where:

=tortuosity correction factor for diffusion path

length
For gases in solids

CONVECTIVE MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Rate of molec diffusion is slow and rapid transfer is

desired

TYPE OF MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Momentum and heat fluxes are

Dividing the two, assuming that

and

are

negligible

Substituting turbulent q/A=h(T-Ti) and

MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR A THRU

STAGNANT, NON-DIFUSSING B

=svav2/2

Similar procedure is done for mass using

J A =k 'c (c A c Ai)

Valid when NSc and NPr are near 1.0 and only skin friction is
present
Chilton-Colburn J-Factor Analogy

Both for laminar and turbulent

ANALOGIES B/W MASS HEAT AND MOMENTUM

TRANSFER

Newtons, Fouriers and Ficks are very similar

Turbulent flow also are similar (

Analogies to predict of one of given the others has

been one of the great deals in chemical engineering

REYNOLDS ANALOGY

t , t , M